Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
University of Lagos

CEG 211 – MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 1

COURSE OUTLINE
Forces, Moments, (Moment of Inertia), Couples, Resultants and Equivalent force systems. Types
of Supports in structures and their reaction components. Bending moments and shearing forces
in statically determinate beams. Bending moment and shear force diagrams in determinate
beams.

Structural mechanics of statically determinate Rigid body systems and Plane Pin-jointed
Frames/frameworks.

Direct stresses and strains; Hooke’s law, Stresses and deformation resulting from temperature
changes. Method of superposition. Stress-strain transformation (compound bars, suddenly
applied loads, bi-axial stress-strain))

Stresses on inclined planes. Principal stresses including graphical determination of principal

stresses (Mohr’s circle diagrams). Stresses in Thin cylinders and spheres.

Relevant Text books

Structural Mechanics by Charles E Green

Mechanics of Materials, by, Ferdinand P, Johnston E R, Dewolf J T, and Mazurek D.

Strength of materials, by G H Tyder

Applied Mechanics by J Hannah and M J Hiller

LECTURE NOTE/GUIDE

Forces are actions that can subject an object to changes in state of motion, and
also to commence motion when initially at rest. Force has both magnitude and
direction. It is therefore a vector, and the unit is Newton (or, kN, etc).

Force Line of Action; A Rigid body will respond to motion in the same direction as
that of the applied force, which describes the force line-of-action. Thus, the force
line of action is the direction of the resultant force acting on the body.

Also, Force, F = m a, according to Newton’s 2nd law of motion, which state that,
“the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force”.
𝑑 (𝑚𝑣) 𝑑𝑣
Ie, F = 𝑑𝑡
=m 𝑑𝑡
,

𝑑𝑣
But, a = 𝑑𝑡
since m = mass= constant

Therefore, F = ma

TYPE OF FORCES ON RIGID BODY

Rigid bodies are solid objects that can be subjected to force application, with little
or no significant deformation and changes to its geometrical configuration. A rigid
body is usually considered as a continuous distribution of mass. The distance
between any two given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless
of external forces exerted on it.

External Forces are forces acting along the surface boundary of the rigid body,
which could be on contact (eg pressure on wall, pull etc), or Non contacting forces
such as magnetic, gravitational, electrical etc.

Internal Forces are forces acting within the body, which usually is due to the
action of the external forces on the body, or effect of environmental conditions.

Single force system

Several/Multiple force system

Normal force

Shearing/parallel force

Incline forces

Coplanar forces

Collinear forces

Concurrent forces

Non-concurrent forces

MOMENT: Moment is a parameter, which involve the product of distance and a

physical quantity (eg, force), measured with respect to an origin. It describes, how
the physical quantity is located or arranged with respect to a reference axis.
Example includes, moment of Force, Mass (or Inertia).

Moment of Force; (or Torque), is the product of force and the perpendicular
distance from a reference point (or an origin). Unit is Nm, Nmm, kNm etc

Ie, M = F x d

For several Forces; Moment is defined as the algebraic sum of product of each
force and their respective perpendicular distances to an origin.

Ie, M = Σ F x d

COUPLES ; These are force system on a body, comprising of two equal and parallel
forces, with opposite senses and do not share common line of action, tending to
turning or twisting of the body.
The moment of the couple is defined as, the moment of one of the force about a
point from the other force. Moment of a couple is also known as Torque. Unit is
Nm,

Mcouple = F d , where d is the perpendicular force between the two forces

Properties of Couple;

A couple cannot be balanced by a single force ie, the resultant and equivalent
force is passive because the magnitude is zero, and with directional sense.

The moment is equal, about any point in the plane of the forces, which is equal to
the value of the couple or M = f d

The effect of a couple is to cause rotation, without translation or without the

acceleration of centre of mass.

RESULTANT AND EQUIBALENT FORCE

The resultant force is the single force and associated torque obtained by
combining a system of forces and torques acting on a body.
𝑛
R = ∑ 𝐹 = F1 + F2 + . + Fn
𝑖=1

Also, Resultant force acts through the centre of mass or centroid of planar object.

EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEM : Two force systems are equivalent, if they possessed
the same resultant force and equal resultant moment.

For example, an object subjected to several forces can be resolved to two

perpendicular system of forces, such as,

ΣFx = sum of force-components on the x- axis, and

ΣFy = sum of force-components on the y-axis

2 2
And resultant R = 𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦

Tan θ = Fy / Fx , or, θ = tan-1 (Fy/Fx), with the horizontal axis.

MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia, (or mass moment, rotational moment etc), SI units kg-m2, is
the measure of an object’s resistance to changes in its rotational motion (or twist).
It is the inertia of a rotating body with respect its rotation, and the corresponding
tensor that determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration
about the rotational axis.

2
I = ∫ 𝑟 ∂𝑚 , ie, integrating over the mass of the body.

Similarly, for planar object, ∂𝑚 = ∂𝐴 x constant (ie density and thickness.

2
Then, I = ∫ 𝑟 ∂𝐴 , which is known as second moment of area of a plane figure

about the centroidal axis.

Also, the moment of inertia can be defined with respect to orthogonal x – y axis,

2
Ix = ∫ 𝑦 ∂𝐴

2
Iy = ∫ 𝑥 ∂𝐴

Determine the moment of Inertia for rectangular object

Considering, an element of thickness ∂𝑦 and from distance y from the neutral axis.

Then, ∂𝐴 = b , and,

2 2
Ix = ∫ 𝑦 ∂𝐴 = b∫ 𝑦 ∂𝑦 , and integrating

3
𝑦
Ix = b 3
with boundaries from –d/2 to +d/2,
3
𝑑
Then, Ix = b 12

Similarly, by considering the elemental segment parallel to the y-axis,

2
Then, Iy = ∫ 𝑥 ∂𝐴 and on integrating,

3
𝑏
Iy = d 12

POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA , J

The moment of inertia about polar axis is known as Polar moment of inertia,
2
Therefore, by definition J = ∫ 𝑟 ∂𝐴 ,

and for a point (x, y) from the origin, r2 = x2 + y2

2 2
hence, J = ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑦 ) ∂𝐴

2 2
or, J = ∫ 𝑥 ∂𝐴 + ∫ 𝑦 ∂𝐴 or = Iy + Ix ---- (1)

The equation is known as the perpendicular axis theorem, and states as follows
that, the sum of the moments of inertia about any two axes in the plane is equal
to the moment of inertia about the axes perpendicular to the plane, the three
axes being concurrent or on the same plane.

