Friday, September 14, 2012

8:23 AM

The D-Jetronic Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

Author: Paul B. Anders
Date: 4/12/2010
Version: 3.1
NOTE: This is a fairly technical document that has more information than many readers are
looking for. If you would just like to understand a bit more about how the ECU works and some
answers to the more common questions and problems, I'd suggest reading the first three
sections, then moving on to the Common Questions and Answers section.
Index
• Introduction
• ECU Operation Overview
• ECU Photographs
• ECU Schematics
• ECU Block Diagram
• ECU Circuit Block Analysis
○ Timing Logic (TL)
○ Pressure-Sensing Loop (PL)
○ Over-run Shut-off (OS)
○ Injection Logic (IL)
○ Switching Logic (SL)
○ Injector Drivers (D1 & D2)
○ Acceleration Enrichment (AE)
○ Fuel Pump Control (FPC)
○ Cylinder Temperature Compensation (CTC)
○ Engine Speed Sensor (ES)
○ Engine Speed Correction (SC)
○ Pulse Width Multiplier (PWM)
○ Idle-Cold Mixture Compensation (ICM)
○ Idle Mixture (IM)
• ECU Waveforms
• Common Questions and Answers
• Acknowledgements

• Document Changes by Version

• References
Introduction
The D-Jetronic Electronic Control Unit (ECU) controls most aspects of the fuel injection system.
Also known as a "brain" or a "computer", it's a combination of digital circuits, analog sensor
interfaces, and control circuits. Given that the first D-Jetronic equipped cars date from the mid-
to-late 1960's, the technology of the ECU is primitive in comparison to today - all discrete
components and simple printed circuit board technology. Regardless, the engineers at Bosch
did a good job, and the ECU accurately maintains proper mixture control for many different
engine operation modes.
The ECU would continue to remain a mystery to owners if it weren't for the efforts of Frank
Kerfoot, a former Bell Labs engineer. Frank was an SCCA racer in the 1970's who also had a
914. He took it upon himself to reverse-engineer a schematic of the ECU for analysis and tuning
purposes. Frank used a 039 906 021 A ECU, which was used on the 1975-1976 2.0L cars. This
ECU is similar to all D-Jetronic ECU's.
This document is an attempt to analyze the ECU using Frank's drawings and information I have
obtained by disassembling several ECU's. Frank has graciously agreed to help answer
questions I've posed to him and I've incorporated his answers into the analysis below. While I'm
an electrical engineer, I'm pathetic at circuit analysis, so I've also had to draw upon my 914 and
EE friends to help me muddle through. If I don't understand how a circuit in the ECU works, I'll
say so below and hopefully will get information on it for future versions of this document.
A review of my web page on the fundamentals of the D-Jetronic injection system may be helpful

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A review of my web page on the fundamentals of the D-Jetronic injection system may be helpful
before proceeding on to the description of the ECU.
Back to index
ECU Operation Overview
The ECU controls the timing and duration of voltage pulses to the injectors, and the operation of
the fuel pump relay (FPR). The operation of the cold start valve (CSV) is independently
controlled by the thermo- or thermo-time switch (TS), not the ECU. The ECU determines the
timing and duration of the injection pulses by processing signals from the ignition start switch
(Start), trigger contacts (TC) , manifold pressure sensor (MPS), temperature sensors (TS1 - air
temp, and TS2 - cylinder head temp), and throttle position switch (TPS w/ idle switch IS). The
ECU controls the operation of the FPR by processing signals from Start and the TC.
The timing of injection pulses is determined by signals from the TC. In 4-cylinder
implementations of D-Jetronic, the injectors are paired and pulsed together - this is called
"group injection". Determination of the injector pulse duration (Ti) is fairly complex. Without
going into fuel injection theory in detail, there is a basic injection pulse duration (Tb) for a
specific engine load to achieve a target air/fuel ratio. In the D-Jetronic system, engine load is
determined by measuring the intake manifold pressure with the MPS. Ti is also affected by
specific operating conditions - cold start, engine speed, idle, part-load, full-load, cold/warm/hot
engine, acceleration, and air temperature. These conditions are sensed by inputs to the ECU
from Start, TS1 and TS2, TC, TPS, and the MPS. The ECU adds additional pulses (during
acceleration) and/or modifies the value of Tb for these conditions, resulting in the final injection
pulse of Ti. The synchronized pulse of duration Ti is gated to the appropriate paired injector
drivers, which are designed to provide the proper drive characteristics to control the injectors.
For over-run conditions (closed throttle and coasting), a special circuit in some versions of
the ECU shuts off the injection pulses when the engine speed is above a threshold level.
The ECU supplies ground to the FPR to run the fuel pump under three conditions. First, the fuel
pump is run for 1.5 seconds after the key is turned to the "on" position and the ECU is powered-
up. This pressurizes the fuel system in preparation for starting, but prevents the fuel pump from
continuing to pump if the key is left in this position. This reduces fire hazards from leaking, and
also wear and possible damage to the fuel pump. A check valve in the fuel pump prevents the
system pressure from being relieved through the return circuit after the pump has pressurized
the system, preventing fuel vapor formation and improving hot starting. When the key is turned
to the "start" position, a signal to the ECU from the ignition switch turns the fuel pump back on
while cranking. Lastly, if the engine starts, and the engine speed is greater than 100 rpm, the
ECU will keep the fuel pump running after the key is released to the "on" position. If the engine
does not start after cranking, the fuel pump stops when the key is returned to the "on" position.
If the engine stops running (stalls) while the key is in the "on" position, the fuel pump also stops.
This reduces fire hazards in the case of an accident where the fuel system might be damaged.
Back to index
ECU Photographs
Main and Daughter Boards (0 280 000 037 ECU)

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Main Board - This board has all the circuits on sheets 1 and 2 of the schematics below. D502 is
the large diode on the heat sink on the right. The two germanium (AUY21) power transistors for
the injector driver stage are also on the heat sink on the right. The power resistors are in the
heat sink pack on the top (and are bonded to the ECU case for thermal transfer). According to
Bosch, this main board is essentially the same for all D-Jetronic applications. Note the relatively
empty area in the middle of the upper half of the board. On earlier ECU's (e.g. 0 280 000 015),
this area was for the over-run shut-off circuit, which was removed on the 0 280 000 037, 0 280
000 043, and 0 280 000 044 ECU's. A more advanced version of the circuit returned on the 0
280 000 052 ECU's, used on the '75-'76 2.0L motors.

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280 000 052 ECU's, used on the '75-'76 2.0L motors.

Daughter Board - This board has all of the circuits on sheet 3 of the schematics below. The 3-
wire cable in the lower left is for the idle mixture adjustment potentiometer. Early ECU's (e.g. 0
280 000 015) lacked this control and used a different, smaller board design. According to
Bosch, circuits on the daughter board are specific for each engine application. See the list of
circuits on sheet 3 below for more information.

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circuits on sheet 3 below for more information.

Below is a photo of three ECU's for comparison. From the left to the right: 0 280 000 015, 0 280
000 037, and 0 280 000 052.

Back to index
ECU Schematics
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ECU Schematics
• Sheet 1: Timing Logic (TL), Pressure-Sensing Loop (PL), Over-Run Shutoff (OS), Injection
Logic (IL), Switching Logic (SL), and Output Drivers (D1 & D2)
• Sheet 2: Acceleration Enrichment (AE), Fuel Pump Control (FPC), and Cylinder
Temperature Compensation (CTC)
• Sheet 3: Engine Speed Sensor (ES), Engine Speed Compensation (SC), Pulse Width
Multiplier (PWM), Idle Mixture Adjustment (IM), and Idle-Cold Mixture Compensation (ICM)
Back to index
ECU Block Diagram
A block diagram of the ECU can be found on page 0.1 - 1/8 of the Porsche 914 Factory
Workshop Manual vol. 2, "Fuel System". While instructive, it does not accurately reflect the
organization and components of the ECU. The diagram below is in the same spirit as the factory
diagram, but was derived from review of the ECU schematics:

Below is a short description of each ECU block:

• Engine speed sensor / Engine speed correction (ES & EC) - The ES stage determines
engine speed using pulse data from the PL. The EC stage corrects the mixture for engine
speed (volumetric efficiency), using the output of the ES.
• Fuel pump control (FPC) - Controls the FPR using inputs from Start and the ES.
• Pressure-sensing loop (PL) - Creates the basic injection pulse using inputs from the
TS1, MPS, IM, and SC. The TL supplies the injection timing signal for injection pulse
initiation and synchronization.
• Idle mixture adjustment (IM) - Adjusts the mixture at idle using inputs from the IS and IA.
The IA is not present on early ECU's.
• Idle-cold mixture compensation (ICM) - Adjusts the mixture for cold start, and provides
partial idle mixture control using inputs from Start and IS.
• Over-run shutoff (OS) - Shuts off injection on overrun, using inputs from the PL and IS.
Not present on all ECU's.
• Pulse width multiplier (PWM) - Delays and stretches the basic injection pulse duration
using inputs from the ES, FC, AE, and CTC.

