BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT 3

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Natural sources of energy

The resources, which are locked in the dead organic materials beneath and far away from the Earth,
found naturally are known as natural sources of energy.

The natural sources of energy are divided into two categories,

1. Conventional sources of energy

2. Non-conventional sources of energy

Conventional sources of energy

The energy sources that are present for a long time found naturally on or beneath the Earth and take a
long time to produce or replenish are known as conventional sources of energy. Generally, these are also
non-renewable energy sources. The conventional sources of energy are again divided into two
categories, commercial and non-commercial energy sources.

Commercial energy sources: To get energy from these kinds of sources, we need to pay for it.

The consumption price depends on various factors like demand and supply, availability, feasibility etc.
A few examples are,

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(a) Electricity: It is the most common and essential form of energy which we use in our daily life. It
runs many home appliances like fridges, bulbs, washing machines etc, also used in commercial
buildings and in production units. Electricity is produced by various commercial energy sources in
power plants like nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants, and thermal power plants.

(b) Coal: It is a type of fossil fuel which is present beneath the surface of the Earth and was formed by
decomposed organic materials due to the high compression and temperature due to Earth’s layers. It
takes millions of years to form coal which we use. Therefore it is a non-renewable energy resource.

(c) Natural gas and oil: These are also obtained from fossil fuels and are present beneath the surface of
the Earth and formed from decomposed organic materials. They are in such form because of the high
compression and temperature of the Earth’s layers. Natural gas and oil also take a very long time to
produce but can be used instantly therefore these are also known as non-renewable energy resources.

Non-commercial energy sources: The energy resources which are generally available are free to use.
Examples are firewoods, cow dung, and straw. Firewoods are obtained from the trees and plants, dung is
obtained from animal wastes and straw is obtained from the crop plants like wheat crops, rice crops etc.

Non-conventional sources of energy

The natural resources that can produce useful energy continuously for a long period of time and are
available again and again for use even after it is exhausted are known as non-conventional sources of
energy or renewable resources of energy. Some types of non-conventional sources of energy are;
sunlight, wind, water flow, and ocean.

(a) Solar energy: The energy produced by the Sun is referred to as solar energy. It is formed due to
nuclear fission and fusion inside the Sun. This energy travels in the form of radiation (electromagnetic
waves). This energy is collected by some photovoltaic cell panels which absorb the solar energy and

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convert it into electricity that can be used for home appliances. Solar heating panels are used to heat the
water in the solar heater.

(b) Wind: When we talk about wind energy then it means that the wind speed should be high enough to
produce a considerable amount of useful work. This kind of wind energy is usually available near the
coastal regions or near the mountains where high wind flow is available at a constant rate. Big turbines,
called wind turbines are installed at such sites to tap this wind energy which drives these turbines and
as result, electricity is generated.

(c) Tidal energy: We know the tides are created in the ocean due to the rotation of the Earth and the
attraction between Earth and the moon. Tides are nothing but the rise and fall of the water level in the
ocean. We can observe it easily on the shores. The tidal energy is captured by forming narrow dams at
the narrow entrances of rivers. During high tides and low tides, the motion of the water column is used
to rotate the turbines that produce electricity.

(d) Biomass energy: Biomass energy is extracted from biological materials where biological materials
are formed from living organisms and plants. In the biomass power plant, biomass is burnt into a
combustor in order to produce heat which will be further converted into mechanical energy in order to
generate electricity. Biomass can also be converted into other forms of energy like fuels used in
transportation, biodiesel or methane gas depending on the requirements.

(e) Geothermal energy: As we know that the temperature increases as we move inside the Earth's
layers. This high temperature is the thermal energy source. Potential sources can be hot springs and
volcanoes which contain a very high amount of heat. This kind of energy is known as geothermal
energy. This energy can be extracted and can be used to generate electricity. In Himachal Pradesh and
Ladakh, geothermal power plants are located.

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(f) Hydro energy: This energy is generally available in flowing rivers. A dam is formed to store the
water of the river at some convenient location. This stored water contains the potential energy which can
be converted into kinetic energy by giving a narrow passage to the flow. Thus we get a water stream
with high-speed that drives large turbines to produce electricity.
Basis of Conventional Energy Sources Non-Conventional Energy Sources
Difference

The sources of energy that have been used Those energy sources whose evolution has
Definition all around the world for a long time are been done the recent years are known as
called conventional energy sources. non-conventional energy sources.

