SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and

Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

WATER DESALINATION BY HUMIDIFICATION AND

DEHUMIDIFICATION OF AIR, SEAWATER GREENHOUSE
PROCESS

Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee

UR EBSS Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Tunis, BP 37, 1002 Le Belvédère, Tunisie
INGREF

Keywords: Water Desalination, Humidification, Dehumidification, Seawater

greenhouse

Contents

1. Introduction
2. Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
2.1. Moist Air
2.2. Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
2.3. Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
2.4. Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
2.5. Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3. Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH): Principles and Fundamentals
3.1. Process Description
3.2. The Condenser in the SWGH
3.2.1. Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
3.2.2. Cooling the Condenser
3.3. The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
3.4. The planting area in the SWGH
3.5. Construction and Materials
3.6. Energy Requirements
3.7. Economics and Applications
4. Design of SWGH
4.1. Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
4.2. Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
4.3. Design of Condensers
4.4. Venting System
4.5. Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5. Overview on the installed SWGH projects: Case Studies
5.1. Case Study 1: The SWGH project in Tenerife
5.1.1. Description of the Pilot Plant
5.1.2. Performances of the SWGH
5.2. Case Study 2: The SWGH Project in UAE
5.2.1. Description of the Pilot Plant
5.2.2. Performances of the Pilot Plant
5.3. The SWGH Project in Oman
5.3.1. Description of the Pilot Plant
5.3.2. Performances of the SWGH
6. Conclusion

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

Summary

The Seawater Greenhouse (SWGH) is a novel concept which combines natural

processes and simple construction techniques to provide a low-cost solution to one of
the world's greatest needs - fresh water. SWGH is a new development that offers
sustainable solution to the problem of providing water for agriculture in arid coastal
regions. The process uses seawater to cool and humidify the air that ventilates the
greenhouse and sunlight to distil fresh water from seawater. Fresh water is condensed
out of the humid air. This enables the year round cultivation of high value crops that
would otherwise be difficult or impossible to grow in hot and arid regions.

In this work an overview on the fundamentals and applications of SWGH is presented.

It includes basic process design, system configuration, choice of material and
components.

The process is analyzed from thermodynamic point of view; heat and mass transfer
occurring in the different components of seawater greenhouses are detailed. The
corresponding models are discussed and analyzed. A particular interest was given to the
cooling process of the condenser used in SWGH since it is the major limiting concept.

The performance of the process in different locations and the influence of the climate
conditions (radiation, humidity and wind velocity) are investigated. Finally, a number of
pilot plants installed worldwide in Canary Islands, UAE and Oman are presented and
their performances discussed.

1. Introduction

The continued growth of demand for water and increasing shortage of supplies are two
of the most certain and predictable scenarios of the 21st century. Population growth is
threatening the availability of fresh water in many regions of the world.

Over a billion people do not have access to a safe supply of water and the number is
growing. Large areas of the world already suffer from drought while deserts and
populations increase in size. Rainfall remains broadly constant, yet demand for water
has doubled in the last 20 years. As demand outstrips renewable supply, the depletion of
ground water is accelerated. In coastal regions this causes saline intrusion which
reduces the ability to grow crops and is now a major problem in many parts of the world
(Vorosmarty et al. 2000).

Agriculture accounts for 70% of fresh water used globally. This percentage is often
higher in regions that suffer from chronic water shortages. In the Middle East and North
Africa, for example, up to 90% of available water is used in agriculture (Mahmoudi et
al. 2010a).

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

Agriculture, with a high demand for water, will be a major pressure point. Conventional
agriculture is very inefficient in its use of water. Of all the water used to irrigate crop,
less than 1% can be expected to find its way into the final edible product. As fresh water
resources are finite, there is an inexorable pressure to reduce agricultural use of water
(Goosen and Shayya 1999; Paton ans Davies 1996; Mahmoudi et al. 2008; Mahmoudi et
al.2009a; Mahmoudi et al. 2010a; Mahmoudi et al. 2009b; Khalil 1993).

Although seawater is abundant, conventional desalination consumes substantial energy,

usually derived from fossil fuels. There is a need for affordable and sustainable means of
producing food and water, without reliance on energy reserves. Meanwhile, there is a
growing opinion that future solutions should involve not only cheaper and better ways of
providing freshwater, but also more economical ways of using this increasingly precious
resource.