Moment of Inertia for Circular object

For circular object,

Considering an elemental segment of thickness ∂𝑟

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, ∂𝐴 = 2πr ∂𝑟, and

𝑑/2 𝑑/2
2 3
J = ∫ 𝑟 ∂𝐴 = = 2π ∫ 𝑟 ∂𝑟 ,
0 0

Integrating, J = (2πr4/4) , substituting the boundary conditions,

J = πd4/32

Also, since J = Iy + Ix , and circle is symmetrical about the x, and y axis.

Then, Ix = Iy , therefore J = 2Ix = 2Iy

Hence, Ix = Iy = J/2 = πd4/64

For hollow Circular object,

Ix = Iy = π/64(D4-d4), where D and d are the external and internal diameter

MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR COMPLEX STRUCTURAL SHAPES

Complex shapes are objects that is not defined geometrical as rectangular or

circular at the cross-sections, but rather could be described as combinations of
shapes. Complex object are characterized with centroids that may not be on the
same axis as that of their components.
Since Moment of inertia is defined with respect to a reference axis, through the
centroid of the body, therefore for complex objects the following laws are
necessary to enable the determination of moment of inertia.

LAW 1: CUMMUTATIVE ADDITION LAW – the addition of moment of inertia of

components. This is possible when the objects axis and that of all components are
along the same axis of reference.
𝑛
Then, I = ∑ 𝐼𝑖
𝑖=1

LAW 2: PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM – Theorem states that, Moment of inertia of an

object about any axis in its plane, is equal to the total sum of the moment of
inertia of the object about a parallel axis through the centroid of the object, plus
the product of the area of the object and square of the distance between the
parallel centroidal axis and the reference axes.

Eg, Ixx = Ix + Ay2

And, Iyy = Iy + Ax2

Where, Ixx = object moment of inertia as defined from the component moment of
inertia Ix about x-x axis,

A = area of component, and y or x, the distance between the centroid of the

component and that of the object.

For object with n components the moment of inertia will be the commutative
addition of Ixx for each component

ie, I = Σ Ixx about x-x axis

or, I = Σ Iyy about y-y axis

EXAMPLE: determine the moment of inertia for the structural Tee section in the
figure.
Procedure; Determine the centroid of the object, and check the position with the
components reference axes.

Determine the moment of inertia, using parallel axis theorem, if the centroidal
axes are same as the object axis/

For the example, the object can be divided into two rectangular components.

Considering the x-x axis,

Ay = A1y1 + A2y2 taking moment about the top surface,

Y = ((160 x 40) x 20 + (120 x 40) x 100)/(160x40 + 120x40)

= 54.29mm from the top surface.

H1 = distance between component 1 and the object centroidal axis =

54.29-20 = 34.29mm

Ixx1 = BD3/12 + Ah2 = 160x403/12 + 160x40x34.292 = 8,378,479.57mm

H2 = 100-54.29 = 45.71mm

Ixx2 = 40x1203/12+ 40x120x45.712 = 15,789,139.68

Ixx = Ixx1 + Ixx2 = 8378479.57 + 15789139.68 = 24,167,619.25mm4

Moment of Inertia about y-y axis

The shape is symmetrical about the y-y axis, and therefore the axus of the object
and those of the components will be on the same live of reference.

Hence the commutative addition law, will be appropriate,

Iyy = Iyy1 + Iyy2 = Σ B3D/12

= 1603 x 40/12 + 403 x 120/12 = 14,293,333.33mm4

STRUCTURES: SUPPORTS AND REACTIVE FORCES

Structures are rigid bodies or objects, which are designed and constructed to
provide support to applied force and loads, while maintaining static equilibrium
condition of rest position. Examples include, Building, Bridges, Trusses, mast,
Dams, Shell structures, etc.

Also structural components are elemental parts of structures that assist in the
transmission of forces, and ensure stability of the structure during load
application. Example are, Slab, Beams, column, Stairs, Walls, Foundation etc.

FORCES ON STRUCTURES (or, RIGID BODY)

Structures are static object, and are expected to remain at rest during load
application, which implies the body is constrained against movement.

Forces acting on structures are classified as,

Applied Forces – Forces applied unto the structures, and must be adequately
supported to enable a stable condition.

Reactive Forces – Forces acting at the supports, and which ensures the static
equilibrium condition of rest.
Internal Forces – Forces acting within the rigid body, It occurs as a result of force
transmission between the applied forces and the supports. Internal forces is
defined by the applied force line of action, hence depends on the nature, method
of force application (eg, transverse, normal, etc ), and type of structural member.

STATIC EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION

Consider a rigid body system, subjected to force application, the tendency is for
the object to move in the direction of the applied force. But for static object, with
constraint resisting the motion, the condition is to remain at rest.

F = ma for an object without the restraint

The condition or rest, is possible in rigid body system, by the Newton’s 3rd law of
Motion that, “action and reaction” on a body are equal and opposite. Therefore,
an object which provides actions that can constrained the rigid body motion, and
makes it not respond to the action of applied force, will ensure it remains at rest.
This condition, is known as static equilibrium, since there is no net force or
moment acting on the body, and, the sum of all forces and moments acting equals
zero.