Conventional energy sources exist for many The non-conventional energy sources are
Existence
years. relatively new sources of energy.

Conventional sources of energy are Non-conventional sources are renewable

Renewability
generally non-renewable sources. sources of energy.

Conventional sources of energy available in Since non-conventional sources are

Availability limited quantity in nature. renewable, hence they available in
abundance in nature.

Conventional energy sources require many Non-conventional energy sources can be

Formation
year (or long period of time) for formation. formed in short period of time.

Conventional energy sources shall exhaust Non-conventional energy sources shall not
Exhaustible
one day. exhaust because they are renewable.

The common examples of conventional The examples of non-conventional energy

Examples sources of energy are coal, petroleum, sources are sun, wind, tides, water, biofuels,
natural gas, firewood, etc. etc.

There are many safety concerns surrounding With non-conventional energy sources, no
the conventional sources such as fire in coal such safety concerns associated.
Safety concerns
mines, explosion on oil platforms, burst of
gas cylinders, etc.

Conventional sources of energy have high The energy density of non-conventional

Energy density
energy density. energy sources is less.

Conventional sources are generally obtained Non-conventional energy sources are present
Obtained from from the earth crest. in the environment such sun, wind, water,
biomass, etc.

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Basis of Conventional Energy Sources Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Difference

Most of the conventional energy sources Non-conventional energy sources are

Environmental
pollute the environment and cause global environment friendly and do not cause
impact
warming. pollution.

Conventional energy sources are expensive. Non-conventional are relatively less

Cost
expensive.

Conventional energy sources are mainly Non-conventional sources are used at small
used at large scale in commercial and scale in domestic and specific commercial
Applications
industrial applications such in thermal and industrial applications such as solar
power plants, fuel in vehicles, etc. power for houses, offices, etc.

Schematic Diagram and Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

A hydroelectric power plant simply involves the conversion of hydraulic energy of falling water into
electrical energy. For the proper and efficient working, the hydroelectric power plant has many
arrangements. A schematic diagram of a typical hydroelectric power plant is shown in the figure.

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 In a hydroelectric power plant, the dam is constructed across a river or lake. Water from the
catchment area collects at the back of the dam to form a reservoir.
 A pressure tunnel is formed between the reservoir and the valve house and water is brought to
the valve house at the start of the penstock (a penstock is huge steel pipe which carries water
from valve house to the turbine).
 The valve house contains main sluice valves which control the water flow to the power house
and automatic isolating valves which cut off supply of water when the penstock bursts.
 Water from the valve house is taken to the water turbine through the penstock. Now, the water
turbine converts the hydraulic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. The turbine drives
an alternator which converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
 In a hydroelectric power plant, a surge tank, which is open from the top, is also built just before
the valve house. The surge tank protects the penstock from bursting in case the turbine gates
suddenly close due to electrical load being thrown off. When the turbine gates close, there is a
sudden stopping of water at the lower end of the penstock which can burst the penstock. The
surge tank absorbs these pressure swings (i.e. water surges) by increasing its water level.

Site Selection for Hydroelectric Power Plant

The following factors should be considered while selecting the site for a hydroelectric power plant −

 Availability of Water – Since water is the main requirement for a hydroelectric power plant.
Hence, the hydroelectric power plant should be built at a place a huge amount of water is
available at a good head.
 Storage of Water – The site selected for the hydroelectric power plant should provide adequate
facilities for constructing a dam and storage of water to ensure the generation of power
throughout the year.
 Type and Cost of Land – The bearing capacity of the land should be adequate so that heavy
equipment can be installed. Also, the land for the construction of the hydroelectric power plant
should be available at reasonable price.
 Transportation Facilities – A hydroelectric power plant requires transportation of equipment
and machinery. Therefore, the site selected for the power plant should be well connected to other
parts of the country by rail, road, etc.

Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

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The following are the primary advantages of a hydroelectric power plant −

 Water is used for the generation of electrical energy. Therefore, it requires no fuel.
 No smoke and ash is produces, hence it is quite neat and clean.
 As water is the source of energy which is available free of cost. Thus, the hydroelectric power
plant requires very small running cost.
 Hydroelectric power plant is simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
 Hydroelectric power plant is robust and has a longer life.
 The hydroelectric power plants can be put into service instantly, i.e. it does not require a long
starting time.
 Apart from the generation of electrical energy, the hydroelectric power plants also help in
irrigation and controlling floods.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant

The disadvantages of the hydroelectric power plants are listed below −

 The capital cost of the hydroelectric power plants is high because it involves the construction of
dam.
 There is uncertainty about the availability of water because it depends upon the weather
conditions.
 In case of hydroelectric power plant, the cost of transmission lines is high because the power
plant is located in hilly area which are quite away from the load centres.
 For the construction of hydroelectric power plants, skilled and experienced personals are
required.

Schematic Arrangement of Nuclear Power Station:

The whole arrangement can be divided into the following main stages :

(i) Nuclear reactor (ii) Heat exchanger (iii) Steam turbine (iv) Alternator

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Nuclear Reactor

The nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which nuclear fuel such as Uranium (U 235) or Thorium (Th232) is
subjected to nuclear fission. The nuclear reactor controls the chain reaction which starts once the fission
of the fuel is done. If the chain reaction is not controlled, the result will be an explosion due to fast
increase in the energy released.
 The nuclear reactor is a cylindrical strong pressure vessel and has fuel rods, moderator and
control rods. The fuel rods are the rods of fission material such as Uranium and release huge
amount of energy when bombarded with slow moving neutrons.
 The moderator is nothing but the graphite rods which enclose the fuel rods. The moderator slows
down the neutrons before they bombard the fuel rods.
 The control rods are the bars of cadmium and these are inserted into the reactor. As the cadmium
is a strong absorber of neutrons, it regulates the supply of neutrons for the fission.
 The intensity of the chain reaction is controlled by pushing or withdrawing the control rods in the
nuclear reactor.
 In practice, raising or lowering of control rods is accomplished automatically according to the
load demand.
 The heat energy produced in the reactor is extracted out by the coolant (sodium metal) and the
coolant carries the heat to the heat exchanger.

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Heat Exchanger

The heat exchanger is an apparatus which utilises the heat energy of the coolant for producing the steam.
After giving up the heat to the heat exchanger, the coolant is again fed to the nuclear reactor.

Steam Turbine

The steam produced in the heat exchanger is expanded in the steam turbine through the main valve
which converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical energy.

After doing a useful work in the turbine, the steam is exhausted to the condenser. The condenser
condenses the steam and this condensed steam is again fed to the heat exchanger with the help of a feed
water pump.

Alternator

The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts the mechanical energy of turbine into electrical
energy.

Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant

The advantages of a nuclear power plant are as follows −

 Nuclear power plants are very economical for producing bulk electrical power.
 Nuclear power plant requires very small amount of nuclear fuel. Hence, there is a considerable
saving in the cost of fuel transportation.
 A nuclear power plant requires less space than other types of power plants.
 As small amount of nuclear fuel can produce huge amount of electric power. Therefore, it has
low running cost.
 The nuclear power plants can be constructed near the load centres because it does not require
large quantity of water. Thus, the cost of primary distribution is reduced.
 Nuclear power plants ensure the reliability of electric power supply.

 As the nuclear fuel is available in abundance all over the world. Hence, nuclear power plants can
ensure the continued supply of electrical energy for thousands of years.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

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The following are the disadvantages of a nuclear power plant −

 The nuclear fuel is very expensive and its recovery is very difficult.
 The initial cost of a nuclear power plant is very high as compared to other types of power plants.
 Generally, the by-products of nuclear fission are radioactive and may produce a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.
 The erection and commissioning work of the nuclear power plants requires great technical
knowledge.
 The maintenance cost of a nuclear power plant is high due lack of standardization.
 Nuclear power plants require specially trained personnel to handle the plant, which increases the
operation cost due high salaries.
 The disposal of radioactive by-products of fission is a big problem. They need to be disposed
either in a deep trench or in a sea quite away from the sea-shore.
 Nuclear power plants are not suited for varying loads because the nuclear reactor does not
respond to the load fluctuations efficiently.

working of a Solar Power Plant

As sunlight falls over a solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of silicon. Electron
and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The electron travels from p-type
region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n junction. Further the diode is reversed
biased to increase this electric field. So this current starts flowing in the circuit for individual solar cell.
We combine the current of all the solar cells of a solar panel, to get a significant output.
A low temperature thermal electric power production scheme using solar pond is shown
schematically in Fig. 4.4. The energy obtained from a solar pond is used to drive a Rankine
cycle heat engine. Hot water from the bottom level of the pond is pumped to the evaporator
where the organic working fluid is vapourized.

