Introduction

A computer cannot understand our language that we use in our

day to day conversations, and likewise, we cannot understand the
binary language that the computer uses to do its tasks. It is
therefore necessary for us to write instructions in some specially
defined language like C++ which is like natural language and after
converting with the help of compiler the computer can understand
it.

C++ Compiler
A C++ compiler is itself a computer program which’s only job is to
convert the C++ program from our form to a form the computer
can read and execute. The original C++ program is called the
“source code”, and the resulting compiled code produced by the
compiler is usually called an “object file”. Before compilation the
preprocessor performs preliminary operations on C++ source
files. Preprocessed form of the source code is sent to compiler.
After compilation stage object files are combined with predefined
libraries by a linker, sometimes called a binder, to produce the
final complete file that can be executed by the computer. A library
is a collection of pre-compiled “object code” that provides
operations that are done repeatedly by many computer programs.

Integrated Development Environment

You can perform entire process of invoking the preprocessor,
compiler, and linker with a single action by using Integrated
Development environment. These environments consist of a text
editor, compiler, debugger, and other utilities integrated into a
package with a single set of menus. Preprocessing, compiling,
linking, and even executing a program is done by selecting a
single item from a menu.

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First program in C++
// This is my first program is C++
/* this program will illustrate different components of a simple
program in C++ */
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
When the above program is compiled, linked and executed, the
following output is displayed on the VDU screen.
Hello World!
Various components of this program are discussed below:

Comments
First three lines of the above program are comments and are
ignored by the compiler. Comments are included in a program to
make it more readable. If a comment is short and can be
accommodated in a single line, then it is started with double slash
sequence in the first line of the program. However, if there are
multiple lines in a comment, it is enclosed between the two
symbols /* and */.

#include<iostream>

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The line in the above program that start with # symbol are called
directives and are instructions to the compiler. The word include
with '#' tells the compiler to include the file iostream into the file of
the above program. File iostream is a header file needed for input/
output requirements of the program. Therefore, this file has been
included at the top of the program.

using namespace std;

All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared within
std. This line is very frequent in C++ programs that use the
standard library.

int main ( )
The word main is a function name. The brackets ( ) with main tells
that main ( ) is a function. The word int before main ( ) indicates
that integer value is being returned by the function main (). When
program is loaded in the memory, the control is handed over to
function main ( ) and it is the first function to be executed.

Curly bracket and body of the function main ( )

A C++ program starts with function called main(). The body of the
function is enclosed between curly braces. The program
statements are written within the brackets. Each statement must
end by a semicolon, without which an error message in
generated.

cout<<"Hello World!";
This statement prints our "Hello World!" message on the screen.
cout understands that anything sent to it via the << operator
should be printed on the screen.

return 0;
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This is a new type of statement, called a return statement. When
a program finishes running, it sends a value to the operating
system. This particular return statement returns the value of 0 to
the operating system, which means “everything went okay!”.

Printing Multiple Lines of Text with a Single

Statement
/* This program illustrates how to print multiple lines of text with a
single statement */
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "Welcome\nto\nC++";
return 0;
}
Output:
Welcome
To
C++
The characters print exactly as they appear between the double
quotes. However, if we type \n, the characters \n are not printed
on the screen. The backslash (\) is called an escape character. It
indicates that a "special" character is to be output. When a
backslash is encountered in a string of characters, the next
character is combined with the backslash to form an escape

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sequence. The escape sequence \n means newline. It causes
the cursor to move to the beginning of the next line on the screen.

What are variables?

Variables are used in C++ where you will need to store any type
of values within a program and whose value can be changed
during the program execution. These variables can be declared in
various ways each having different memory requirements and
storing capability. Variables are the name of memory locations
that are allocated by compilers and the allocation is done based
on the data type used for declaring the variable.

Variable definition in C++

A variable definition means that the programmer write some
instructions to tell the compiler to create the storage in a memory
location.

Rules of Declaring variables in C++

● A variable name can consist of Capital letters A-Z, lowercase
letters a-z, digits 0-9, and the underscore character.
● The first character must be a letter or underscore.
● Blank spaces cannot be used in variable names.
● Special characters like #, $ are not allowed.
● C++ keywords cannot be used as variable names.
● Variable names are case-sensitive.
● A variable name can be consisting of 31 characters only if we
declare a variable more than one characters compiler will ignore
after 31 characters.