Ie, ΣF = 0, ΣM = 0

STATIC EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION

For a structure to remain at rest, during load application, there must be an

opposing force that can make the acceleration of the body equal to zero,
Therefore, using the Newton’s law,

Σ F = 0, and Σ M = 0 (ie, no net force or moment)

F = Σ F =ma = 0 , and, since m=constant, then the acceleration is zero

Now, Σ F = F + R = 0,

And, F = -R ( or action and reaction are equal and of opposite sense/direction)

Hence the static equilibrium equations,

Σ Fx = 0, ie, sum of horizontal forces = 0

Σ Fy = 0, ie, sum of vertical forces =0

And, Σ M = 0, sum of moment = 0

TYPE OF SUPPORT AND REACTIONS

To ensure, the static equilibrium condition, supports are required to provide the
necessary reactive forces that will ensure the rest position of no motion.

There are three common type of supports, and are classified by the available
reactive forces at the support to prevent motion of the rigid body.
ROLLER SUPPORT; The reaction force is a single linear force perpendicular to the
surface. It cannot prevent translation movement in the horizontal or lateral
direction, and rotational movement, but can only prevent vertical translations,
and capable of resisting normal displacement.

PINNED/HINGE SUPPORT; the support can exerts force acting in perpendicular

directions (ie, horizontal and vertical), which prevents translation movement or
relative displacement at member ends, but it cannot prevent rotational
movement. It is an improved support to the roller support because of the
available 2 reactive forces.

FIXED SUPPORT; It can provides both force and moment resistance, and exerts
forces acting in any direction that prevents translational movements in the
horizontal and vertical direction, as well as the rotational movement of the
member. It is a rigid type of support, that holds the member firmly than the roller
or hinge support, because of the increase resistance action.
STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS

Beams are structural components that, directly supports the floor slab, and they
are usually positioned horizontally, along the longitudinal axis, while the apply
load acts transversely. The response to loading is by flexure (or bending) of the
structural member, and deflection of the longitudinal axis

The distance between two supports is known as the beam span, while a beam
with a fixed support is called cantilever beam, since it posses only one rigid
support.

STATICALLY DETERMINANCY;

A beam is statically determinate, if the available support’s reactive forces,

required for stability during load application, is equal to the minimum number of
reaction necessary for static equilibrium condition.

Thus the static equilibrium equations, comprise of,

ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, and ΣM = 0 , which are three equations, which can only
provide solutions to three unknown reactive forces.
Therefore, statically determinacy, D = R – 3 = 0, or R =3 for statically determinate beams.

And when D < 0, Implies R < 3, and the beam possess inadequate support forces,
and unstable,

And when D > 0 then R > 3, and the beam is statically indeterminate, having
more reactive forces than the static equilibrium equations. Hence the beams
cannot be solved with only the static equilibrium equations. Statically
indeterminate beams are analyze using classical and other structural analysis
methods.
FORCES ACTING ON BEAMS

Forces acting on beams are classified as follows,

External forces, comprise the static equilibrium action of the applied force and
the reactive forces.
Applied Forces – the forces applied or expected on the structure for design
purpose
Reactive Forces – the support reactions

Internal Forces - the forces acting within the beam, as a result of the static
equilibrium condition. The internal forces are established through the path of the
force line-of-action within the member. The internal force must be lower than the
internal resistive force (or energy) of the member (ie, beam) for adequate and
safe force transmission unto the supports.

The internal forces in Beams, are Shear forces, bending Moments and Axial forces,
which occur due to the resistance of beam-component to applied loading.

SHEAR/SHEARING FORCE, Q (Unit = kN)

The shear force Q, at any point along a beam, is defined as, the algebraic sum of
all vertical forces acting to one side of the beam at that cross-section.

Considering a section X-X at distance x from support A for the beam in the figure,
Then the shear force at the cross-section X-X,

Qx = ΣFV = Ra – P1 – P2 (ie summing all vertical forces from end A, and assuming
the positive x-y direction as positive sense)

Similarly, Qx = ΣFV = -(Rb – Pn) (ie, summing from end A, and the negative sense is
attributed for measuring from the other end, ie a mirror effect).

Since the beam is stable and in static equilibrium, the solution for Q must be
same, since the cross section is the same.

NORMAL FORCE, N (Unit = kN)

The algebraic sum of all forces, acting parallel and along the longitudinal axis of
the beam, from one end to the indicated beam cross section

BENDING MOMENT, M (Unit = kN-m)

The bending moment M, at any point along a loaded beam is the algebraic sum of
the moments of all vertical forces acting to one side of the beam at the cross
section.
Considering the figure above, and at section X-X, distance x from end A,

Mx = ΣFV d = Rax – W1(x-x1) – W2(x-x2) , Note that clockwise moment is positive

and anticlockwise moment negative.

Similarly, considering the BM from end B,

Mx = ΣFV d = -( -Rb (l-x) + Wn(xn – x)), the negative signs indicates the Moment was
taken from the other end – ie, a mirror effect.

FORCES AND LOADS ON BEAMS

The applied forces acting on a beam are considered as Loads, because they are
continuously applied over period of time. Load can be applied in the following
means,

Concentrated or Point Load; Load placed at a spot or concentrated points on

beams.

Distributed Load; Load acting over certain length of the beam in specific
functional order. Loading intensity describes the functional order (ie, f(x), When
the loading intensity is constant over certain length, it is known as uniformly
distributed loads, w in kN/m. but when the intensity varies in defined order, it is
known as non-uniform distributed load eg the triangular loads.
Equivalent Load for Distributed Loading systems

An equivalent load is the resultant load of the distributed load, acting at the
centroid of the load distribution. Hence it is a concentrated load equal in
magnitude to the distributed load and acting at the centroid.

Equivalent load magnitude = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)∂𝑥 = area under the integral curve, defined by

the limits of the distributed load.

Thus for uniformly distributed load, E = w x, where w is the intensity and w is the
width of the udl. (ie area of a rectangle), and the centroid is that of rectangle.

Also for rectangular loading E = ½k x = area of triangle, and positioned at the

centroid of triangle.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BEMDING MOMENT

Consider a simply supported beam, supporting a udl of intensity w/unit length in

the figure, and an infinitesimal length of the beam segment 𝛛x, between
cross-sections x and x+𝛛x.