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using inputs from the ES, FC, AE, and CTC.
• Cylinder temperature compensation (CTC) - Adjusts the mixture for cylinder head
temperature using inputs from TS2 and ICM.
• Injection logic (IL) - Combines inputs from the FC, PWM, and AE to create the final
injection pulse.
• Acceleration enrichment (AE) - Provides immediate and delayed acceleration
enrichment using input from the TPS.
• Switching logic (SL) - Routes the final injection pulse to the correct injector group using
inputs from the IL and TL.
• Timing logic (TL) - Creates group injection gate pulses and injection timing signal using
input from the TC.
• Output driver stages (D1, D2) - Converts the final injection pulse for each injection group
to the proper level to drive the injectors I1-4.
Back to index
ECU Circuit Block Analysis
Timing Logic (TL) - Sheet 1
The TL controls which injector group is active, and signals the beginning of each injection cycle
to the PL. The two switches in the TC are de-bounced and connected to the inputs of a flip-flop,
creating square wave outputs from T251 and T252 that are 180 degrees out-of-phase. Each
square wave output goes to an edge detector and the input NOR gate of the injector drivers
(IL).
The edge detector is a differentiator circuit with a normal output of about +2 V. When a leading
edge of the input square wave is detected, the differentiator generates a short negative-going
pulse of about -12V. Pulses from both edge detectors are combined and are sent to the
pressure-sensing loop circuit (PL). Each pulse is the starting signal for an injection pulse.
The traces in the oscilloscope photo below are (from top to bottom):
1. Basic injection pulse output of the PL circuit (see below) - ground is 1 div below the top
2. One of the TC inputs to the TL - ground is 3 div below the top - actual V/div is 5 V/div,
not 50 V/div as indicated
3. The other TC input to the TL - ground is 5 div below the top
4. TL differentiator output - ground is 6 div below the top

Pressure-Sensing Loop (PL) - Sheet 1

The PL creates a synchronized basic injection pulse, with the duration primarily controlled by
the MPS. The heart of this circuit is the transistor pair T201 and T202. The basic injection pulse

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the MPS. The heart of this circuit is the transistor pair T201 and T202. The basic injection pulse
appears at the collector output of T202.
T201 is normally on, turning T202 off. With T202 off, its collector output is +12V. The negative-
going pulses from the TL edge detectors turn T201 off, turning T202 on, which drives its
collector output to zero volts. This causes a current to flow through L1 and the diode-resistor
network (R401, R402 {if present}, R403, R405, D401, and TC1), inducing a negative voltage
across L2. The time constant of the current decay is proportional to L1 * Re, where Re is the
effective resistance value of the diode-resistor network. Since the inductances of L1 and L2 are
dependent on the MPS armature position, the induced negative voltage on L2 is dependent on
the manifold pressure (see my MPS document for a description of how the MPS works).
The negative voltage across L2 holds T201 off (keeps it turned off) through D202. As the current
through L2 decays, the induced negative voltage decays, eventually to the point (starting at +
0.7V) where T201 turns back on, turning T202 off, and completing the basic injection pulse. Bias
voltage supplied from the SC and IM affects the basic injection pulse duration by shifting the
voltage decay curve across L2. The more negative the bias voltage from the SC and IM, the
longer the hold-off period and the longer the duration of the basic injection pulse.
"Luau_BoB" has graciously provided the following diagrams to better understand the effect of
the SC and IM bias voltage on the pulse duration:

The traces in the oscilloscope photo below are (from top to bottom):
1. Basic injection pulse output of the PL - ground is 1 div down from the top
2. MPS secondary waveform - ground is 4 div down from the top
3. TL trigger waveform - ground is 6 div down from the top

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3. TL trigger waveform - ground is 6 div down from the top

Note that since the resistance of TS1 is a component of Re, the time constant value is a
function of the intake air temperature. From reading the resistors on a scrap ECU, I found the
following resistance values: R401 = 1.5 K ohms, R403 = 510 ohms, and R405 = 1.5 K ohms.
Ignoring the diode drop of D401, and using the nominal value of TS1 at 68 deg. F of 300 ohms, I
calculate that Re = 395 ohms. If TS1 is open (disconnected), then Re = 436 ohms, about a 10%
increase. If TS1 is shorted, Re = 381 ohms. Higher values of Re increase the time constant and
richen the mixture. A common mechanic's trick is to disconnect the TS1 sensor on an older
motor, increasing the injection pulse time by about 10% for a richer mixture. Older motors tend
to have vacuum leaks and lower intake manifold vacuum (due to wear) than a new motor, so
this trick often helps performance.
Over-run Shutoff (OS) - Sheet 1
The OS circuit prevents injection during over-run to reduce emissions. When the throttle is fully
closed, the idle switch is activated, grounding terminal "B" in the over-run shutoff circuit. This
ground is one of the inputs to the base of T807, along with the output of a low-pass filter circuit
that uses the basic injection pulse from the PL as an input. When the engine speed is above a
threshold level (>2000 rpm?) and the throttle is fully closed, T807 is turned off, forcing T301 on,
which inhibits injection. When the engine speed drops below the threshold, or if the throttle is
opened, T807 is turned on, and the state of T301 is now determined by the basic injection
pulse.
Note that this circuit is not present on all 914 ECU's. Below is an incomplete list of those ECU's
with and without the OS circuit:
OS Circuit Present: 0 280 000 015, 0 280 000 052
OS Circuit Missing: 0 280 000 037, 0 280 000 043, 0 280 000 044
Injection Logic (IL) - Sheet 1
The IL combines multiple injection signals to create the final injection pulse. The T507 NOR
gate enables injection when it receives a high signal from either inverter T301 (when the basic
injection pulse from the pressure sensing loop goes low), the AE pulse output, or from the
inverted output of the PWM.
The traces in the oscilloscope photo below are (starting from the top):
1. Basic injection pulse from the PL - ground is 1 div down from the top
2. Shaped and inverted pulse from the PL, from point 11 on first sheet of the schematic -
ground is 3 div down from the top
3. Output from the PWM measured at collector of T304 - ground is 5 div down from the top
4. Output from the IL, measured at collector of T507 - ground is 7 div down from the top

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4. Output from the IL, measured at collector of T507 - ground is 7 div down from the top

Switching Logic (SL) - Sheet 1

The SL routes the final injection pulse to the appropriate injector group. The SL uses two NOR
gates that each take the final injection pulse from the IL as one input. The other input of each
NOR gate is from the two TL flip-flop outputs, which are square waves that are 180 degrees out-
of-phase. When both the flip-flop output and the output of the IL are low, D1 or D2 are activated
and the injectors are opened for the duration of the injection pulse. Because the inputs to the
NOR gates are 180 degrees out-of-phase, only one injector group can fire for each injection
pulse from T507.
Output Drivers (D1 & D2) - Sheet 1
D1 & D2 provide the appropriate current and voltage to drive the inductive load of the fuel
injectors. Each driver uses two power transistors and load resistors to provide the proper
voltage output to the injectors. Accounting for the 0.7 V drop across D502, and assuming a
system voltage of 13.6 V when the car is running, 12.9 V is present at the emitters of the final
driver transistors. Stefan von Allmen pointed out to me that these driver transistors are
germanium devices, not silicon. Therefore, when the driver transistor turns on, there is an
additional 0.2 V drop across the junction, so the effective supply voltage to the injectors is 12.7
V through a 6 ohm load resistor (Rload, a 5 W ceramic power resistor, bonded to the case of the
ECU to act as a heat sink).
To understand the voltage waveform that appears across the injector, the injector is modeled as
a series combination of inductance (Linj) and resistance (Rinj). Note that this is an approximate
model only, because the injector is actually an electromechanical device, a solenoid. The
characteristics of a solenoid are different than a simple inductor due to the electromechanical
interaction of the moving armature and the coil inductance. Modeling the injector as a simple
inductor, however, will be sufficient to describe the basic behavior.
The nominal specification value of Rinj is 2.4 ohms. Measurements I've taken on one of my
injectors show Linj to be 3.77 mH and Rinj 2.69 ohms. When the driver transistor turns on and
current begins to flow through the injector, a magnetic field begins to build in the coil and starts
to pull the injector open. Due to the energy required to develop the magnetic field, the inductive
reactance (XL - the effective resistance of the inductor to a time-varying signal, measured in
ohms) is initially very large. Because XL is initially the largest resistance in the series path of
circuit elements (Rload, Rinj, and XLinj), almost all of the voltage is dropped across the injector -
that's why right after the injector turns on you see +12.7 V across it.
The rate the magnetic field builds is governed by the time constant, t = Linj / R, where R = Rinj.
Therefore, t = 0.00377 / 2.69 = 1.40 msec. As the field builds, XL decreases and less voltage is
dropped across the injector - that's why the voltage in the waveform below decays from the