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● Variable type can be bool, char, int, float, double, void or
wchar_t.

Variable: Memory Concept

Programs shown in the previous section print text on the screen.
This section will introduce the concept of variable so that our
program can perform calculation on data.

Variable Initialization
Variable is a location in the computer memory which can store
data and is given a symbolic name for easy reference. The
variables can be used to hold different values at different times
during the execution of a program.

Declaration of a variable
Before a variable is used in a program, we must declare it. This
activity enables the compiler to make available the appropriate
type of location in the memory.
float total;
You can declare more than one variable of same type in a single
statement
int x, y;

Initialization of variable
When we declare a variable it's default value is undetermined. We
can declare a variable with some initial value.
int a = 20;

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The other way to initialize variables, known as constructor
initialization, is done by enclosing the initial value between
parentheses () :
For example: The other way to initialize variables, known as
constructor initialization, is done by enclosing the initial value
between parentheses () : For example:
int a (0);
Both ways of initializing variables are equivalent in C++.

Program: Adding two numbers

We'll solve this problem in C++ with the following steps:
STEP 1: Allocate memory for storing three numbers
STEP 2: Store first number in computer memory
STEP 3: Store second number in computer memory
STEP 4: Add these two numbers together and store the result of
the addition in a third memory location
STEP 5: Print the result

STEP 1:
Now first we'll allocate memory for storing numbers. Location of
the computer memory which is used to store data and is given a
symbolic name for reference is known as variable. We need three
variables, two for storing input and third for storing result. Before a
variable is used in a program, we must declare it. This activity
enables the compiler to make available the appropriate type of
location in the memory.

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Following statements declare three variables of type integer to
store whole numbers.
int x;
int y;
int z;
You can declare more than one variable of same type in a single
statement like:
int x, y, z;

STEP 2:
Following statement stores value in first variable
x = 25;

STEP 3:
Following statement stores value in second variable
y = 10;

STEP 4:
Now, add these two numbers together and store the result of the
addition in third variable
z = x + y;

STEP 5:
Print the result cout << "The sum is ";
cout << sum;
You can combine above two statements in one statement
cout << "The sum is " << sum;

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here, is the complete program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
//declare variables of integer type
int x;
int y;
int z;
//storing value in variables
x = 25;
y = 10;
//adding numbers and store the result in sum
z = x + y;
//print the result
cout << "The sum is ";
cout << z;
return 0;
}

Output:
The sum is 35

C++ Basic Elements

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Programming language is a set of rules, symbols, and special
words used to construct programs. There are certain elements
that are common to all programming languages. Now, we will
discuss these elements in brief:

C++ Character Set

Character set is a set of valid characters that a language can
recognize.
 Letters such as A-Z, a-z
 Digits such as 0-9
 Special Characters Space such as + - * / ^ \ () [] {} = != <> ‘
“ $ , ; : % ! & ? _ # <= >= @
 Formatting characters such as backspace, horizontal tab,
vertical tab, form feed, and carriage return

1)Identifiers
Symbolic names can be used in C++ for various data items used
by a programmer in his program. A symbolic name is generally
known as an identifier. The identifier is a sequence of characters
taken from C++ character set. In previous program x, y and z are
identifiers of variables. The rule for the formation of an identifier
are:
 An identifier can consist of alphabets, digits and/or underscores.
 It must not start with a digit
 C++ is case sensitive that is upper case and lower-case letters
are considered different from each other.
 It should not be a reserved word.

2)Keywords

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There are some reserved words in C++ which have predefined
meaning to compiler called keywords. These words may not be
used as identifiers. Some commonly used Keywords do, while, if,
float, double etc.

3)Literals
Literals (often referred to as constants) are data items that never
change their value during the execution of the program. The
following types of literals are available in C++.
 Integer-Constants
 Character-constants
 Floating-constants
 Strings-constants
A) Integer Constants: Integer constants are whole number
without any fractional part. C++ allows three types of integer
constants.
B) Decimal integer constants: It consists of sequence of digits
and should not begin with 0 (zero). For example, 124, - 179,
+108.
C) Octal integer constants: It consists of sequence of digits
starting with 0 (zero). For example. 014, 012. Hexadecimal
integer constant: It consists of sequence of digits preceded by ox
or OX
Character constants
A character constant in C++ must contain one or more characters
and must be enclosed in single quotation marks. For example, 'A',
'9', etc. C++ allows nongraphic characters which cannot be typed
directly from keyboard, e.g., backspace, tab, carriage return etc.