Let the bending moment at x be M and at x+𝛛x = M+𝛛M.

The shear force at x = F, and at x+ 𝛛x = F+ 𝛛F.

For static equilibrium of the beam segment,

Then, ΣFy = 0, and, F – (F+ 𝛛F) - w 𝛛x = 0

- 𝛛F - w 𝛛x = 0, hence w = - 𝛛F/ 𝛛x -- (1)

Also, ΣM = 0, about a point on the segment

F𝛛x – M - w 𝛛x(𝛛x/2) + (M+ 𝛛M) = 0

F𝛛x + 𝛛M = 0, other terms are negligibly small,

Hence, F = - 𝛛M/ 𝛛x ----- (2),

Equation 2 relates BM and Q, which are important parameters in beams, being internal forces,

Thus, F = 0 = 𝛛M/ 𝛛x, indicating that when the shear force is zero, it conincides with turning
point of the BM diagram or the maximum value of BM.

BENDING MOMENT AND SHEARING FORCE DIAGRAMS

The magnitudes of the internal forces, such as Q and BM, will vary along the length of the
beam, since the definitions indicate the algebraic sum of force actions along the beam span.
Then the locus of points that express this quantity on the beam is a diagram known as bending
moment (BMD), or the shearing force diagram (SFD).
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE RIGID BODY SYSTEMS
AND PLANE PIN JOINTED FRAMES, TRUSS OR FRAMEWORKS

Structural mechanics (or mechanics of structures), is the computation of

deformations, deflections and internal forces or stresses and strains within
structures, either for design or for performance evaluation of existing structures.
Structural mechanics analysis, requires input data, such as structural oads,
structure’s geometric representation and support conditions, and also the
materials’ properties. Advanced structural analysis, may include the effects of
stability and non-linear behaviors of structure, such as bending of beams, plates,
and thin shells, buckling of columns, torsion of shaft, and vibration of bridges etc.

Mechanics is the study of motions of macroscopic objects, (eg, Rigid body), since
when forces are applied to objects, it result in displacements, or changes of an
object position relative to its environment. Macroscopic object (or physical object,
body etc), is a collection of matter within a defined contiguous boundary in three
dimensional space. The boundary must be defined and identified by the
properties of the material, usually is the visible and tangible surface of objects,
and which may change over time.

Statics is the study of mechanics, concerning the analysis of loads (ie, force and
torque or moment), acting on physical systems that do not experience
acceleration (or, a= 0), but rather in static equilibrium with their environment.

STATICALLY DETERMINATE TRUSS

A Structure is described as Truss if the following conditions are satisfied,

The members are straight, and satisfies the expression, m=2j-3, where m is the
number of members and j, the joint in the truss. The primary truss possesses only
three members forming a triangle. The addition of 2 members and a joint, leads to
formation of the truss system.
Members are connected by pinned (hinged) joints, and applied forces/loads are
concentrated and act only at the joint.

The truss supports can only provides restraint against displacement (ie, a roller or
hinge support). The system cannot take concentrated moment, since the joint
provide no rotational constraint.

The truss member is configured to possess only one axial force as internal force,
and which is constant throughout the member. Axial force can either be tensile or
Compressive).

SIGN CONVENTION; the conventional x-y positive axes, applies to Forces and
support reactive forces, and similarly with negative magnitudes and direction..

Member connecting joint I and joint j, is referred to as member ij or member ji

The internal force (or axial force) of the member ij is denoted as Fij, that of
member ji as Fji .

Member ij is in tension, if the axial force is tensile, which will lead to increase in
longitudinal dimension, and the member is in compression when there is decreas
in the dimension.

STATICALLY DETERMINANCY; For the Truss system, the determinacy can be

defined as,
Internal determinacy; when the redundant is due to the internal forces or
members of the truss,
eg, using the truss equation, m=2j-3, for statically determinate truss

and, m > 2j-3, the frame is imperfect or redundant,

also, m < 2j-3, the frame is inadequate, having lesser member than required.

External determinacy; = R – 3, where R is the number of reactive forces

Thus, degree of determinacy, D = (R-3) + (m-2j+3) = m + R – 2J

For statically determinate Truss, D = 0, ie, by substituting for m, j and R,

and D>0 for redundant truss.

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

There are three common methods for analyzing the truss system. Any of the
method can be used, for statically determinate member, and the support reactive
forces determined, using the equation of static equilibrium.

The methods are,

Method of Joint,
Method of sections,
Graphical or Force methods.

THE JOINT METHOD

A structural joint, is a position on structures where two or more members are

connected, to act as continuous or monolithic unit. The joint must be in static
equilibrium during load application, and there must be no relative displacement of
members meeting at a joint.
Lets’ Consider the Truss in the figure for analysis using the joint method,

Procedure;

Determine D, and confirm the truss is statically determinate,

D = m + R – 2J, m=13, j= 8, and R=3,
D = 13 +3 – 16 = 0, hence the truss is statically determinate.

Determine the reactive forces, using static equilibrium equations,

ΣF=0, ΣM=0.
ΣFx = 0, Ha – P3 = 0 ----- (1)
ΣFy = 0, Ra + Re = P1 + P2 + P4 ---- (2)
ΣM = 0, taking moment about point A,
0 = -Re – P3h + P4 d4 + P2 d2 + P1 d1 , solving will give value for Re since other
quantities are known. Then the other reactions can as well be determined from
the above equations.

In joint method analysis, each joint of the truss is considered isolated for static
equilibrium analysis, under the action of forces and members at the joint. This is
possible since the joint is a continuous part of the trust, and must remain at rest
during loading.

The joint is a particle point on the truss, and the applicable equation of static
equilibrium are, ΣFx = 0, and ΣFy = 0, , and solving simultaneously, the unknown
internal forces for members at the joint can be determined. It therefore implies
that, this is possible when only two members are the unknown for that particular
joint.

Similarly, members of truss are assumed to be of the same sense prior to analysis
(ie tension or compression), and when a negative force is observed, it indicate the
sense is opposite to the assumed.