The vapour then flows under high pressure to the turbine where it expands and work thus
obtained runs an electric generator producing electricity. The exhaust vapour is then
condensed in a condenser and the liquid is pumped back to the evaporator and the cycle is
repeated.

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Applications of Solar Ponds:

1. Power generation.

2. Space heating and cooling.

3. Crop drying.

4. Desalination.

5. Process heat.

Limitations of Solar Ponds:

1. Sunny climate.

2. Need for large land area.

3. Availability of salt.

4. Availability of water.

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The wind turbine works on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy used to
rotate the blades of a fan connected to an electric generator. When the wind or air touches the blades (or) vanes of
the windmill it the air pressure can be uneven, higher on one side of the blade and lower on the other. Hence,
uneven pressure causes the blades to spin around the center of the turbine. The turbine does not operate at wind
speeds above 55 mph with the use of the controller.

The rotor shaft of the turbine (ie., low speed and high speed) is interlinked with the gearbox which converts
the speed from 30 to 60 rpm into 1000 to 1800 rpm. As the gearbox consists of gears, to transmit mechanical
energy. These speeds are most suitable to the generator for the generation of electricity. When the rotor of the
turbine rotates it drives a generator through a setup gearbox causing the generator to produce electrical energy.
Windmills are available in size from 100 KW to 36 MW mainly used off-shore Now the engineers are
designing 10 MW of the wind turbine.

Advantages of Wind power Plant:

o Wind power is pollution free and it is a free source of energy

o Suitable for small, remote domestic applications
o Cost of generation of power is cheap
o A successful strategy for supplying energy to rural places

Disadvantages of wind power plant:

o Wind power technology requires a higher investment than fossil-fueled generators

o Wind is intermittent and it does not always blow when electricity is needed.
o Suitable areas of wind farms are often near the coast, where land is expensive
o Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far away from cities where the electricity
is needed.
o It can affect television reception if you live nearby
o Wind resource development may compete with other uses for the land and those alternative uses
may be more highly valued than electricity generation

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o There are some problems such as noise produced by the rotor blades, aesthetic (visual) impacts,
and sometimes birds have been killed by flying into the rotors.
o It is liable to be affected by natural conditions such as weather and has large output variations.

Applications of Wind Power Plant

o They provide electricity for rural areas with limited grid connectivity.
o Wind power plants power industrial applications, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
o They can be integrated with other renewable sources for hybrid energy systems.
o Wind power plants support off-grid installations and emergency power needs.
o They offer environmental benefits by reducing air pollution and preserving natural resources.

ELECTRICITY BILLING

The unit of electric power is watt, and hence unit of electrical energy is watt – second since energy is the
product of power and time. The watt – seconds is referred as joules. One joule means the work required to be
done for transferring one-ampere current in one second from one point to another point of potential difference one
volt. So one-joule electrical energy equals to the product of one volt, one ampere and one second.

Joule which equals to one watt – second is a very small unit of energy, and it is very difficult to measure a
practically consumed electrical energy by this unit

 Simple Tariff – When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is known as simple tariff or
uniform rate tariff. In case of simple tariff, the price charged per unit is constant i.e. it does not change
with increase or decrease in number of units consumed.
 Two Part Tariff – When the rate of electrical energy consumption is charged on the basis of maximum
demand of the consumer and the units consumed, is known as two part tariff. In case of two-part tariff,
the total charges are spilt into two components viz. fixed charges and running charges. The fixed charges
depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer whereas the running charges depend upon number of
units consumed.
 In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts. The first one is the fixed charge and the
second is the running charge. The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the second charge
depends on the energy consumption by the load.


 The factor A and B may be constant and vary according to some sliding.

Power rating of household appliances

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The power consumption of a computer of course depends on the model and the way it is used. For instance, a
laptop only uses a third as much as a desktop:

 A complete desktop uses an average of 200 Watt hours (Wh). This is the sum of the average consumption
per hour of the computer itself (171 W), the internet modem (10 W), the printer (5 W) and the
loudspeakers (20 W). Assuming that a computer is on for eight hours a day, the annual
consumption comes to 600 kWh. That corresponds to CO2 emissions of about 175 kg per year, i.e. 1.75 %
of the average annual emission of a Belgian.