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These characters can be represented by using an escape
sequence. An escape sequence represents a single character.
Floating constants
They are also called real constants. They are numbers having
fractional parts. They may be written in fractional form or
exponent form. A real constant in fractional form consists of
signed or unsigned digits including a decimal point between digits.
For example, 3.0, -17.0, -0.627 etc.
String Literals
A sequence of character enclosed within double quotes is called
a string literal. String literal is by default (automatically) added
with a special character ‘\0' which denotes the end of the string.
Therefore, the size of the string is increased by one character. For
example, "COMPUTER" will be represented as "COMPUTER\0"
in the memory and its size is 9 characters

4) Punctuators
The following characters are used as punctuators in C++.
Brackets [ ]
Opening and closing brackets indicate single and
multidimensional array subscript.
Parentheses ( )
Opening and closing brackets indicate functions calls,; function
parameters for grouping expressions etc.
Braces { }
Opening and closing braces indicate the start and end of a
compound statement.
Comma ,

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It is used as a separator in a function argument list.
Semicolon ;
It is used as a statement terminator.
Colon :
It indicates a labeled statement or conditional operator symbol.
Asterisk *
It is used in pointer declaration or as multiplication operator
Equal sign =
It is used as an assignment operator.
Pound sign #
It is used as pre-processor directive

5) Operators
Operators are special symbols used for specific purposes. C++
provides six types of operators. Arithmetical operators, Relational
operators, Logical operators, Unary operators, Assignment
operators, Conditional operators, Comma operator.We will talk
more about operators in the coming sections

Types of Operators:
1)Arithmetical operators:
Arithmetical operators +, -, *, /, and % are used to performs an
arithmetic (numeric) operation. You can use the operators +, -, *,
and / with both integral and floating-point data types. Modulus or
remainder % operator is used only with the integral data type.
Operators that have two operands are called binary operators.
2)Relational operators:

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The relational operators are used to test the relation between two
values. All relational operators are binary operators and therefore
require two operands. A relational expression returns zero when
the relation is false and a non-zero when it is true. The following
table shows the relational operators.
Relational Operators Meaning
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
== Equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
!= Not equal to
3)Logical operators
The logical operators are used to combine one or more relational
expression. The logical operators are
Operators Meaning
|| OR
&& AND
! NOT
4)Unary operators
C++ provides two unary operators for which only one variable is
required.
For Example, a = - 50; a = + 50;
Here plus sign (+) and minus sign (-) are unary because they are
not used between two variables.
5)Assignment operators
The assignment operator '=' is used for assigning a variable to a
value. This operator takes the expression on its right-hand-side
and places it into the variable on its left-hand-side. For example:

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m = 5;
The operator takes the expression on the right, 5, and stores it in
the variable on the left, m.
x = y = z = 32;
This code stores the value 32 in each of the three variables x, y,
and z.
in addition to standard assignment operator shown above, C++
also support compound assignment operators.
6)Compound Assignment Operators
Operator Example Equivalent to
+ = A += 2 A = A+2
- = A -= 2 A = A-2
%= A %= 2 A = A%2
/ = A /= 2 A = A/2
* = A *= 2 A = A*2
7)Increment and Decrement Operators
C++ provides two special operators viz '++' and '--' for
incrementing and decrementing the value of a variable by 1. The
increment/decrement operator can be used with any type of
variable but it cannot be used with any constant. Increment and
decrement operators each have two forms, pre and post.

The syntax of the increment operator is:

Pre-increment: ++variable
Post-increment: variable++
The syntax of the decrement operator is:
Pre-decrement: ––variable

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Post-decrement: variable––
In Prefix form first variable is first incremented/decremented,
then evaluated In Postfix form first variable is first evaluated, then
incremented/decremented
int x, y;
int i = 10, j = 10;
x = ++i; //add one to i, store the result back in x
y = j++; //store the value of j to y then add one to j
cout << x; //11
cout << y; //10
8)Conditional operator
The conditional operator? is called ternary operator as it requires
three operands. The format of the conditional operator is:
Conditional_ expression? expression1: expression2; If the value
of conditional expression is true then the expression1 is
evaluated, otherwise expression2 is evaluated.
int a = 5, b = 6;
big = (a > b)? a: b;
The condition evaluates to false, therefore biggest the value from
b and it becomes 6.
9)The order of Precedence
The order in which the Arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%) are used in
a. given expression is called the order of precedence. The
following table shows the order of precedence.
Order operators