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dropped across the injector - that's why the voltage in the waveform below decays from the
peak of +12.7 V. It takes about 2.5 * t for the decay to be complete, about 3.5 msec. Note that
this means that for injection pulses shorter than this duration, the magnetic field is still decaying
when the injector is turned off. Once the magnetic field is at steady-state, the voltage drop
across the inductor is due solely to I * Rinj, where I is the steady-state current. If you use the
nominal spec value of R = 2.4 ohms and an assumed battery voltage of +12 V, you would get a
sustained voltage drop across the injector of 3 V. When the car is running, the actual system
voltage is more like 13.6 V. Accounting for the higher measured injector resistance over the
specification value and using the system voltage of 13. 6 V, the actual measured sustained
voltage is 4 to 5 V. Note that the calculated drive voltage corresponds exactly with data given for
the flow rates of the injectors, which states that the tests were performed at 3 V (data courtesy
of Roland Kunz).
At the end of the injection period, the driver transistor turns off, which rapidly changes the
current drive to the injector to zero. The rapid collapse of the magnetic field in the coil now has
an opposite effect - it induces a high negative voltage across the inductor. The mathematical
expression of this voltage is VL = Linj * dI/dt , where dI/dt is the time derivative of current
through the inductor. The net effect is that you get a large negative spike of voltage after the
injector turns off. I have measured a peak of -27 V, decaying in about 1 msec to zero volts. The
inductive voltage spike (and resultant current) is limited by the series combination of a 6.8 mF
capacitor and load resistor in parallel with the injector. Note that since D-Jetronic is a grouped
injection system, a paired set of injectors experience all of the events described above
simultaneously. When the injectors turn off, the inductive voltage spike of both injectors is
limited by the 6.8 mF capacitor and load resistor.
Note that this analysis ignores the high impedance path from the final driver transistor emitters
through R510 (820 ohms) and D501, which is negligible in comparison with the low-impedance
path through the injectors.
Below is a photograph of an injector waveform I measured on my car, ground is 2 divisions
down from the top:

Below is a pSpice schematic I used to simulate the behavior of this circuit, with actual values I
measured on each component from a 0 280 000 037 ECU that I have disassembled, and the
injector values from one of the injectors in my car. All parameters were measured with a
Wavetek LCR55 component analyzer. This analysis assumes a silicon driver transistor, with a
0.7V junction voltage, instead of the actual germanium device, which has a 0.2 V junction
voltage, which would bring Vsupply to about 12.7 V. The effect of this difference is a very slight
increase in the negative swing of voltage after the injector closes.

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increase in the negative swing of voltage after the injector closes.

Below are the results of the simulation, measuring the voltage at the node indicated on the
schematic. This node is the equivalent of measuring the voltage waveform at the injector.

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The differences between the simulation and the measured waveform are attributable to the
approximation of the injector solenoid by a simple inductor. Note that all of the basic
characteristics of the waveform are the same as the measured waveform. The oscillations at the
close of the injection cycle are due to the LCR oscillator circuit not being critically damped. This
ringing is not present in the actual waveform as the solenoid's characteristics apparently are so
as to provide additional damping. Note also that the initial decay starting at 0 s is more rapid
than in the actual waveform due to the neglect of the mechanical work done by the solenoid.
Lastly, note the good correlation between the maximum extent of the negative induced voltage
when the injector closes with the actual waveform value of about -27 V.
Acceleration Enrichment (AE) - Sheet 2
The AE circuit provides immediate and delayed enrichment when the throttle is opened for
acceleration. Throttle opening is signaled by the TPS through alternating ground signals from
two inter-digitated traces that are each connected to the inputs of a flip-flop (see sheet 2 of the
schematic for a drawing of the switch details). A drag switch in the TPS prevents these signals
from being sent when the throttle is closing. The outputs of the flip-flop are sent to two edge
detectors, whose outputs are combined and sent to pulse shaping and narrowing circuits. The
pulse shaper provides immediate injection pulses to the IL. The width of these pulses is
independent of engine speed and load, and from Kerfoot's schematic, they are about 1.5 ms in
duration. An additional acceleration enrichment effect is created by sending the inverted,
shaped, and narrowed pulses to the mixture enrichment circuit. The negative-going pulses
pump up the voltage on capacitor C901, controlling and turning on T901, which acts as a
current source. This current is sent to the the PWM, where it helps charge up the 0.68 F
capacitor that defines the raw delayed pulse waveform for the mixture adjustment. After the
pulses stop, C901 slowly discharges over about 2 to 3 seconds, and the acceleration
enrichment effect goes away.
The traces in the oscilloscope photo below are (starting from the top down):
1. Basic injection pulse from the PL - ground is 1 div down from the top

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1. Basic injection pulse from the PL - ground is 1 div down from the top
2. Shaped and inverted pulse from the PL, from point 11 on first sheet of the schematic -
ground is 3 div down from the top
3. Output from the PWM measured at collector of T304 - ground is 5 div down from the top
4. Output from the AE pulse shaper circuit, measured at R522 - ground is 7 div down from
the top
The bottom half of the screen is in storage mode. I switched on the accelerator pulses from the
TPS, then turned it off. When on, the output from the PWM (trace 3) extended by about 1.0 ms.
When I turned the TPS pulses off, trace 3 relaxed back to the original value, over a period of
about 2 seconds and smearing the trace, demonstrating the "delayed" acceleration effect. Trace
4 shows the 1.5 ms pulses from the AE that are being simulated by the EFI 1401 tester. To
avoid pulse width measurement jitter, the pulses are timed to occur during the basic injection
pulse, thereby not contributing to the injection duration. However, in actual operation, these
pulses occur asynchronously and do contribute to the injected quantity during acceleration.

Fuel Pump Control (FPC) - Sheet 2

The FPC operates the FPR during starting and normal running. The FPR is controlled by T552,
which when on, provides ground to the FPR. When the key is turned to the "on" position, +12V
is supplied to the ECU, and the FPR is activated for 1.5 seconds. At power-on, T101 is on and
T102 is off because C101 has not charged to 1.4 V yet. While T102 is off C102 is charging and
T103 is On. Eventually C101 charges and turns T102 on which pulses T103 to off via the
discharge of C102. The pulse charges C551, turning the FPR on, then C551 discharges (taking
about 1.5 sec), turning the FPR off. Turning the key to the "start" position sends the Start signal
to the base of T552, activating the FPR. If the car starts, and the engine speed is greater than
100 rpm, pulses from the ES pump up capacitor C551, turning T551 and T552 on, activating the
FPR . If the engine speed drops below 100 rpm, there is insufficient pumping to keep the
voltage on C551 high enough to keep T551 on, shutting off the FPR.
Cylinder Temperature Compensation (CTC) - Sheet 2
The CTC adjusts the mixture for the engine temperature. The operation of the circuit is
controlled by T451, which is operated in the linear region. T451 is part of a resistor-diode
voltage divider circuit. The resistance across T451 in this circuit is controlled by the base drive.
Ignoring start and idle conditions (CTC effects under these conditions are covered in ICM
section), the drive is defined by the voltage divider of TS2 and R464 (assuming near zero base
current). When the engine is cold, TS2 is about 2300 ohms, and the base voltage is about 7.7
V, driving T451 towards saturation, decreasing the voltage drop across the transistor. I did not
do the circuit analysis of the resistor-diode voltage divider circuit, but Frank Kerfoot notes that