 A laptop uses considerably less: between 50 and 100 Wh that it is on, depending on the model. If it is used
for eight hours a day, consumption therefore varies between 150 and 300 kWh/year. That corresponds to
CO2 emissions of between 44 and 88 kg per year (or between 0.44 and 0.88 % of the average annual
emission of a Belgian).

 On stand-by, the power consumption of both a desktop and a laptop computer falls to about a third. Putting
the monitor on stand-by reduces its consumption by 15%. If the monitor is switched off completely, then
of course it does not use any power.


 Although the internet is a virtual space, using it still requires power and results in CO 2 emissions. Think
about it!
 The Power rating of the appliance is related the power it consumes. Every electrical
appliance has a power rating which indicates the amount of electricity required to do work. .
This is usually given in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
The Energy consumption of a device is calculated by multiplying the wattage of a device and
operational hours
 Energy consumption = Wattage X operational hours.
 Calculation of Power consumption of electrical home appliances.
 Let us consider different home appliances to calculate approximate total energy consumption of
house per month.

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No of Total Energy Energy consumed in

Total
SL operational consumed = No of kwh(unit) per day=
Appliances Watts NO no of
NO hours per watts X No of energy consumed /
watts
day operation hours 100

1 Tube light 60W 10 600 5 3000

2 Fan 75W 4 300 8 2400 2.4

3 Refrigerator 200W 1 200 24 4800 4.8

1000
4 AC 1 1000 5 5000 5
W

5 Laptop 50W 1 50 2 100 0.1

6 Television 50W 1 50 3 150 0.15

1000
7 Grinders 1 1000 1/2 500 0.5
W

8 Printers 50W 1 50 1/2 25 0.025

Washing 2000
9 1 2000 1 2000 2
machine W

1000
10 Micro wave 1 1000 1 1000 1
W

total no of units
18.9=19 Units
consumed per day
 calculation of power consumption of electrical home appliances
 Therefore per day 19 units of energy is consumed
For 1 month = 19 x 30 = 570 units per month

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Calculate Electricity Bill Amount Manually

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to determine the energy consumption between two meter readings and
calculate the total kilowatt-hours used-

 Locate the current meter reading and the previous meter reading on your electricity meter or utility bill.
The readings are usually labeled as “Current” and “Previous” or “Start” and “End”
 Subtract the previous meter reading from the current meter reading. This will give you the difference in
kilowatt-hours consumed during the billing period
 Take note of any digits after the decimal point in the readings. Some meters may display readings with
decimal places, such as 1234.5 kWh
 Calculate the energy consumption by subtracting the previous reading from the current reading. If there
are decimal places, subtract them separately
 If the readings have decimal places, subtract the decimal portion of the previous reading from the decimal
portion of the current reading
 Add the whole number difference to the decimal difference to obtain the total kilowatt-hours used during
the billing period.

For Example-

Let’s take the previous meter reading to be 1500 kWh

And current meter reading at 1750 kWh

Step 1: Current reading – Previous reading = 1750 kWh – 1500 kWh = 250 kWh

In this example, the energy consumption between the two meter readings is 250 kilowatt-hours.

EQUIPMENT SAFETY MEASURES

FUSE

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Electric fuse works on the principle of the heating effect of electric current. It is placed in series with the
device. A fuse consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy of an appropriate melting point, for
example, aluminum, copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.

Working Principle of an Electrical Fuse

To understand the working principle behind an electrical fuse, two critical concepts should be kept in
mind

1. Current flows in a loop

2. Heating effect of current

 Electric current can flow through a conductor only when the circuit formed is complete. If there
is a break in the loop, electric charges cannot flow through.
 This is also how switches operate.

 For example, when you put on the light switches at home, the lights come on because you
have just completed the circuit allowing charges from the power source to flow through
and power your lights.
When current passes through a conductor, the different electrical components of the circuit like
the devices attached or even the wire itself, offer resistance to the current flow.
 The work done to overcome this resistance presents itself in the form of heat.
 This is a simple explanation of the “heating effect” of current.