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First ()
Second *, /, %
Third +, -
Data Handling
Basic Data Types
C++ supports a large number of data types. The built in or basic
data types supported by C++ are integer, floating point and
character. C++ also provides the data type bool for variables that
can hold only the values True and false.
Some commonly used data types are summarized in table along
with description.
Type Description
int Small integer number
long int Large integer number
float Small real number
double Double precision real number
long double Long double precision real
number
char A Single Character
C++ string
Class Because a char variable can store only one character in its
memory location, another data type is needed for a variable able
to hold an entire string. While C++ does not have a built-in data
type able to do this, Standard C++ provides string class that
allows the programmer to create a string type variable.
in order to declare and use objects (variables) of this type we
need to include an additional header file in our source code :
// This program demonstrates the string class.

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#include<iostream>
#include<string> // Required for the string class.
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
string mystring = "This is a string";
cout << mystring;
return 0;
}

Constants
A variable which does not change its value during execution of a
program is known as a constant variable. Any attempt to change
the value of a constant will result in an error message. A constant
in C++ can be of any of the basic data types, const qualifier can
be used to declare constant as shown below:
const float PI = 3.1415;
The above declaration means that PI is a constant of float types
having a value
3.1415.
Examples of valid constant declarations are:
const int RATE = 50;
const float PI = 3.1415;
const char CH = 'A';

Type Conversion

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The process in which one pre-defined type of expression is
converted into another type is called conversion. There are two
types of conversion in C++.
1. Implicit conversion
2. Explicit conversion

Implicit conversion
Data type can be mixed in the expression. For example
double a;
int b = 5;
float c = 8.5;
a = b * c;
When two operands of different type are encountered in the same
expression, the lower type variable is converted to the higher type
variable. The following shows the order of data types.
Order of data types
long double this the order of data types highest to lowest
double
float
long
int char
The int value of b is converted to type float and stored in a
temporary variable before being multiplied by the float variable c.
The result is then converted to double so that it can be assigned
to the double variable a.

Explicit conversion

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It is also called type casting. It temporarily changes a variable
data type from its declared data type to a new one. It may be
noted here that type casting can only be done on the right hand
side the assignment statement.
totalPay = static_cast<double>(salary) + bonus;
Initially variable salary is defined as float but for the above
calculation it is first converted to double data type and then added
to the variable bonus.

Input/Output (I/O)
The standard C++ library includes the header file iostream, which
can be used to feed new data into the computer or obtain output
on an output device such as: VDU, printer etc.
The following C++ stream objects can be used for the input/output
purpose.
cout console output
cin console input

cout object
cout is used to print message on screen in conjunction with the
insertion operator <<
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello world on screen
cout << 250; // prints number 250 on screen
cout << sum; // prints the content of variable sum on screen
To print constant strings of characters we must enclose them
between double quotes (").
If we want to print out a combination of variables and constants,
the insertion operator (<<) may be used more than once in a
single statement

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cout << "Area of rectangle is " << area << " square meter" ;
If we assume the area variable to contain the value 24 the output
of the previous statement would be:
Area of rectangle is 24 square meter

cin object
cin can be used to input a value entered by the user from the
keyboard. However, the extraction operator >> is also required to
get the typed value from cin and store it in the memory location.
Let us consider the following program segment:
int marks;
cin >> marks;
In the above segment, the user has defined a variable marks of
integer type in the first statement and in the second statement he
is trying to read a value from the keyboard.
// input output example
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int length;
int breadth;
int area;
cout << "Please enter length of rectangle: ";
cin >> length;
cout << "Please enter breadth of rectangle: ";
cin >> breadth;

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area = length * breadth;
cout << "Area of rectangle is " << area;
return 0;
}
Output :
Please enter length of rectangle: 6
Please enter breadth of rectangle: 4
Area of rectangle is 24
You can also use cin to request more than one input from the
user:
cin >> length >> breadth;
is equivalent to:
cin >> length; cin >> breadth;

cin and strings

We can use cin to get strings with the extraction operator (>>) as
we do with fundamental data type variables:
cin >> mystring;
However, cin extraction stops reading as soon as if finds any
blank space character, so in this case we will be able to get just
one word for each extraction.
for example if we want to get a sentence from the user, this
extraction operation would not be useful. In order to get entire
lines, we can use the function getline, which is the more
recommendable way to get user input with cin:
// cin and strings
#include<iostream>

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#include<string>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
string name;
cout << "Enter your name";
getline (cin, name);
cout << "Hello " << name << "!\n";
return 0;
}
Output
Enter your name: Waseem
Hello Waseem!

