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01 Introduction

The document provides an overview of computer architecture and evolution. It discusses how computer systems have evolved from mechanical devices to today's integrated circuits. The key components of a computer system including the processor, memory, input and output devices are described. The processor contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit to execute instructions. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from caches to primary and secondary storage. Input devices feed data to computers while output devices send results to the outside world.

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Ahana Saha
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31 views

01 Introduction

The document provides an overview of computer architecture and evolution. It discusses how computer systems have evolved from mechanical devices to today's integrated circuits. The key components of a computer system including the processor, memory, input and output devices are described. The processor contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit to execute instructions. Memory is organized in a hierarchy from caches to primary and secondary storage. Input devices feed data to computers while output devices send results to the outside world.

Uploaded by

Ahana Saha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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15/01/24

Computer Architecture and Opera2ng System

Prof. Indranil Sengupta


Department of Computer Science and Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Evolu2on of Computer Systems

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Introduc2on

• Computers have become part and parcel of our daily lives.


• They are everywhere (embedded systems?)
• Laptops, tablets, mobile phones, intelligent appliances.
• It is required to understand how a computer works.
• What are there inside a computer?
• How does it work?
• We disJnguish between two terms: Computer Architecture and
Computer Organiza3on.

• Computer Organiza2on:
• Design of the components and funcJonal blocks using which computer
systems are built.
• Analogy: civil engineer’s task during building construcJon (cement, bricks,
iron rods, and other building materials).
• Computer Architecture:
• How to integrate the components to build a computer system to achieve a
desired level of performance.
• Analogy: architect’s task during the planning of a building (overall layout,
floorplan, etc.).

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Historical Perspec2ve

• Constant quest of building automaJc compuJng machines have


driven the development of computers.
• IniJal efforts: mechanical devices like pulleys, levers and gears.
• During World War II: mechanical relays to carry out computaJons.
• Vacuum tubes developed: first electronic computer called ENIAC.
• Semiconductor transistors developed and journey of miniaturizaJon began.
• SSI à MSI à LSI à VLSI à ULSI à …. Billions of transistors per chip

Genera2on Main Technology Representa2ve Systems

First (1945-54) Vacuum tubes, relays Machine & assembly language


ENIAC, IBM-701
Second (1955-64) Transistors, memories, I/O Batch processing systems, HLL
processors IBM-7090
Third (1965-74) SSI and MSI integrated circuits MulJprogramming / Time sharing
Microprogramming IBM 360, Intel 8008
Fourth (1975-84) LSI and VLSI integrated circuits MulJprocessors
Intel 8086, 8088
Fieh (1984-90) VLSI, mulJprocessor on-chip Parallel compuJng, Intel 486

Sixth (1990 onwards) ULSI, scalable architecture, post- Massively parallel processors
CMOS technologies PenJum, SUN Ultra workstaJons

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Evolu2on of the
Types of Computer
Systems

The future?
• Large-scale IoT based systems.
• Wearable compuJng.
• Intelligent objects.

Evolu2on of
PC form
factors over
the years

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Inside a laptop
• MiniaturizaJon in feature sizes of
all parts.
• Hard drive gehng replaced by
flash-based memory devices.
• Cooling is a major issue.

Moore’s Law

• Refers to an observaJon made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in


1965.
• The number of transistors per square inch on integrated circuits shall double
every year.
• Moore's law predicts that this trend will conJnue into the foreseeable future.
• Although the pace has slowed, the number of transistors per square
inch has since doubled approximately every 18 months.
• This is used as the current definiJon of Moore's law.

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Simplified Block Diagram of a


Computer System
• All instrucJons and data are stored in
memory.
• An instrucJon and the required data
are brought into the processor for
execuJon.
• Input and Output devices interface
with the outside world.

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• Inside the Processor


• Also called Central Processing Unit (CPU).
• Consists of a Control Unit (CU) and an Arithme3c Logic Unit (ALU).
• All calculaJons happen inside the ALU.
• CU generates sequence of control signals to carry out all operaJons.
• The processor fetches an instrucJon from memory for execuJon.
• An instrucJon specifies the exact operaJon to be carried out.
• It also specifies the data that are to be operated on.
• A program refers to a set of instrucJons that are required to carry out some specific task (e.g.
sorJng a set of numbers).
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• What is the role of ALU?


• It contains several registers, some general-purpose and some special-
purpose, for temporary storage of data.
• It contains circuitry to carry out logic opera3ons, like AND, OR, NOT, shie,
compare, etc.
• It contains circuitry to carry out arithme3c opera3ons like addiJon,
subtracJon, mulJplicaJon, division, etc.
• During instrucJon execuJon, the data (operands) are brought in and stored
in some registers, the desired operaJon carried out, and the result stored
back in some register or memory.
• Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.

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• What is the role of control unit?


• Acts as the nerve center that senses the states of various funcJonal units and
sends control signals to control their states.
• To carry out a specific operaJon (say, R1 ß R2 + R3), the control unit must
generate control signals in a specific sequence.
• Enable the outputs of registers R2 and R3.
• Select the addiJon operaJon.
• Store the output of the adder circuit into register R1.
• When an instrucJon is fetched from memory, the operaJon (called opcode) is
decoded by the control unit, and the control signals issued.

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• Inside the Memory Unit


• Two main types of memory subsystems.
• Primary or Main memory, which stores the acJve instrucJons and data for the program
being executed on the processor.
• Secondary memory, which is used as a backup and stores all acJve and inacJve programs
and data, typically as files.
• The processor only has direct access to the primary memory.
• In reality, the memory system is implemented as a hierarchy of several levels.
• L1 cache, L2 cache, L3 cache, primary memory, secondary memory.
• ObjecJve is to provide faster memory access at affordable cost.
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Input Devices
• Used to feed data to the computer system from
the external environment.
• Data are transferred to the processor/memory aeer
appropriate encoding.
• Common input devices:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• JoysJck
• Camera

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Output Devices
• Used to send the result of some computaJon to
the outside world.
• Common output devices:
• LCD/LED screen
• Printer and Plooer
• Speaker / Buzzer
• ProjecJon system

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