Considering the Joints one at a time, Starting from support A,

METHODS OF SECTIONS

Sectioning in engineering analysis, is by cutting an object through an established

plane of reference, such that at the cut-section the object have identical surface
and actions. Cutting the section of a truss, exposes the internal force of members
on the cut-plane, and they are assumed to be the unknown forces required for
stability of the sectioned parts.

Considering a section z-z, in the figure, which divide the truss into two parts
through the indicated cut-plane.
DIRECT STRESSES AND STRAINS; HOOKES LAW, STRESSES AND DEFORMATION
RESULTING FROM TEMPERATURE CHANGES, METHOD OF SUPERPOSITION,
STRESS-STARIN TRANSFORMATION

DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN, HOOKES LAW

An engineering material, when subject to applied force will experience,

deformation, stresses and changes in the microstructure which may have
damaging effect on the material’s ability to sustain continuous load increments.

Deformation; The change in material characteristic and structural composition as

a result of applied load/forces. It is classified as elastic, and inelastic depending on
the extent of applied load, and materials strength.

Elastic deformation; Deformation is elastic, if the material can regain its initial
form, shape and dimension, after the removal of the stress.

Inelastic deformation; Deformation is inelastic, when the material cannot regain it

initial form, shape or dimension, after the removal of stress. The material is
considered to have sustained a permanent set (damage), due to the deformation
experienced, it occurs after the elastic limit, in a typical stress-strain characteristic
of an engineering material.

STRESS AND STRAIN

Stress, is considered as the force transmitted across a member’s cross-section,

and divided by the cross-sectional area, if it is assumed that the load is uniformly
distributed over the section,

Then, σ = F/A

Strain is used to describe the deformation experience by a member when load is

applied, because it measures the geometrical changes, hence a direct stress will
produce change in length in the direction of the stress.
Thus, if a bar of length L, is in tension and the elongation produced is x,

Then, strain = (change in dimension)/(original dimension),

or, ε = x/l strain is dimensionless or has no unit

Example: Calculate the thickness of a rectangular tie-bar, that is 100mm wide, if it

has to carry an axial load of 60kN, and the tolerable stress must not exceed
120N/mm2

If σ = F/A, then A = F/σ

or, A = 60x103 / 120 = 500,
A = t x 100, hence t = 500/100 = 5.0mm

HOOKE’S LAW; States that, the strain (ie, deformation) in a solid, is directly
proportional to the applied stress (ie, force within the elastic limit of that material.

ie, σ α ε , or σ = k ε
then, k = σ/ε , the constant k is called the Young’s modulus or Modulus of
Elasticity, and it is denoted as E, or Y, (unit = N/mm2, or kN/m2 etc)

hence, E = σ/ε = stress/strain

if, σ = F/A and ε = x/l ,

then, E = Fl/Ax

Example; A structural member is 300mm in length, and have a reduction in length

of 0.015mm as a result of applied force, determine the stress in the member, if E =
200kN/mm2 and the force within the member if it is made of 20mm circular bar.

ε = x/l = 0.015/300 = 0.0005

E = stress/strain, hence, σ = 200 x103 x 0.0005 = 100N/mm2

A = πd2/4 = π x 202 /4 = 314mm2

F = σ x A = 100 x 314 = 31400N = 31.4kN

TYPICAL AND SPECIAL CASES OF STRESS-STRAIN CHARACTERISTIC

Fig 1 - Elastic Material; it’s the ideal stress-strain characteristic behavior of an engineering
material within the elastic limit (Hooke’s law)

Fig 2 – Inelastic Material; the loading and unloading path differs, and material cannot return to
zero strain, because of the sustained damage Δ, ie permanent set.

Fig 3 - Brittle Materials; The stress-strain characteristics is very close to the stress axis,
indicating that the material cannot undergo large strain and can easily fracture at large stress.
Example is Concrete, Timber, Glass etc

Fig 4 – Ductile Materials; The stress-strain curve is closer to the strain axis, indicating that the
material can be strained easily and flows, even at low stress or load application. Example is
Plastic
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY; SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

For elastic materials, it is found that shear strain is proportional to the shear stress
producing it, within the elastic limit.

The ratio (shear stress)/(shear strain) is called the modulus of rigidity.

G = τ /φ ( unit = N/mm2 )

Shear Force: when one portion of a member tends to slide over another at a give
section, and especially during application of tangential load on the surface of a
material, then, the material fibers at the section is said to be in shear stress.

Shear stress at section x-x = shear force/ cross-section area A

Or, τ = Q/A (unit = N/mm2 )

SHEAR STRAIN: shear strain is the deformation as a result of shear force, and it
measures changes in shape or the distortion of the cross- section.

Shear strain, φ = x/L ( dimensionless)

ALOWABLE STRESS AND ALOWABLE LOAD

An important parameter in engineering design is the capacity of the object to

support or transmit loads, such objects include, structures, machines, aircraft,
vehicles, ships etc. The ability of load-bearing object to resist applied load is called
Strength, and the actual strength of structures must exceed the required strength
to support forces.

The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the factor of
safety n,

Or, n = actual strength/required strength

The actual strength when observed from the material characteristics is known as
Ultimate stress, and the required strength is called tolerable, design or allowable
stress,

Therefore, FoS = Ultimate stress/Allowable stress

Thus, the factor of safety must be greater much than one depending on the
materials and load duration, for safe use of an engineering material and to avoid
sudden failure.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

Engineering materials are usually subjected to several or multiple load actions,

and the system of forces causes deformation that must be determined, which is
the basis of principle of superposition.

The principle states that, where several loads are acting together on an elastic
material, the resultant strain (or effective strain), is the sum of the strains cause by
each load acting separately on the body.
𝑛
Ie, ε = ∑ ε = ε1 + ε2 + ….+ εn
𝑖=1

TWO DIMENSIONAL STRESS-STRAINS SYSTEM

According to hooke’s law for elastic material, stress is directly proportional to
strain, thereby suggesting an increase in length for tensile stress.