Flow of Control
Statements
Statements are the instructions given to the computer to perform
any kind of action. Action may be in the form of data movement,
decision making etc. Statements form the smallest executable
unit within a C++ program. Statements are always terminated by
semicolon. There are different type of statements,

A) Compound Statement
A compound statement is a grouping of statements in which each
individual statement ends with a semi-colon. The group of
statements is called block. Compound statements are enclosed
between the pair of braces ({}.). The opening brace ({) signifies
the beginning and closing brace (}) signifies the end of the block

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B) Null Statement
Writing only a semicolon indicates a null statement. Thus ';' is a
null or empty statement. This is quite useful when the syntax of
the language needs to specify a statement but the logic of the
program does not need any statement. This statement is
generally used in for and while looping statements

C) Conditional Statements
Sometimes the program needs to be executed depending upon a
particular condition. C++ provides the following statements for
implementing the selection control structure.
 if statement
 if else statement
 nested if statement
 switch statement
 Looping statement
if statement
syntax of the if statement
if (condition)
{statement(s);
}
if condition is true, statement is executed; otherwise it is skipped.
if else statement
syntax of the if - else statement
if (condition)
statement1;

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else
statement2;
If the condition is true, statement1 is executed. If the condition is
false, statement2 is executed. It should be kept in mind that
statement and statement2 can be single or compound statement.
If example If-else example
if (x == 100) if (x == 100)
cout << "x is 100"; cout << "x is 100";
else
cout << "x is not 100";
Nested if statement
The if block may be nested in another if or else block. This is
called nesting of if or else block. syntax of the nested if statement
if(condition 1)
{
if(condition 2)
{
statement(s);
}
}
if(condition 1)
statement 1;
else if (condition 2)
statement2;
else
statement3;
switch statement

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The if and if-else statements permit two way branching whereas
switch statement permits multiple branching. The syntax of switch
statement is:
switch (var / expression)
{
case constant1 : statement1;
break;
case constant2 : statement2;
break;
.
.
default: statement3;
break;
}

The execution of switch statement begins with the evaluation of

expression. If the value of expression matches with the constant
then the statements following this statement execute sequentially
till it executes break. The break statement transfers control to the
end of the switch statement. If the value of expression does not
match with any constant, the statement with default is executed.
Some important points about switch statement
 The expression of switch statement must be of type integer or
character type.
 The default case need not to be used at last case. It can be
placed at any place.
 The case values need not to be in specific order.

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Looping statement
It is also called a Repetitive control structure. Sometimes we
require a set of statements to be executed a number of times by
changing the value of one or more variables each time to obtain a
different result. This type of program execution is called looping.
C++ provides the following construct

 while loop
 do-while loop
 for loop
While loop
Syntax of while loop
while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}

If the condition is true, the loop body is executed and the

condition is re-evaluated. Hence, the loop body is executed
repeatedly as long as the condition remains true. As soon as the
condition becomes false, it comes out of the loop and goes to the
statement next to the ‘while’ loop.
do-while loop
Syntax of do-while loop
do {
statements;
}

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while (condition);
Note: That the loop body is always executed at least once. One
important difference between the while loop and the do-while loop
the relative ordering of the conditional test and loop body
execution. In the while loop, the loop repetition test is performed
before each execution the loop body; the loop body is not
executed at all if the initial test fail. In the do-while loop, the loop
termination test is Performed after each execution of the loop
body. hence, the loop body is always executed least once.
for loop
It is a count-controlled loop in the sense that the program knows
in advance how many times the loop is to be executed. syntax of
for loop
for (initialization; decision; increment/decrement)
{
statement(s);
}

in for loop three operations take place:

 Initialization of loop control variable
 Testing of loop control variable
 Update the loop control variable either by incrementing or
decrementing
Operation (i) is used to initialize the value. On the other hand,
operation (ii) is used to test whether the condition is true or false.
If the condition is true, the program executes the body of the loop
and then the value of loop control variable is updated. Again, it
checks the condition and so on. If the condition is false, it gets out
of the loop.