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do the circuit analysis of the resistor-diode voltage divider circuit, but Frank Kerfoot notes that
the effect of this decreased voltage drop across T451 is to drive the output of the CTC to a
higher voltage, increasing the multiplication effect in the PWM. Similarly, when the engine is hot,
TS2 is only about 50 ohms, resulting in a base voltage of only 0.4 V, turning T451 nearly off,
and increasing the voltage drop across the transistor. This drives the output of the CTC lower,
decreasing the multiplication effect in the PWM.
What happens to the CTC output if TS2 is open or shorted? If TS2 is open, the base of T451 is
effectively at +12V, driving T451 into saturation. This causes the output of the CTC to go to a
maximum, which results in a very rich mixture, preventing the car from running after starting. If
TS2 is shorted, the base of T451 is effectively grounded, and T451 is fully off. Under cold
engine conditions, this results in a very lean mixture, lean enough to prevent the engine from
running. For a hot engine, the effect is not as significant, and the engine may run, but will be
lean.
I simulated the CTC with pSpice, using measured component values from a 0 280 000 037 and
a 0 280 000 052 ECU that I have disassembled. T451 was simulated using a standard 2N2222
npn transistor model. The 037 and 052 component values are significantly different for some
resistors in the CTC, and the 037 lacks the 270 ohm R471 present in the 052. The output
voltage was modeled as a function of TS2 resistance, over a range for a 0 280 130 012 sensor
that corresponds to a temperature span from 39 F to well above operating temperature. Results
are shown below:

These results are very interesting. First, they point out that once TS2 drops below about 300
ohms on Vout for both the 037 and 052 ECU's, any subsequent decrease in resistance has little
to no effect on Vout. They also show that there are significant differences in the warm-up
characteristics of the two ECU's. The 052 is leaner during warm-up, but essentially the same
once fully warmed-up. I do not have an 043 or 044 ECU that is disassembled to compare these
results to, and the 015 ECU that I have has a completely different CTC circuit that I have yet to
analyze.
In early 2010, I used my EFI bench setup to verify the pSpice simulation results. The correlation
was excellent, the cut-off resistance of TS2 was around 330 to 350 ohms for the 037, 043/044,
and 052 ECU's. I also verified that this cut-off behavior was independent of engine load and
speed.
Below I've added traces that show the effect of the idle switch in the 052 ECU and the effect of
adding ballast resistance to the 017 TS2 sensor with the 037 ECU.

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adding ballast resistance to the 017 TS2 sensor with the 037 ECU.

The '73 2.0L motor used a different temperature sensor with a series 270 ohm ballast resistor.
Note that if you compare values at equal temperatures instead of equal resistance (see the faint
dashed lines on the graph), the values of Vout are nearly the same as for the case of the 052
ECU with the 0 280 130 012 temperature sensor. This is how Porsche was able to use the 037
ECU, which was intended for the 1.7L motor, with the 2.0L motor and get the proper warm-up
characteristic. Below is a small table quantifying the comparison:
Temperature 052 ECU w/012 TS2 037 ECU w/017 TS2 % difference
39 F 8.348 V 8.039 V -3.7%
61 F 6.945 V 6.959 V 0.2%
210 F 4.090 V 4.249 V +3.9%
The 052 ECU has a circuit that switches in an additional 270 ohm ballast resistance when the
idle switch is on. This provides additional enrichment when warming up at idle as compared to
the '73 2.0L setup. I do not know if the '74 2.0L setup has this switchable idle ballast resistance.
Note that all of the variation displayed above demonstrates why it is so important to only set the
CO at idle when the motor is fully warmed-up and is operating in the flat portion of the Vout
curve. Otherwise, variations due to TS2 resistance as a function of head temperature will likely
result in the wrong final mixture.
These data also have application for using ballast resistance for tuning. It has been a common
practice to add ballast resistance to the TS2 sensor to increase the richness of the mixture to
accommodate larger displacement and other modifications. The problem that the data above
point out is that if you do this when the motor is fully warmed-up, the amount of ballast you need
to add will need to be such that the combined resistance of the ballast and the TS2 sensor
exceeds about 300 ohms. Since TS2 drops to as little as 50 ohms when the motor is hot (head
temps of 300 F, for example), this means that the ballast will be more than 250 ohms. But
because TS2 resistance increases rapidly as the engine temperature decreases, the
proportional effect on Vout decreases. This means that for cold and cold-cold start conditions,
the mixture will not be rich enough for a large-displacement motor for good characteristics. As a
result, using ballast resistance to increase the overall mixture will likely lead to drivability
problems.
Using ballast resistance to improve warm-up characteristics, however, has some good potential.

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Using ballast resistance to improve warm-up characteristics, however, has some good potential.
If you are experiencing problems with a lean mixture during warm-up, a modest amount of
ballast resistance (e.g. 50 ohms) will produce a richer mixture, but will not affect the mixture
when the motor is fully warmed up. This permits, within a range, the independent adjustment of
warm-up mixture, idle mixture, and hot mixture. An alternative approach to improving the warm-
up by enriching the mixture is to use a steel spacer or standoff between TS2 and the head. This
was the solution that VW implemented on the 2.0L Bus engine. The idea is that the thermal
response of the sensor with regard to head temperature changes is delayed due to the steel
standoff, leading to a richer mixture. Once fully warmed up, the spacer approaches the head
temperature, and also damps out fluctuations due to rapid swings in head temperature. Such
spacers are NLA and have to be fabricated (see the Q&A section below for details). I am using
a spacer on my 2.0L engine, it completely eliminated problems I had with a lean start-up mixture
and enabled me to remove any ballast resistance from the TS2 circuit.
Note also that using head temperature to sense the cylinder combustion chamber temperature
of an air-cooled motor has significant drawbacks. The head is made of aluminum, the cylinder is
made of cast iron, which retains heat for much longer than aluminum. Additionally, head
temperature varies widely due to its dependency on load. The net result is that mixture
correction as determined by head temperature can lead to lean or rich mixtures, depending on
the situation. For example, if an air-cooled engine is warmed up, then shut down for 15-20
minutes, the head cools dramatically while the cylinder remains quite hot, causing the ECU to
provide a very rich mixture on re-starting. This is a classic problem with 2.0L 914 engines.
The graph below demonstrates the effect of small and large amounts of ballast resistance on
the characteristics. Regions corresponding to the various temperature conditions are displayed.

Engine Speed Sensor (ES) - Sheet 3

The ES creates an engine speed signal used by the FPC and the SC. The input to the ES is the
basic injection pulse from the PL. T101 and associated circuitry act as an edge detector for the
trailing edge of the injection pulse. The output of the edge detector is shaped by T102 into a 0.5
ms pulse (this point is also coupled to the PWM, apparently for voltage clamping) and to T103,
where the output is stretched and inverted to form the engine speed signal. This signal is used
by the FPC to detect if the engine is running faster than 100 rpm.
Engine Speed Correction (SC) - Sheet 3

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Engine Speed Correction (SC) - Sheet 3
The ES output is fed to the SC circuit. The function of this circuit is to correct the mixture for the
volumetric efficiency (Ve) curve of the engine. "Luau_BoB" saw my pitiful first draft on this
section and took it upon himself to provide the excellent analysis I have paraphrased here, with
modified versions of his diagrams to match the nomenclature of this document.
Volumetric efficiency (Ve) is the ratio of the actual volume of air taken in by a cylinder divided by
the cylinder volume. The maximum Ve is mostly determined by the design of the intake system
(2 vs. 4 valve, valve sizes, intake runner design, throttle body design, air filter, etc.), and the
engine speed at which the maximum Ve occurs is mostly determined by valve timing and by
intake runner design. Typical max Ve for an engine with a overhead 2-valve configuration is
about 75 to 80%. A generalized Ve curve for an engine is shown below:

Here are two good basic references on Ve:

http://www.tpub.com/engine1/en1-105.htm
http://www.ponycarburetors.com/calculating_cfm.htm
A good reference that shows how to measure the Ve of an engine is:
http://eric.virginia.com/install_university/installu_articles/volumetric_efficiency/ve_computation_
9.012000.htm
To maintain a constant air/fuel ratio, the fuel quantity must take into account the Ve at a specific
engine speed. The SC circuit is used to realize this effect.
The following diagrams are used to describe the SC operation:

In this simplified model, the SC is replaced by a generalized waveform generator (Wf), and the
PL is represented by T201, T202, and the MPS. As the Wf bias voltage changes, the threshold
for turn-on of T201 changes, which in turn, changes the basic injection pulse duration. See the
diagram above in the PL analysis to see how this works.
The effect of the Wf bias voltage on the basic injection pulse generated by T202 is shown
below:

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In the example above, the actual Wf output is modeled by a hypothetical linear voltage decay,
V(t) = -k * t + b , where k is the slope and b is the offset voltage. Note that the value of V(P)
determines the turn-on voltage for T201, which determines the basic injection pulse duration. In
the case of this hypothetical Wf, then as engine speed increases, P decreases, and V(P)
increases. As shown in the diagram above, as V(P) increases, T becomes shorter.
A model of the waveform generators in the SC of the 0 280 000 052 ECU is shown below:

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A model of the waveform generators in the SC of the 0 280 000 052 ECU is shown below:

The output of each of the Wfm generators are "OR'ed" together, which results in an output
signal that is the maximum voltage of all of the waveforms at a given time. Why four Wfm
generators? The reasons will become in a moment. The sketch below is a composite of all of
the Wfm generators "OR'ed" together, to show how each contributes to the complete waveform:

From the sheet 3 of the schematic, note that the Wfm 1, 2, and 3 generators each have selected
components (resistors) , picked to match the specific Ve curve of the engine application the

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components (resistors) , picked to match the specific Ve curve of the engine application the
ECU was designed for. The Wfm4 generator is a simple voltage divider that generates the 4.8V
output. The output of the Wfm's are buffered by T107 (emitter-follower). The buffered output
signal is combined with the output of the IM and sent to the PL, where it sets the threshold for
the turn-off of T201. Note that for non-idle conditions, the output of the SC controls the T201
threshold, whereas at idle conditions, the output of the IM dominates.
The final waveform at the base of T107 in the diagram above is from Kerfoot's schematic.
Randy Montellato has recently measured this characteristic on his ECU. See below:

The characteristic is similar to Kerfoot's measurement of the base of T107, noted on sheet 3,
and is also similar to the characteristic of the composite waveform diagram above. The
influence of each waveform generator's can be identified.
Below is a series of scope photos I took that show the behavior of the waveform generators with
respect to the injection pulse. The ECU under test is a 0 280 000 052 and the MPS is a 0 280
000 049 (NOS unit from Gary Helbig). The simulated engine speed is 950 rpm to show the full
characteristic. The overall Wfm characteristic was measured at the base of T107.

At the top is the basic injection pulse (ti), measured at the output of the PL. The influence of two
of the waveform generators can be thought of as DC levels connected by smooth transitions.
For this case:
Wfm1 = 7.8 V
Wfm4 = 5.0 V
The other two waveform generators affect the beginning and end of the overall waveform. Wfm2

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The other two waveform generators affect the beginning and end of the overall waveform. Wfm2
defines the transition at 10 ms from the previous waveform down to the Wfm4 level. Wfm3
defines the continuously-rising characteristic from about 40 ms to nearly 80 ms.
The plot below uses a delayed trigger to precisely position the trailing edge of the injection pulse
to measure the the duration between this edge and the onset of the Wfm waveform.

With this greater precision, the interval is actually 11 ms, corresponding to an engine speed of
5455 rpm. This is significant because the redline of the 1.7 and 2.0L motors is 5850 rpm, which
means that just before redline, the speed correction reaches the flat portion of the curve above,
between 11 ms and 10.25 ms.
Examination of the SC schematic shows that the DC levels for Wfm1 and Wfm4 are set by
voltage dividers in each of the Wfm generators. The capacitors and other circuit characteristics
determine the waveform shape. It appears that for the most part, Bosch adjusted the DC levels
by changing the voltage divider elements to match the curve for each engine application.
The trailing edge of the injection pulse indicates the time position where the level of voltage at
the base of T107 that was used by the PL to set the turn-on voltage of T201, buffered through
T107. As the engine speed increases, the period between injection pulses ti decreases, and the
voltage at the base of T107 at the trailing edge of ti moves leftwards through the overall Wfm
characteristic. In the case above, the voltage level at T107 at the trailing edge is being
determined by the Wfm3 generator. As engine speed increases, the Wfm1, then Wfm4, then
finally Wfm2 generators will determine the PL T201 turn-on voltage.
Below are scope photos that show the influence of each Wfm generator on the overall
characteristic. Note that each Wfm generator's characteristic is shifted slightly positive due to
the diode voltage drop when forward biased:
Wfm1 Wfm2

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Wfm3 Wfm4

Below is a similar set of scope pictures for a 0 280 000 037 ECU, taken under identical
conditions to the 052 ECU above. This ECU has an additional Wfm (Wfm5) that adds a "step"
between 27 to 40 ms.

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between 27 to 40 ms.

Below are scope photos that show the influence of each Wfm generator on the overall
characteristic. Note that each Wfm generator's characteristic is shifted slightly positive due to
the diode voltage drop when forward biased:
Wfm1 Wfm2

Wfm3 Wfm4

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Wfm5

Below is a scope photo of the overall SC waveform from a 0 280 000 015 ECU, used on early
1.7L's. Conditions are the same as for the two ECU's above. There are five Wfm's, similar to the
0 280 000 037 ECU.

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0 280 000 037 ECU.

Below is a measurement taken at pin 10 of the edge connector on a 0 280 000 044 ECU,
showing the level-shifted, combined output of the SC and IM circuits. Note that this
characteristic can be fairly easily measured with an oscilloscope on any D-Jetronic system by
probing pin 10 of the MPS. Ground at the bottom of the screen. Note the effect of the triggering
of the loop circuit is visible at about 70 mS. The control voltage ranges between 2.0 and 2.5 V. It
is also apparent that this ECU uses 5 Wfm's, as the waveform is similar to the 015 and 037
ECU's.

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ECU's.

To understand the effect on the injection pulse duration at a specific engine speed, first note
that lower values of bias voltages affect the PL circuit to extend the injection period (see the PL
section for a description of this behavior), increasing Tinj. On sheet 3, the opposite behavior is
noted, so this observation is in disagreement with Kerfoot's notes which appear to be in error.
Next, since the bottom axis is time, engine speed is proportional to the reciprocal of time.
Therefore, you need to invert and flip the characteristic as shown below:

The characteristic above reflects the Ve behavior of the specific engine application. Now, the
need for four waveform generators is clear. Wfm3 sets the speed correction at low-rpm's near
idle. Wfm1 sets the speed correction at medium-rpm, approaching the Ve peak. Wfm4 sets the
speed correction for the high-rpm Ve peak. Finally, Wfm2 sets the speed correction between the
high-rpm Ve roll-off as redline is approached. By varying the selected resistors and capacitors in
the Wfm circuits, a wide range of Ve curves can be accommodated with the SC circuit.
Below is a plot I created from analysis of the overall waveforms for both the 037 and 052 ECU's
above that corresponds to the model plot of effect on injection time as a function of engine
speed. The y-axis was inverted by re-referencing it to the system voltage.

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This plot shows the speed correction effects of both ECU's very clearly.
Randy Montellato also characterized the effect of the SC on the injection pulse width by
monitoring the pulse width on a bench setup of the D-Jetronic system as a function of engine
speed at constant intake manifold pressure. A chart of his results is shown below:

The results shown compare favorably with the inverted and flipped Wfm output, especially under
full-load (0 in. Hg) conditions. Note that it appears that the long injection durations at low RPM
implied by the Wfm bias characteristic apparently are at engine speeds well below the idle point,
where the bias value is controlled by the IM instead of the SC.
I recently obtained a D-Jetronic tester that enables the simulation of engine speed and sensor
settings. I've duplicated the characteristics that Randy took for three operating conditions: at
operating temperature (~100 C), cold start (20 C), and cold-cold start (-10 C). Missing data on
the cold and cold-cold graphs are due to tester limitations.

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the cold and cold-cold graphs are due to tester limitations.