But contrarily, for a possible increase in length, and there must be a compensation
for equilibrium of mass, according to conservation of matter.

Therefore, to compensate for an increase in length in the longitudinal direction,

there must be a reduction in the lateral direction complementarily to balance the
mass equilibrium. The magnitude of the lateral strain is described by the quantity
known as Poisson’s ratio (γ)

Poisson’s ratio γ = -(lateral strain)/(longitudinal strain)

The negative sign indicates an equilibrium action, an increase in longitudinal

length will require a decrease in the lateral dimension.

Thus, lateral strain, εy = - γ(σx)/E (for uni-axial stress)

BI-AXIAL STRESS

Applying the principle of superposition and considering the stress in the x- , and y-
direction, separately to determine the respective strains in both directions.
Considering σx only
then, εx = σx/E, and hence the corresponding lateral strain εy = - γ(σx)/E

Also σy only,
then, εy = σy/E, and the lateral strain εx = - γ(σy)/E

Total Strains,
x-direction = εx = σx/E - γ(σy)/E = (1/E)(σx – γσy)
y-direction = εy = σy/E - γ(σx)/E = (1/E)(σy – γσx)

STRESS-STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
COMPOUND BARS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Load bearing components are designed for engineering purpose of providing

support to applied forces, within the strength ability of materials, hence the
combinations of component elements could similarly be used to enable a better
performance.

BARS IN SERIES

Consider a compound bar comprising of component sections as indicated, being

subjected to axial load P. The load path is being experienced by all members
equally,
hence the equilibrium equation is P = P1 = P2 = --- = Pn
And , σ1=P/A1 , σ2 = P/A2, ---, σn=P/An

And for compatibility, total strain, ε = Σεi = ε1 + ε2 +-- + εn

BARS IN PAPALLEL

Consider a composite system shown in the figure, consisting of several materials

with different characteristic properties and subjected to an applied load P,

For compatibility, P = P1 + P2 + --- + Pn

And let ΔL = change in length ,

Hence, strain ε = ΔL/L for equilibrium of parallel bars the strain must be same for
the members

Therefore, ε = ε1 = ε2 = --- = εn

But, Pi = εiAiEi = εAiEi , and substituting in the compatibility equation,

P = ε (P1A1 + P2A2 +--- + PnAn ) = ε ΣAiEi

or, ε = P/ΣAiEi
and, Pi = εAiEi = PAiEi/ΣAiEi
and, σ = P/A, then σi = PEi/ ΣAiEi

UNEQUAL LENGTH IN PARALLEL

Consider a composite system of unequal lengths, subjected to Load P as indicated.

The inner bar is directly in contact with the load, because of the extended length,
hence it will need to be compressed to the level of the other bars before the
generally compatibility for load sharing can commenced.

Initial strain in the inner tube, ε = Δ/L,

therefore, Initial load taken by inner tube, Pi = εA2E2 (negative strain or
reduction),
Remaining Load, Pr = P – Pi , and at this stage all the bars are at the same level,
and can be subjected to compatibility equation for the remaining load.
Out bar load P1 = PA1E1/ΣAE = PrA1E1/(A1E1+A2E2)

Inner bar Load P2 = PrA2E2/(A1E1+A2E2) + εA2E2 (or Pi the initial load)

STRAIN ENERGY

Strain energy is the external work done on an elastic material in causing it to

distort from its initial unstressed state. It is mostly recoverable in the form of
mechanical work, and strain energy can be considered as a form of potential
energy of the body. The principle of maximum potential energy indicates that a
structure or body shall deform or displace to a position that minimizes the total
potential energy with the lost in potential energy being dissipated as heat ( or,
energy loss).
IMPACT AND SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD

In mechanics, am impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period,
when two or more bodies collide. Such a force and acceleration usually has a
greater effect than gradually placed force, and the effect also depends on the
relative velocity of the bodies to one another (ie, the conservation of
momentum). Loads are usually assumed to be gently applied on structures, but
sometimes it may occur that condition of placement becomes important in the
analysis. Gently placed loads only take into consideration the magnitude and
sense of the applied load, whereas loads made with impact such as projectiles
would have additional effects.

IMPACT LOADS: If a load W, is suddenly applied to a bar through impact, the bar
stretches and behaves like a spring, by oscillating about a mean position.
Assuming the load falls through a height h, on to a collar at the end of a vertical
bar of length l.

Let x be the maximum instantaneous elongation of the bar during the impact, and
σ be the corresponding maximum induced stress.

Then, using hooke’s law, x = σl/E --- (i)

At the point of maximum extension, the compatibility equation is,

Initial potential energy of load = strain energy in bar for the work
ie, W(h + x) = (σ2/2E )AL ------ (ii)
or, W(h + σL/E) = σ2 A L/2E ---- ( iii )
a quadratic equation in σ, which gives two possible answer for the stress, the
negative stress is the compressive stress produced in the bar on rebound, if the
load were to lock to the collar after the impact.

SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD:

If the load is placed in contact with the collar with an impact, then the height h
becomes negligible (or h=0) ,

Then from eqn (ii), W(0 + x) = (σ2/2E )AL ,

Solving, and substituting x = σL/E ,

Then, σ = 2W/A, indicating, that the maximum stress produced by sudden load
application is twice the value of gradually applied load.

DEFORMATION RESULTING FROM TEMPERATURE CHANGES

FORCE → STRESS → STRAIN (DEFORMATION

Temperature effects, on an object are due to changes in environmental

temperature of objects, and which correspondingly create changes in dimension
and strain of the object.

Objects will respond to temperature changes as a result of the property known as

linear expansivity α.