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Jump Statements
The jump statements unconditionally transfer program control
within a function.
 goto statement
 break statement
 continue statement
The goto statement
goto allows to make jump to another point in the program.
goto pqr;
pqr: pqr is known as label. It is a user defined identifier. After the
execution of goto statement, the control transfers to the line after
label pqr.
The break statement
The break statement, when executed in a switch structure,
provides an immediate exit from the switch structure. Similarly,
you can use the break statement in any of the loop. When the
break statement executes in a loop, it immediately exits from the
loop.
The continue statement
The continue statement is used in loops and causes a program to
skip the rest of the body of the loop.
while (condition)
{
Statement 1;
If (condition)
continue;
statement;

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}
The continue statement skips rest of the loop body and starts a
new iteration.
The exit ( ) function
The execution of a program can be stopped at any point with exit
( ) and a status code can be informed to the calling program. The
general format is exit (code);
where code is an integer value. The code has a value 0 for
correct execution. The value of the code varies depending upon
the operating system

__________(Piazza Projects Practice)__________

A) BMI CALCULATOR:

//BMI Calculator code

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
double weightInKG = 67;
double heightInMeters {2};
double bmi = 0;

cout << "Please enter your weight in Kilograms!" << endl;

cin >> weightInKG;
cout << "Please enter your height in meters!" << endl;
cin >> heightInMeters;

if(weightInKG <= 0 || heightInMeters <=0){

cout << "Invalid value for height or weight\n";
} else {

bmi = weightInKG/(heightInMeters*heightInMeters);

Programming fundamental Prepared by: Waseem

cout << "Your BMI is: " << bmi<< endl;

if(bmi < 18){

cout << "You are underweight!\n";
} else if(bmi >= 18 && bmi < 24){
cout << "You are healthy\n";
} else if(bmi >= 24 && bmi <= 29){
cout << "You are overweight!\n";
} else {
cout << "You are obese!" << endl;
}
}
return 0;
}

B)Gradebook-code if-else statement:

//GradeBook Code - if else statement

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int marks = 0;
cout << "Please enter your marks!" << endl;
cin >> marks;

if(marks < 0 && marks > 100){

cout << "Marks out of range!";}
else if(marks >= 90){
cout << "Your grade is A\n";
}else if( marks >= 80){
cout << "Your grade is B\n";
} else if(marks >= 70){
cout << "Your grade is C\n";
} else if(marks >= 60){
cout << "Your grade is D\n";
}
else {
cout << "Your grade is F\n";
}

// else{

Programming fundamental Prepared by: Waseem

// cout << "Marks are out of range!\n";
return 0;
}

C) Average grade counter-controlled while loop- code:

//average grade counter-controlled while loop- code

//this program calculates the average marks for ten students

//uses while loop, counter controlled
//integer values
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int marks;
int total;
int average = 0;
int counter = 1;
while(counter <= 10){
cout << "Enter grade: " ;
cin >> marks; //total = total + marks;
total += marks;
counter++;
}
average = total/10;
cout << "\nTotal marks of 10 students: " << total << endl;
cout << "Average marks of 10 students:" <<average << endl;
return 0;
}

D)Average grade sentinel controlled while loop:

// this program calculates the average marks of an arbitrary number of students
// sentinel controlled repetition
// type casting
#include <iomanip>
//parameterized stream manipulators
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int marks;

Programming fundamental Prepared by: Waseem

int total;
double average = 0;
int counter = 0;
cout << "Enter marks or -1 to quit: ";
cin >> marks; while(marks != -1)
{
//total = total + marks;
total += marks;
counter = counter + 1;
cout << "Enter marks or -1 to quit: ";
cin >> marks;
}
if(counter != 0)
{ average = static_cast <double> (total)/counter;
//type conversion from int to double
cout << "Total of all " << counter << " students is " << total << endl;
cout << "Class average is " << setprecision (2) << fixed << average << endl;
} else
{ cout << "No grades were entered!" << endl;
} return 0;
}

Programming fundamental Prepared by: Waseem