Principle of Electrical Fuse

 The primary use of an electric fuse is to protect electrical equipment from excessive current and
to prevent short circuits or mismatched loads.

 Electrical fuses play the role of miniature circuit breakers.

 Apart from protecting equipment, they are also used as safety measures to prevent any
safety hazards to humans.
The fuse wire in an electrical fuse is selected in such a way that it does not face any damage
when the normally stipulated amount of current flows through the circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the fuse wire is a part of the circuitry, contributing to a
complete loop for charges to flow through it.
 However, when an excessive amount of current flows through the fuse wire, the heating
effect of the current causes the fuse wire to melt.

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 This is because the fuse wire is chosen such that it has a low melting point.
 This causes the loop to break thereby stopping the flow of charges in the circuit.
It is important to select a fuse that is properly specified for the circuit in consideration.
 For example, if the fuse that is used is underrated, then it will fail even under normal
current conditions, unnecessarily breaking the circuit loop.
 If it is overrated, then it will not break the circuit when required and cause equipment
damage and failure and may even present itself as a safety hazard.
ll not break the circuit when required and cause equipment damage and failure and may even present
itself as a safety hazard.

Function of Fuse

In the field of electrical engineering, a fuse is a device that provides over current protection to the
functional electrical circuit. Here, we have listed a few major functions of the fuse.

 Acts as a barrier between the electric circuit and the human body
 Prevents device failure due to faulty circuit operation
 Fuse prevents short-circuits
 Prevents overload and blackouts
 Prevents damage that is caused due to mismatched loads
The markings on the fuse carry information such as the Ampere rating, voltage rating, and interruption
rating.
Advantages of Fuse:

 Fuse is cheapest type of protection in an electrical circuit

 Fuse needs zero maintenance
 Operation of fuse is simple and no complexity is involved
 Fuse has the ability to interrupt enormous short circuit current without producing noise, flame,
gas or smoke
 The operation time of fuse can be made much smaller than operation of circuit breaker. It is the
primary protection device against short circuits
 It affords current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions
 Fuse inverse time current characteristic has the ability to use for over-load protection
Disadvantage of Fuse:

 During short circuit or overload once fuse blows off replacing of fuse takes time. During this
period the circuit lost power

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 When fuses are connected in series it is difficult to discriminate the fuse unless the fuse has
significant size difference

Miniature Circuit Breaker

MCB is an automatic switch that opens when excessive current flows through the circuit. It can be reclosed
without any manual replacement. In the case of a fuse, once it has been operated, it must be replaced or rewired,
depending on the type of the MCB. Hence, fuse is known as one of the sacrificial devices. This is the main reason
why MCBs are used as an alternative to the fuse in most of the circuits. Also, whenever there is a fault in the
circuit, the switches in the MCB automatically shut down and the fault of the device can be easily detected.

Working Principle of MCB

MCB
Working

Whenever continuous overcurrent flows through MCB, the bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This
deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a mechanical latch.

As this mechanical latch is attached to the operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker
contacts, and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. To restart the flow of current
the MCB must be manually turned ON.

This mechanism protects from faults arising due to overcurrent or overload and short circuits.

But during short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly, causing electromechanical displacement of the
plunger associated with a tripping coil or solenoid. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing the immediate

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release of the latch mechanism consequently opening the circuit breaker contacts. This was a simple explanation
of a miniature circuit breaker’s working principle.

An MCB is very simple, easy to use, and is not generally repaired. It is just easier to replace. The trip unit is the
main part, responsible for its proper working. There are two main types of trip mechanisms.

A bi-metal provides protection against overload current and an electromagnet provides protection against electric
short-circuit current.

Miniature Circuit Breaker – Operation

If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bi-metallic strip becomes overheated and deformed. This
deformation of the Bi-metallic strip causes displacement of the latch point.

The moving contact of the MCB is arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, a little
displacement of the latch causes, the release of spring and makes the moving contact move for opening the MCB.

The current coil or trip coil is placed so that during a short circuit fault the magneto-motive force (mmf) of the
coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and make the latch to be displaced.

Again, when the operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by hand, that means when MCB goes
off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result of moving contact separated from fixed contact
in the same manner.