Such as, Temperature → Change in dimension → Strain → Stress

Let a bar of length lo be subjected to temperature increase from θ1 to θ2 ,

Then, Increase in length, Δl = lo α(θ2- θ1) ,

where, lo is the initial length of bar, and α is coefficient of linear expansion.
Δ𝑙
Strain, ε = 𝑙
= lo α(θ2- θ1)/lo = α(θ2- θ1)
Also, stress σ = εE = Eα(θ2- θ1) where E = Young’s modulus

COMPOUND BARS SUBJECTED TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE

If α1 < α2 them the component 2 will expand more than component 1 due to
temperature increase. And also, for parallel compound members the members are
conditioned to remain of the same length, this will create additional stresses in
the component bars, bar 1 will be subjected to additional increase in length, while
bar 2 will experience a decrease in length.

Equilibrium equation,
Temp strain in bar 1 + tensile strain = temp strain in bar 2 – compressive strain

- α1(θ2- θ1) + σ1/E = α2(θ2- θ1) - σ2/E --- (1)

- Also the compound bar can be considered as being exposed to axial force p,
and the following compatibility eqn, P = P1 + P2 -- ( 2) for condition of no
axial force, then P = 0,
- when P = σA, and substituted then, Equation 1 and 2 can be solved
simultaneously for σ1 and σ2 and strain ε, and the corresponding load on
each components.
STRESSES IN THIN CYLINDERS AND SPHERES

THIN WALLED CYLINDERS

A cylinder is curved geometrical shape, with the surface formed by

particle-points at a fixed distance from a given line segment, known as the axis
of the cylinder.

Thin walled cylinders are defined as cylinders with wall thickness to radius
ratio, as follows,
, t/R < 0.1 (R is the internal radius)

The polar coordinate system is used for describing the geometrical behavior of
cylinders, ie, the r, Z, and θ, where z axis is the longitudinal axis of the cylinder,
r is the radial and θ is the angular coordinate about the axis.

Examples of cylinders include, Pressure vessel used in storage tanks and

containers, water pipes, Boilers, submarine hulls, Roof domes etc. and where
the cylinder can be subjected to internal pressures.

When a thin-walled cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, there will be

three mutually perpendicular stresses acting within the cylinders wall
thickness. These are,
Circumferential or hoop stress
Radial stress
Longitudinal stress

Assumptions in the Analysis of Internal Stresses of cylinders

There is no shear stress acting in the wall
The longitudinal and hoop stresses is constant, and do not vary within the wall
thickness
The state of stress of an element of thin cylinder is considered as biaxial (ie,
only longitudinal and hoop stress)
Radial stress, which acts normal to the curved plane of the isolated-elemental
part is negligibly small compared to other two stresses acting within the wall
thickness, especially when t/R < 1/20
P, the internal pressure acting within the cylinder, is constant and equal in all
direction.

DETERMINATION OF HOOP OR CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS, σh

σh describes the stresses acting along the circumference of the cylinder.

Considering, the equilibrium of section z-z,

Force due to internal pressure = internal force within the thin-walled cylinder
ie, σh x 2L (t) = PdL where t is thickness of the cylinder
or, σh = Pd/2t

LONGITUDINAL STRESS, σL

. σL is the stress acting along the longitudinal thickness of thin cylinder wall, and
can be determined by cutting through the vertical plane of the cylinder.
Considering the equilibrium of the section z-z, then,

Force due to internal pressure = internal force within the thin-walled cylinder
ie, P x πd2/4 = σl πd (t)
or, σl = Pd/4t

Also, since σl = Pd/4t = Pd/2(2t) = σh /2

That is, the longitudinal stress is twice the hoop stress.

SPHERES: A sphere is an object with no longitudinal description but radially

shaped in nature. Therefore the internal stresses acting within a spherical wall is
circumferential or hoop stress in all direction.

Considering the equilibrium of the cut-section, then,

Force due to internal pressure = internal force within the spherical wall
ie, P x πd2/4 = σ πd (t)
or, σ = Pd/4t

STRESS-STRAIN DEFORMATION IN THIN CYLINDERS

In cylinder subjected to internal pressure, the corresponding strain is due to

volume or capacity change, and it is known as volumetric strain

Volumetric strain = (change in volume)/Initial volume

Let d, l be the diameter and length of the cylinder and Δd, Δl, the corresponding
dimensional changes,

Then, εv = ΔV/V = (Vf – Vo)/Vo

And, Vo = πdt l, and ΔV = Vf – Vo = πt(d+Δd)t (l+Δl) - πdt l

or, ΔV = (πdt + πtΔd)(l+Δl) - πdt l = πdtΔl +πtΔdΔl + πtΔdl

And, εv = ΔV/V = πdtΔl/πdtl + πtlΔd/πdtl (neglecting product of ΔdΔl )

Hence, εv = Δl/l + Δd/d , which is the sum of longitudinal strain and diametrial or
hoop strain, since the circumference is product of constant π, and the diameter.

The strain in cylinder with plane closed ends, using bi-axial stress-strain
transformation,
Hoop strain, εh = (σh – γσl)/E

Longitudinal strain, εl = (σl – γσh)/E

STRESS- STRAIN IN SPHERES

. σ = Pd/4t and,

. εv = ΔV/V = (Vf – Vo)/Vo

Vo = (4/3)πr2t and Vf = (4/3)πt(r+Δr)

and, Vf – Vo = (4/3)πt(r2 + 2rΔr + Δr2 – r2 ), and by neglecting Δr2 very small,
then, ΔV = (4/3)πt 2r Δr ,

And, εv = (4/3)πt 2r Δr/ (4/3)πr2t = 2Δr/r = 2εσ

Since εσ is the bi-axial strain for thin-walled sheperical objects.