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My cold start data is very similar to Randy's. The speed-density nature of the D-Jetronic system
is clear from this data. Note the dramatic increase in injection duration with cold temperatures.
From what I've been able to find out, this relationship of richer mixture to colder temperatures is
empirically derived for each motor, due to variations in the intake design and motor heating
characteristics.
Recently, I obtained a copy of the original Bosch papers (see References) that describe the
development of the D-Jetronic system. Figure 2 from the H. Scholl paper is essentially identical
in shape and nature to both Randy's and my graphs above:

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The text associated with this graph states that this is the characteristic diagram of the fuel
requirement for one cylinder of a six-cylinder engine, measured on an engine test stand.
"Vollast" = full load, corresponding to the "0 in. Hg" curve in Randy's and my graphs. Manifold
pressures here are measured in Torr, an absolute scale as opposed to a gauge scale like
inches of Hg. Assuming 760 Torr = 0 in. Hg, the manifold pressures levels map as follows:
0 in. Hg = 760 Torr
5 in. Hg = 633 Torr
10 in. Hg = 506 Torr
15 in. Hg = 380 Torr
20 in. Hg = 250 Torr
Randy's readings at 20 in. Hg are considerably lower that the lowest reading on the Bosch
graph, and are also near the limits of movement of the armature core of the MPS. Bosch went
further in detail on their graph of full-load, noting the small vacuum that is pulled in the plenum
due to the pumping restrictions of the throttle body and intake system, growing with increasing
engine speed to a 20 Torr drop at maximum engine speed. Since the cylinder volume of the
six-cylinder engine used in the diagram from the Scholl paper is unknown, and is likely smaller
than the cylinder volume of the 2.0L four-cylinder motor that Randy and I used for our
measurements, leading to the absolute difference in the injection time between the graphs at
any specific manifold pressure.
Pulse Width Multiplier (PWM) - Sheet 3
The PWM stretches the basic injection pulse width to correct the mixture for the effects of
engine temperature (CTC) and linked effects, starting enrichment (ICM), and the delayed
accelerator pump action (AE). See the scope photo above for an example of the output of the
PWM. The basic injection pulse from the PL is fed to the base of T302. The collector output of
T302 charges the 0.68 mfd capacitor, which is also charged by the current source from the AE
that provides the delayed accelerator enrichment effect. The collector output of T303 sets the
voltage on the other side of the capacitor, also affecting the charging rate of the capacitor. The
drive on T303 is set by the output of the CTC, and the emitter level of T303 is set by the
resistor-diode network, and also by a start signal effect from T651 (see the ICM description
below). Diode D302 is then used to shape the sawtooth signal output into more of a square
wave. This shaped signal is then sent to the IL to multiply the effect of the basic injection pulse
from the PL.
The traces in the oscilloscope photos below are (starting down from the top):
1. Basic injection pulse from the PL - ground is 1 div down from the top
2. Shaped and inverted pulse from the PL - ground is 3 div down from the top
3. Output from the PWM - ground is 5 div down from the top
4. PWM transistor T303 collector output - ground is 7 div down from the top
The effect of changing the value of the TS2 on the PWM output is demonstrated.

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Engine at operating temperature (~100 C) Cold engine (~20 C)
Idle-Cold Mixture Compensation (ICM) - Sheet 3
The ICM provides cold-start enrichment clamping, idle mixture enrichment, and starting mixture
enrichment to the PWM.
• Cold-start enrichment clamping: The Start signal turns on T651, which clamps the
cathode of D652 to the ratio of R653 and R656 (~6.7 V). The anode of D652 is connected
to the input of T451 in the CTC. Without the clamping voltage, the cold start (70 deg. F
engine temp or less) value of this input would be 8.2 V or greater, which would result in a
very rich starting mixture. Therefore, the clamping voltage limits the effect of the CTC
circuit on cold start mixture.
• Idle mixture enrichment: Under normal running conditions, the throttle is open and T452
is on, shunting R471 in the CTC. When the throttle is closed and IS is on, T452 is off and
the additional 300 ohms of R471 appears in series with TS2. This increases the input
voltage to T451, increases the output of the CTC, and enriches the mixture.
• Starting mixture enrichment: The Start signal turns on T651, which increases the
voltage at the emitter of T303 in the PWM, increasing the drive and lengthening the pulse
width output of the PWM. The longer pulse enriches the mixture as long as the Start
signal is present.
Idle Mixture Adjustment (IM) - Sheet 3
The IM sets the mixture (adjustable with IA) during idle operation. The output of the IM is
combined with the output of the SC to control the voltage threshold in the PL for turn-off of
T201. When the throttle is open, the IM appears as an open circuit and the SC controls the PL
threshold. Note that the IM is effective ONLY when the IS on the TPS is closed!! Adjustment
of the IA has no effect on mixture when the throttle is open.
T701 acts as a current source through R705 and the 5 K adjustment potentiometer (IA). The
voltage divider implemented with the potentiometer sets the PL threshold level. The effect of
adjusting the IA is to shift the entire SC curve on the voltage axis. The two scope photos below
(sorry for the poor quality) show the effect of the IA potentiometer position (measured at point
15 on sheet 3 of the schematic) on the combined IM+SC output for a 0 280 000 037 ECU under
test at idle conditions. Total voltage shift range is about -0.6 V going from fully counter-
clockwise to fully clockwise. Note that this range of adjustment is comparable to the entire range
of voltage shift over the complete SC curve (about 0.7V), indicating that the IM is capable of a
wide range of mixture adjustment at idle.

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IA Fully Counter-Clockwise (Lean) IA Fully Clockwise (Rich)
On most ECU's with an IM knob, there is a small mark in the plastic surround of the knob that
was put there at the factory. This mark identifies the balance point where the IM adjustment has
no effect on the level of the output of the SC circuit. For a new motor in good adjustment, this
point produces a CO level very close to the factory specification.
Back to index
ECU Waveforms
TL1 and TL2 are the outputs of the flip-flop in the TL circuit. The edge detector generates a
short negative-going pulse (down from +12V) on each rising edge from either TL1 or TL2. This
signal goes to the PL, which generates the basic injection pulse, which is modified by the IL for
effects from the PWM and the AE (additional AE pulses are not shown here). The IL signal and
the TL1 and TL2 signals are inputs to the NOR gates for D1 and D2. When both inputs are low,
the injector group for D1 or D2 will be energized. Note that the injector groups fire every other
crank revolution.

Back to index
Common Questions and Answers
• Q: How do the various ECU's differ?
A: Some of the 1.7L and 2.0L ECU's do not have the OS circuit (see the OS section for
details). The various ECU's have somewhat different resistor values in various circuits,
and some ECU's lack some of the ICM functions. Early 1.7L ECU's did not have an idle
adjustment control and used a different daughter board design. There were either four or
five waveform generators in the SC circuit, depending on the ECU model. I am currently
trying to acquire a full set of 914 D-Jetronic ECU's to document the differences. Note that
the main board of the ECU varies little from model to model, most of the customization for
a specific application is on the daughter board.

• Q: Can I replace the MPS with a modern semiconductor MAP sensor?

A: It would be difficult. The MPS inductances are active components in the PL circuit and it
would be very difficult to duplicate the characteristics by using a semiconductor MAP
sensor. It may be possible to create an analog or digital circuit that could duplicate the

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sensor. It may be possible to create an analog or digital circuit that could duplicate the
exact transfer function of the MPS, the difficulty of this feat is unknown. Additionally, the
MPS handles full-load sensing and mixture enrichment. If a MAP sensor were
implemented instead, it would require additional circuitry to provide the correct signal at
full-load for the ECU to properly richen the mixture. See my MPS document for details on
its operation.

• Q: Why does an open or shorted TS2 sensor keep the engine from running?
A: Other than the MPS, the TS2 sensor input is the second most significant input to the
ECU in setting the mixture. An open TS2 sensor drives T451 into saturation after the Start
signal is removed, causing a very rich mixture that immediately stalls the engine. A
shorted TS2 sensor causes a very lean mixture that is insufficiently rich for starting,
especially when the engine is cold. See the CTC section above for more details.

I have measured these effects on the D-Jetronic system on my 914 2.0L, using my EFI
Model 1401 Electronic Analyzer (see my D-Jetronic Testers web page for details on this
tester). With the motor cold (75 to 80 deg. F), at a simulated 2500 rpm and 10 in. Hg
manifold vacuum with the TPS idle switch off, the injection duration is 6.4 ms.
Disconnecting the TS2 sensor increased the injection duration to a whopping 20.7 ms -
more than the engine would see below freezing while at full load! No wonder it won't start.
Substituting a short for the sensor reduced the injection duration to 4.5 ms - a 30%
decrease in fuel quantity, resulting in a very lean mixture, but one that may run, though
starting might be difficult.

In the future, I will be analyzing the behavior of the TS2 sensor in the D-Jetronic system. It
is my suspicion that this component is responsible for many problems, as it has a very
strong effect on mixture, is built to fairly wide measurement tolerances, and is not
adjustable without modifications (e.g. variable ballast resistor).

• Q: What is the effect of disconnecting the TS1 sensor?

A: The TS1 sensor produces a fairly weak effect on the mixture, to compensate for the
varying density of air with temperature. Removing the sensor will slightly richen the
mixture. This is a common mechanics "trick" for an old engine that is running lean due to
wear or vacuum leaks. See the PL analysis above for a detailed explanation.

I measured the effect of a disconnected TS1 sensor (see the question above for the setup
conditions). Disconnecting the sensor increased the injection pulse width to 7.1 ms - an
11% increase, almost exactly what the analysis of this effect predicted (see the PL
analysis section). Note that this enrichment effect is variable as the temperature changes -
stronger for hot temperatures, weaker for cold - due to the elimination of the compensation
for air density as a function of temperature.