It may be due to the deformation of a bi-metallic strip, increased mmf of a trip coil, or maybe a manual operation,
the same latch point is displaced and the same deformed spring is released, which is ultimately responsible for the
movement of the moving contact. When the moving contact is separated from fixed contact, there may be a high
chance of arc.

This arc then goes up through the arc runner and enters arc splitters and is finally quenched. When we switch it
on, we reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and the MCB is ready for another switch off
or trip operation.

Fuse vs MCB

Nowadays miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are much more commonly used in low voltage electrical networks
instead of fuses. The MCB has many advantages compared to a fuse:
1. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during the abnormal conditions of the network (both
overload and fault conditions). The MCB is much more reliable in the detection of such conditions, is it is
more sensitive to change in current.
2. As the switch operating knob comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical
circuit can easily be identified. But in case of a fuse, the fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip

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or cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse wire. Thus is it much detect if an MCB has been
operated compared to a fuse.
3. Quick restoration of supply can not be possible in case of fuse, as fuses have to be rewirable or replaced
for restoring the supply. But in the case of an MCB, quick restoration is possible by (literally) flipping a
switch.
4. The handling of an MCB is more electrically safe than a fuse.
5. MCBs can be controlled remotely, whereas fuses can not.

Advantages of MCBs:
 MCBs have more sensitive to current then fuse.
 It has quick work against short circuits.
 It works quickly on overloading and under voltage.
 It is reusable hence less maintenance cost and less replacement cost.
 It is very simple to resume the supply.
 It can be easily used circuit control switch when needed.
 Handling MCB is electricity safer than handling fuse, in case of MCB.
 It has reliable.
 MCB provides a better interface.
 MCB performance immediate indication of faculty circuit.
 The performance of MCB is good in case of earth leakage.
 In the case of surge current, The MCB has time delay characteristics, therefore, it works
properly.
 Shorter tripping time under moderate over current than with fuses.
 When the use of MCB, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of MCBs:
 The cost of the MCB is greater than the fuse.
 The cost of the MCB distribution board is greater than the rewireable fuse board.
 The risk of overloading of the circuit due to unqualified of the person operating than completing
removed.

Personal safety measures electric shock

1. Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of electric current.

2. Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.

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3. If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also a good
idea to put up a sign on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switch ON by accident.

4. Always use insulated tools while working.

5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment which may
become energized unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs like “Shock Risk”.
Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules established by the electrical code followed
by the country you’re in.

6. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch circuit or
any other electrical circuit.

7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a tester.
When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an
electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering
of the service panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your
work.

8. Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your home.
An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use a
bamboo, wooden or a fibreglass ladder instead.

9. Know the wire code of your country.

10. Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is a RCD
(Residual Current Device). They have become very common in modern homes, especially damp areas
like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock hazards. It is designed to disconnect
quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over current or short circuit faults.

11. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating. Circuit breakers and fuses
are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live wire when a condition of short circuit or
over current occurs. The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential. Normally for
protection against short circuits a fuse rated of 150% of the normal circuit current is selected. In the case
of a circuit with 10 amperes of current, a 15 ampere fuse will protect against direct short circuits
whereas a 9.5 amperes fuse will blow out.

12. Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The damp soil around the cable is a
good conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite common in the case of underground cabling.
Using a spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily so it is better to dig at the cable by hand
while wearing insulated gloves.

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13. Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric board or service panel as you
could end up short circuiting the bare ends of the live wire with the neutral. The cap insulates the copper
ends of the cable thus preventing any kind of shock even if touched mistakenly.

14. Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor stores energy and if it’s not
properly discharged when removed it can easily cause an electric shock. An easy way to discharge low
voltage capacitor is that after removal from the circuit is to put the tip of two insulated screw drivers on
the capacitor terminals. This will discharge it. For high voltage ones a 12 Volts light bulb can be used.
Connecting the bulb with the capacitor will light up the bulb using up the last of the stored energy.
15. Always take care while soldering your circuit boards. Wear goggles and keep yourself away from
the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily
cause burns.