εσ = (σ – γσ)/E = (1-γ)σ/E

therefore for cylinder with spherical ends closure the additional volumetric effect
due the ends is

εv = 2εσ = 2(1-γ)σ/E = (1-γ) 2Pd/4tE by substituting for σ

STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES: PRINCIPAL PLANES AND STRESSES

In a stressed medium or solid body, that can be subjected to stresses, in the

two orthogonal directions, there will be stresses in any other planes-inclined,
which are the resultant or the aggregate effects of these two orthogonal
stresses. Which can be considered as follows,
Uni-axial normal force loading systems
Bi-axial normal forces loading systems
shear stresses acting alone
Complex stress system or the combination of shear and normal forces

UNI-AXIAL LOADING SYSTEM

Consider a uniaxial tensile stress acting on plane AC of a bar of uniform

cross-section,

Fig (b) is the diagram of forces acting on the plane, concentrating at a stressed
point on plane AC

Then to determine the component stress component on plane AC due to σ,

method of resolution of forces can be employed,
Resolving forces perpendicular to plane AC,
σn (AC) = σ (BC)Cosθ , and
σn = σ Cosθ (BC)/(AC) = σ2 Cos2θ = (1+ Cos2θ)σ/2

Also, resolving parallel to plane AC

τθ (AC) = σ (BC) Sinθ , and
τθ = σ Sinθ (BC)/(AC) = σ Sinθ Cosθ = σ Sin2θ/2

Thus at 450 , Sin2θ = 90, and the shear stress becomes maximum on the plane
AC, or, τ = σ sin90/2 = σ/2

Also the Resultant stress on the inclined plane,

2 2 2 2
σr = σ𝑛 + τ = (σ/2) (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2θ) + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2θ

Simplifying, σr = σCosθ
and tanφ = τ/σn = tanθ

BIAXIAL LOADING SYSTEM

Resolving forces perpendicular to the plane AC

σn (AC) = σx (BC) Cosθ + σy (AB) Sinθ
thus, σn = σx Cosθ (BC)/(AC) + σy Sinθ (AB)/(AC)
and σn = σx CosθCosθ + σy SinθSinθ ,
Simplifying, σn = (σx + σy)/2 + (σx - σy)Cos2θ/2
Similarly resolving parallel to Plane AC
τ (AC) = σx (BC) Sinθ - σy (AB) Cosθ
τ = σx Sinθ (BC)/(AC) - σy Cosθ (AB)/(BC)
= σx Sinθ Cosθ - σy Cosθ Sinθ
= (σx – σy) Sin2θ/2
MOHR’S CIRCLE DIAGRAMS

Mohr’s Circle invented by Christian Mohr is a two-dimensional graphical

representation of the transformation law for Cauchy stress tensor. The stress
tensor consists of nine components σij that completely define the state of stress at
a point inside a material in the deformed state, and/or configuration. It relates a
unit length direction vector n to the traction vector T(n) across an imaginary
surface perpendicular to n.
(𝑛)
T(n) = n σ or, 𝑇𝑗 = ni σij

The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law, under a change in
the system of coordinates, and the unit-vector is dimensionless. Mohr’s circle, is
often used in calculating stresses in many planes by reducing them to vertical and
horizontal components, and can also be used to determine the principal planes
and principal stresses in a graphical representation. The principal planes are
planes within the continuum, in which principal stresses are the only effective
stress acting, while the shear stress component is zero.

In a stressed material, the components of Cauchy stress tensor at a particular

point are defined with respect to a coordinate system. Mohr’s circle is then used
to determine graphically the stress components acting on a rotated coordinate
system, ie, acting on a differently oriented plane passing through that point.
The σn and τθ are abscissa (x-axis), and ordinate (y-axis) respectively of each point
on the circle, which represents the magnitudes of the normal stress and shear
stress components, acting on the rotated coordinate system. That is, the circle is
locus of points that represent the state of stress on individual planes at all their
orientations, where the axes represent the principal axes of stress element.

EQUATION OF THE MOHR CIRCLE

To derive the equation of the Mohr circle for two-dimensional cases of plane
stress and plane strain, First consider a two-dimensional infinitesimal material
element around a material-point P, with a unit area in the direction parallel to the
y-z plane, or the perpendicular to planar surface.

From Equilibrium of forces, on the infinitesimal element, the magnitude of the

normal stress σn , and the shear stress τθ are given by,

σn = ½(σx + σy) + ½(σx - σy)Cos2θ + τxySin2θ ------- (i)

τθ = -½(σx - σy)Sin2θ + τxyCos2θ -------- (ii)

These equations are the parametric equations of Mohr circle. Where 2θ is the
parameter, and σn , τθ are the coordinates.

Therefore, by choosing a coordinate system with abscissa σn and ordinate τθ , and

giving values to the parameters θ, will place the points obtained lying on a circle.
Solving the two equations simultaneously by eliminating 2θ,
2
Then, (σn - ½(σx + σy))2 + τθ = (½(σx - σy))2 + (τxy)2
2
or, (σn – σavg)2 + τθ = R2 ,
thus, R = ((½(σx - σy))2 + (τxy)2 )½ and σavg = ½(σx + σy)

This is similar to the equation of a circle of the form,

(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2 and can be adopted for Mohr stress circle, with r =R, centered
at a point with coordinates (a, b) = (σavg 0) in the σn τθ coordinate system. The
transformation equations for plane stresses can be represented by the Mohr
circle, and which is useful in visualizing the relationships between normal and
shear stresses acting on various inclined planes at a point in a stressed body.

SIGN CONVENTIONS
Tensile stress (ie, Positive) are drawn to the right of an origin
Compressive stress (ie, Negative) are drawn to the left
Clockwise shear stresses are plotted upward
Counterclockwise shear stresses are plotted downward.

PROCEDURE FOR PLOTTING THE MOHR CIRCLE

- Choose a set of x-y reference axes and draw a square element centered on
the axes
- Identify the stresses σx σy and τxy = τyx using the sign sign convention
- Draw a set of σ, and τ, coordinate axes with σ positive to the right and τ
positive upward, using appropriate drawing scale.
- Plot the stresses on the x-face of the element in the coordinate system, eg
Point V(σx τxy) and similarly for the stress on the y-face ie Point U(σy τyx)

Draw a line to connect the two points, and the point where the line crosses the
σ-axis describes the center of the Mohr circle. Then draw the Mohr circle.

The line from the circle to point U defines the x-axis or the reference axis for angle
measurement; hence the corresponding angles 2θp for principal plane and 2θ for
other planes within the stressed body.