• Q: I want to convert my car to closed-loop operation by adding an oxygen sensor -

can this be done?
A: Possibly, but with some caveats. Closed-loop operation of FI systems was necessitated
by the use of 3-way catalytic converters. Catalytic converters require stringent mixture
control (e.g. lambda in the range from 0.98 to 1.02) for proper operation and low emissions
of HC, CO, and NOx. Most 914's don't have catalytic converters and those that do only
have single-bed converters with an air pump, which don't require stringent mixture control.
A well-tuned D-Jetronic system maintains sufficiently accurate mixture control and closed-
loop operation is unnecessary. Additionally, setting up a 914 to run with lambda at 1.00
would be a mistake, as the engine doesn't run well unless the mixture is closer to a
lambda of 0.93 (about 13.7:1 mixture). Of course, to do this, you will probably need a
broadband O2 sensor (big $$$), as the standard Nernst-cell O2 sensors only provide a
step response at a lambda factor of 1.00.

A further complication is that independent detection of the full-load condition is necessary,

as all modern FI systems operate at full-load in an open-loop mode, supplying a rich
mixture (12.7:1) for maximum power. Since the D-Jetronic full-load system is integrated
into the MPS and is not externally accessible, an independent means of detecting full -load
and disabling the closed-loop system is required. This could potentially be accomplished
by accessing the unused wide-open-throttle contact on the TPS. Note that this requires
very accurate setup of the TPS and accelerator mechanism to work, and was discarded by
Bosch as a means of detecting full-load in the D-Jetronic system early in its
implementation.

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implementation.

Regardless, it should be possible to implement closed-loop control by developing an

interface circuit that would integrate an oxygen sensor into the TS2 connection to the
ECU, with full-load sensing from the TPS to disable closed-loop operation at full-load. I am
not aware of anyone who has done this or exactly how it could be accomplished.

• Q: How can I change my mixture only at idle?

A: Idle mixture can be adjusted by using the idle mixture adjustment knob on the ECU.
Note that some early 1.7L ECU's did not have an adjustment knob. Clockwise clicks richen
the mixture, counter-clockwise clicks lean the mixture. The factory made a mark on the
plastic surround of the knob to indicate the "factory" setting, the correct mixture for proper
operation is usually within +/- 3 clicks of this position. I suggest that you use an air/fuel
meter to adjust the idle mixture to the factory setting of CO. If the proper setting of CO
cannot be achieved within the range of the idle mixture adjustment knob, then it is likely
that there is a problem with the FI system - mismatched FI components (see my D-
Jetronics Parts Document for assistance), failed FI components, or a maladjusted engine
(valve clearance and/or ignition timing and dwell, other ignition faults, vacuum leaks, etc.).
While I have taken readings on my car at idle, they don't apply to stock motors because I
have an aftermarket cam (apparently), and my mixture is richer due to the low idle
manifold vacuum due to this cam. From in-car road measurements (using a Heathkit
Air/Fuel meter) on my 2.0L with 1974 FI components, my idle mixture is about 13.3:1
(lambda of 0.90). I have not measured the full-load mixture on other stock 2.0 or 1.7L cars
in good tune.

• Q: Does the idle mixture adjustment knob on the ECU only affect the idle mixture?
A: Yes, with one exception. It has no effect unless the throttle is closed and the idle switch
in the TPS is on, indicating the idle condition. For ECU's with the OS circuit (e.g. the 0 280
000 052 or 0 280 000 015), note that when the engine speed drops below the threshold
level of the OS operation, the over-run mixture is partially controlled by the idle mixture
knob position. If you have an ECU with or without the OS circuit, and you have light
backfiring during over-run, adjusting the idle mixture knob to a slightly richer mixture (1 or
2 clicks clockwise) may help.

• Q: How can I change my mixture only at part-load?

A: The MPS can be adjusted to set the part-load mixture. See my MPS Document for
details. "Tricks" such as adding ballast resistance to the TS2 sensor and disconnecting the
TS1 sensor are not specific to part-load conditions. From in-car road measurements
(using a Heathkit Air/Fuel meter) on my 2.0L with 1974 FI components, the part-load
mixture is about 13.6:1 (lambda of 0.93) - this is a guideline value only, I have not
measured the part-load mixture on other 2.0 or 1.7L cars in good tune. It is important to
the part-load mixture adjustment of the MPS only shifts the overall part-load mixture higher
or lower - without modification to the MPS the slope of the part-load characteristic cannot
be changed.

• Q: How can I change my mixture only at full-load?

A: The MPS can be adjusted to set the full-load mixture. See my MPS Document for
details. Again, "tricks" such as adding ballast resistance to the TS2 sensor and
disconnecting the TS1 sensor are not specific to the full-load condition. Use of a rising-rate
fuel pressure regulator can also be used to richen full-load mixture, but may result in
injector spray problems if the maximum fuel pressure exceeds 35 psig. From in-car road
measurements (using a Heathkit Air/Fuel meter) on my 2.0L with 1974 FI components, my
full-load mixture is about 12.7:1 (lambda of 0.86) - this is a guideline value only, I have not
measured the full-load mixture on other 2.0 or 1.7L cars in good tune.

• Q: How can I change my mixture only at a specific engine speed (e.g. 2500 rpm)?
A: You can't, unless you modify the ECU. See the circuit analysis of the SC above. You
would need to modify one or more of the waveform generator circuits. I am in the process
of trying this as an experiment, as it would be desirable to have speed-related mixture
control to accommodate modifications to the intake and valve systems.

• Q: How can I change my mixture only during warm-up?

A: I used to think this was possible only by modifying the CTC circuit in the MPS.
However, as the pSpice analysis that I recently did shows (see the CTC analysis above),
using a modest amount of ballast resistance (e.g. 50 to 150 ohms) can richen the mixture

New Section 1 Page 36

using a modest amount of ballast resistance (e.g. 50 to 150 ohms) can richen the mixture
during warm-up, and not affect the mixture when the motor is fully warmed-up. Note also,
that it doesn't affect the mixture significantly when the motor is cold-cold (e.g. less than 50
deg. F), as the ballast resistance value becomes insignificant with respect to the TS2
resistance. Too much ballast resistance, where the combined value of TS2 plus the ballast
is more than 300 ohms, will change the hot mixture and will also result in a very rich warm -
up mixture.

An additional method of modifying the warm-up mixture is described here. On this page
from Richard Atwell, he describes a spacer that VW developed that goes between the
head and the sensor. The effect of this spacer is to introduce a time delay between head
temperature changes and sensor temperature changes. Since head temperature is
continuously increasing during warm-up, with the spacer, the temperature of the sensor is
always lower than the actual head temperature, which would richen the mixture as
compared to eliminating the spacer. This opens the possibility of a fine degree of tuning of
the warm-up mixture, by varying both ballast resistance and spacer material and
thickness.

A problem with the spacer approach is that the original VW part is long NLA, and the part
dimensions are unusual. From my own measurements and information on the web, the
sensor has a M10x1.0 thread, but is a 13 mm hex, which is usually a M8 size. You could
make up a spacer by using a coupling nut and a stud, but in extensive searching, I've
never been able to locate a M10x1.0 coupling nut with either 13 or larger hex size. You
might be better of having a custom house make you a range of sizes. Another possibility is
to buy an M8 coupler and tap it out to M10x1.0.

A couple of additional comments on the warm-up mixture: From my experiments and

measurements, I believe that there is wide variation in the basic part-load mixture of
typical 914 D-Jet setups in good condition, and the tendency is for the part-load mixture to
be quite rich (e.g. more than a CO of 3%). The problem with such rich mixtures is that they
result in poor fuel economy, high emissions, and increased engine wear. Through
experimentation with my stock, freshly-built 2.0L motor, I've found that a part-load CO of
2.5% produces very good driveability and excellent fuel economy. The down side is that
the leaner basic mixture affects all aspects of operation, including warm-up, where the
mixture is now too lean. This is where using ballast resistance and spacers with the sensor
can restore good warm-up characteristics, yet retain efficient part-load mixture once the
engine is warmed-up.

• Q: I think my ECU is defective - how can I tell if it is working properly?