Working with electricity can be dangerous, so it’s important to take safety precautions to protect
yourself and others. Here are some other safety tips to keep in mind when working with electricity:

Safety Precautions to avoid shock

1. Always turn off the power source before starting any electrical work. This includes turning off the
circuit breaker or unplugging the device.
2. Wear personal protective equipment (PPE) such as safety glasses, rubber gloves, and non-
conductive shoes.
3. Use tools that are specifically designed for electrical work and ensure they are in good condition.
4. Avoid working in wet or damp conditions or with wet hands.
5. Do not touch electrical parts or wires with bare hands, use tools or gloves instead.
6. Keep your work area clean and free from any flammable or combustible materials.
7. Always follow proper wiring procedures, and use proper insulation techniques.
8. Do not work on live circuits, even if you are experienced.
9. Make sure that any electrical work is done according to local codes and regulations.
10. If you are unsure of what to do, consult with a qualified electrician or seek professional advice.

Earthing
Earthing is a process of instant discharge of electrical energy which takes place by transferring the
charges directly to the earth with the help of low resistance wire. Earthing is used for protection from
electric shock. It protects us by providing a protective conductor for a fault current to flow to the earth.
Earthing also causes the protective device like a circuit-breaker or a fuse to switch off the electric
current to the circuit which has the fault.

Earthing is done to ensure safety by connecting the electrical appliance to the grounding/earthing system
or electrodes placed near the soil or below ground level.

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The flat iron riser-equipped electrode or earthing mat is installed underneath the ground's surface. It aids
in the connection of all non-current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment.

The fault current from the equipment passes via the earthing system whenever an overload current is
transmitted through the equipment or when a system fault arises due to the current. The earth mat
conductors help raise the voltage by an amount equal to the earth mat's resistance multiplied by a ground
fault. This protects the equipment from overload or fault currents.

A building has 3 different wire types: live, neutral, and earth. The ground is linked to the buried metal
plate and live and neutral conduct electric current from the power plant. When in use, electric equipment
like TVs, iron boxes, and refrigerators are all linked to the ground wire. As a result, these gadgets are
shielded from shocks or poor electrical supplies. Local earthing is carried out close to the home's
electrical meter.

Types of Earthing

Earthing, or electrical grounding, is done in housing, wiring, and electrical devices. The various types of
electric earthing systems are:

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1. Pipe Earthing

Fig 2: Pipe Earthing

Pipe earthing is a common method of connecting to the earth's electrical conductors by using a steel
pipe. Galvanized steel pipe with a diameter of 38 mm and a length of 2 meters is used as an earth
electrode in pipe earthing by being laid vertically in the ground.

The amount of moisture in the soil and the strength of the current influence the size of the iron pipe that
needs to be used. The soil's moisture will determine the maximum depth at which the steel pipe may be
installed.

The finest and most effective method of earthing is pipe earthing, which is also easily affordable.

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2. Plate Earthing

Fig 3: Plate Earthing

For this form of earthing, a plate composed of copper or galvanized iron is placed vertically in the
ground pit less than three meters above the ground. For a more effective electrical grounding system,
one must maintain the earth's moisture condition surrounding the plate earthing system.

This plate is attached to electrical wires to redirect the electric charge within the earth.

3. Strip or Wire Earthing

Fig 4: Strip or Wire Earthing

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In this form of earthing, strip electrodes with a minimum cross-sectional area of 6.0 mm2 and a
minimum depth of 0.5 m are buried in horizontal trenches. If the electrodes are made of galvanized iron
or steel, their cross-sectional area shall not be less than 25 mm x 1.6 mm.

When buried in the ground, a conductor with a minimum length of 15 m would provide enough earth
resistance.

4. Rod Earthing

Fig 5: Rod Earthing

In this method of earthing, a copper rod with a galvanized steel pipe is placed vertically into
the ground manually or with a hammer to the desired value; the lengths of the implanted
electrodes reduce the earth's resistance.

The rod used for this purpose is buried in the dirt at a certain depth, securely diverting the
short-circuit electricity to the ground.

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This earthing technique is suitable for sandy areas and is also very budget-friendly.

Advantages of Earthing
1. The safest and most effective way to provide safety for a building from electrocution is through earthing.
2. The earth has no potential and is considered neutral. Balancing is accomplished because low resistance
cable links low equipment to the ground.
3. Metal may be utilized in electrical systems without considering its conductivity since it won't transmit
current if properly earthed.
4. If sufficient earthing precautions are taken, a rapid increase in voltage or overload has no negative effects
on the object or the user.
5. It reduces the possibility of fire hazards that the current leakage may otherwise bring about.

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