A: A good way that is accessible for many owners is to use a VW 1218 tester (available
for rental from Pelican Parts, see my D-Jetronic Testers web page for a description). This
tester can verify the operation of the following ECU functions:

○ Engine speed correction

○ Basic compensation rich
○ Basic compensation lean
○ Engine speed correction, full load enrichment
○ Acceleration/full load enrichment
○ Start & warm-up enrichment
○ Fuel pump control
The VW1218 also does comprehensive testing of the FI sensors, including the MPS.
Note that the Bosch EFAW tester also available for rental from Pelican Parts only
does static testing of the TS1 and TS2 sensors, system voltages, MPS resistances,
and does a qualitative test of the trigger contact points and MPS function.
In lieu of using the VW1218, a suspect ECU can be swapped with a new/rebuilt
ECU. Note that there is also an aftermarket D-Jetronic tester that was available
about 20 years ago called the "MPC Analyzer" - again, see my D-Jetronic Testers
web pages for a description. A few shops still have this tester, which is an advanced
tool for evaluating the ECU operation. It can also be used to adjust the MPS to
factory settings. John Larson on Rennlist has one of these testers at his shop in
Central California, please contact him for further information.

• Q: Which is the right ECU for my car? I have a different ECU from the one that came
in my car, will it work?

New Section 1 Page 37

in my car, will it work?
A: See my D-Jetronics Parts Document for information. Surprisingly, ECU's from different
years and displacement engines often can be substituted with little or no problems - and
sometimes they cause very rich or very lean mixtures. If you feel like experimenting, give it
a try, but keep an eye out for mixture problems over the full range of operation. I am in the
process of building a compatibility table that can help identify combinations that will work
or that may help performance modifications.

• Q: I want to turbocharge my D-Jetronic car - can the ECU support this?

A: Amazingly, yes! There is at least one D-Jetronic turbocharged 914 that I'm aware of
(Jeff Shyu on Rennlist), and it seems to be working, despite some pretty interesting stuff
that sounds like to me will eventually blow it up (e.g. 60 psig fuel pressure from a rising -
rate fuel pressure regulator through stock injectors, with large exhaust flames during full -
load operation, vacuum switch for activating the CSV to provide enrichment at full -load,
etc.). The ECU does not seem to be a limiting factor here, but personally, I'd go for an
aftermarket FI system or carbs if I were turbocharging a 914. My MPS Document has
some additional information in the tuning and modifications section.

• Q: My fuel pump isn't working, I think the ECU may be bad. How do I debug the
circuit without renting one of those fancy testers?
A: Here is a link to a page I've created with a set of flowcharts to troubleshoot the fuel
pump circuit.

• Q: I'd like to use a high-lift, long-duration cam to improve my engine's performance.

People have told me that this won't work with the D-Jetronic system. Why?
A: The common logic against high performance camshafts with D-Jetronic is that such
cams cause large vacuum fluctuations which confuse the MPS. However, Bosch was
aware of this issue and minimized the response of the MPS to vacuum variations by using
a throttled flap over the vacuum sensing port (see the MPS document for details), so it is
unlikely that this is the cause of problems noted with high performance camshafts. The
source of the problem relates to the speed correction circuit of the ECU. Significantly
changing the basic cam parameters (timing, duration, lift) will change the shape of the
volumetric efficiency (Ve) curve. Since the SC is hard-wired to correct the mixture for the
stock Ve curve, a "hot" cam will likely result in a non-linear effect on the mixture - most
likely at low and high engine speeds. Some people have had success with using "mild"
aftermarket cams, which likely do not change the Ve curve significantly. Just remember,
you don't get something for nothing here - using a cam with significant overlap to exploit
high-rpm exhaust scavenging to increase the cylinder charge will result in poor idle and
low-rpm torque, even if you get the mixture right. It will also result in high HC, too, as you'll
be pulling unburned HC's out the tailpipe. The stock cam is very well-optimized for street
use: good drivability, low emissions, good performance. Stick with it.

• Q: OK, if I can't use a hot cam, what kind of modifications can I do to improve the
engine's performance and still retain the stock D-Jetronic setup?
A: Basically, anything that you can do that doesn't change shape of the Ve curve, doesn't
change the linear response of the MPS, or doesn't exceed the fuel delivery capability of
the injectors (i.e, exceed the injector duty cycle and maximum fuel pressure (36 psig))
should be OK. These modifications (also see the turbo discussion above) include;
increased displacement (limiter: fuel supply), increased compression ratio (limiter: knock
threshold). Within limits, these modifications should be within the range of the ECU to
handle, and the increased fuel demands can be handled by adjusting the MPS and/or by
increasing the system fuel pressure (to a max of 36 psig - beyond that pressure the spray
pattern degrades into a stream). Changes such as free-flow exhaust, bored-out throttle
bodies, larger valves, and other head modifications may work, but are likely to have non-
linear effects on the Ve curve. See my MPS document for a description of how the MPS
can be adjusted.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Jim Thoursen, Dave Darling, Roland Kunz, and others on Rennlist who have
assisted me with this analysis. Big thanks to Frank Kerfoot for the excellent work he did on the
schematic and his assistance with the analysis. Big thanks to "Luau_BoB", who took it upon
himself to analyze the SC circuit, and improve the description of how the SC and IM bias
voltage affects the basic injection pulse duration. Thanks also to Randy Montellato for his
measurements of the effects of engine speed on injection duration. Thanks also to Jeff Bowlsby
for his comments and assistance with some of the measurements. Thanks to Stefan von Allmen

New Section 1 Page 38

for his comments and assistance with some of the measurements. Thanks to Stefan von Allmen
for his contributions to the injector driver circuit analysis.
Changes by Version
• 0.0 - Pre-release
• 1.0 - Initial release. Still missing descriptions of the ES, SC, and PWM circuits.
• 1.1 - Added initial description of the ES, SC, and PWM circuits. Corrected block diagram
to remove ES to PWM control signal - turns out that the connection is only for voltage
clamping of the output of the ES, not as an input to the PWM.
• 1.2 - General editing, added acknowledgements section. Also added calculation of the
injector drive voltage from D1 and D2.
• 1.3 - Included analysis by "Luau_BoB" of the SC circuit and how the SC + IM bias voltage
affects the basic injection pulse duration. Big thanks to him for this contribution!!! Also
included measurements taken by Randy Montellato on the effect of engine speed on
injection duration, independent of intake manifold pressure. Added additional Q&A
questions on performance modifications.
• 1.4 - Corrected an error in the PL circuit model, added description from "Luau_BoB" on the
start-up operation of the FPC
• 1.5 - Corrected and improved the D1 & D2 section to accurately describe the circuit
behavior to explain the observed injector voltage waveform.
• 1.6 - 2/08/02 - Added information from Bosch Technical Reports, added References
section.
• 1.7 - 2/11/02 - Added more information about the speed correction circuit from the Scholl
paper.
• 1.8 - 2/13/02 - Clarified the effects of the multiple waveform generators in the SC, added
additional diagram to SC section
• 1.9 - 3/02/02 - Added information on which ECU's have the OS circuit present
• 2.0 - 3/20/02 - Added additional graphs of injection duration vs. engine speed as a function
of load, taken with my EFI Analyzer
• 2.1 - 3/23/02 - Added data on TS2 and TS1 sensor effects, some minor edits
• 2.2 - 4/1/02 - Added scope photos of the Wfm generators in the SC circuit and descriptions
of the behaviors
• 2.3 - 4/2/02 - Added improved scope photos of Wfm generators in the SC circuits of both
the 037 and 052 ECU's
• 2.4 - 4/3/02 - Added some pics of various ECU's, and the overall SC waveform scope
photo from an 015 ECU
• 2.5 - 4/8/02 - Added scope photos showing the effect of the IA adjustment on the SC
waveform
• 2.6 - 4/22/02 - Added many more scope photos, showing various waveforms
• 2.7 - 4/24/02 - Added pSpice simulation schematic and results of the D1 & D2 circuits
• 2.8 - 4/25/02 - Added pSpice simulation results for the CTC circuit, added new Q&A
related stuff
• 2.9 - 4/29/02 - Updated driver analysis to account for Ge (non-Si) output transistors
• 3.0 - 1/14/10 - Added additional information and comments on changing the warm-up
mixture in the Q&A area
• 3.1 - 4/12/10 - Added additional information in the CTC section on verification of the
simulation, and the use of a spacer for improving warm-up
References
• "Elektronisch gesteuerte Benzineinspritzung - Weiterentwicklung der Jetronic", Von
Hermann Scholl, Bosch Technical Report 3, Issue 1 (November 1969).
• "Eine elektronisch gesteuerte Kraftstoffeinspritzung für Ottomotoren"; Von Günther
Baumann, Bosch Technical Report 2, Issue 3 (November 1967).
• See my D-Jet Fundamentals web page for links to these references and an English
translation of the Scholl article.

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