The humidification–dehumidification process (HD) is a versatile technique that can be

adapted for water desalination (Mahmoudi et al. 2010a). This method has several
advantages such as flexibility in capacity, moderate installation and operating costs,
simplicity, possibility of using low temperature and the use of renewable energy (e.g. solar,
geothermal, recovered energy or cogeneration). One of the most promising HD processes
we can mention here is the Seawater Greenhouse (SWGH).

The SWGH, employing humidification–dehumidification processes, provides a possible

solution to this dilemma by creating a growing environment that substantially reduces
the amount of water required for irrigation, in addition to providing a new source of
fresh water (Trieb et al. 2000, Hamed et al. 1993, Kumar and Tiwari 1998, Al Hallaj et
al. 1998 and Fath 1998). It is a method of cultivation that provides desalination, cooling
and humidification in an integrated system. Its purpose is to provide a sustainable means
of agriculture in arid coastal areas where the scarcity of freshwater and expense of
desalination threaten the viability of agriculture.
There are several benefits for the development of the SWGH system in arid regions. It
provides for additional water supplies for other purposes such as the development of
environmental projects. It also allows for the reclamation of salt-infected land by not
relying, at all, on groundwater resources. In addition, it gives the opportunity to develop
a high value agricultural sector that is sustainable in the long term and immune to
climatic variations.

Even in efficient irrigation systems, a very large fraction of the water is lost through
transpiration.

Plant scientists have studied mechanisms of water loss in great details. The classic model
for representing water loss from crops is the Penman equation which compares the process
to evaporation from an open pool of water (Allen et al. 1998). In simple terms the equation
can be written as:

Rate of water loss  b R  c D (1)

Where R is the net radiation received by the crop. The term D is the vapor deficit, meaning
the difference between the saturation vapor content of the air and its actual vapor content.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

The terms b and c are approximately constant for a given range of conditions.

The Penman equation suggests two strategies for reducing water requirements.

i. Reduction of the radiation R by means of shading; or possibly selective shading to

favor photosynthetically active wavelengths of light.
ii. Reduction of the vapor deficit D through humidification of the air.

Both of these strategies are employed in the SWGH. In addition, the Greenhouse addresses
the issue of excessive water loss from crops by incorporating them in a system that
recovers some of the transpired water. The SWGH combines, in a single system,
desalination with a water-efficient method of cultivation.

Although the common methods of desalination such as distillation and reverse osmosis
have been the subject of many investigations, studies of the HD process and in particular
SWGH have been limited. A rigorous mathematical model describing the basic
phenomena (heat and mass transfer) occurring in the different components of greenhouse
(evaporators, condensers and cultivating areas) is required to design and evaluate the
performances of new and existing systems.

Moreover, the efficiency of SWGH depends on the climate conditions. Because the
desalination process is driven mainly by solar energy, sunlight is the weather variable that
most influences the performance of the SWGH. However, other variables such as wind
and humidity are also significant and this means that the optimum design and mode of
operation may vary across the regions. Hence, the mathematical modeling of the process
must take into account all these phenomena.

After the initiation in 1991 and the installation of several prototypes worldwide (Canary
Islands, UAE and Oman), today, SWGH is ready for implementation in any arid region
where a sustainable approach to agriculture and water production is needed.

2. Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification

The SWGH is a desalination process using air humidification and dehumidification

(HD). Like all the HD desalination processes, the moist air is used as a mean
transporting the vapor from the humidifier (evaporator) to the dehumidifier (condenser).

All engineering calculations required to design and model SWGH system start with
estimations of the air-water vapor mixture properties that are the basis for heat and mass
balances. It is widely used to illustrate and analyze the change in properties and the
thermal characteristics of the air -HD process and cycle.

2.1. Moist Air

For thermal analysis, moist air may be treated as a binary mixture of dry air and water
vapor. The composition of dry air varies slightly at different geographic locations and
from time to time. The variation of water vapor has a critical influence on the
characteristics of moist air. The moist air can be considered as ideal gas; hence the

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

relationship between its thermodynamic properties can be given by the following

equation of state:

pv  RTR (2)

where

p = pressure of the gas,

v = specific volume of the gas,
R = gas constant,
TR = absolute temperature of the gas,

The most exact calculation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air is based on the
formulations recommended by Hyland and Wexler (1983) of the U.S. National Bureau
of Standards. The psychrometric charts and tables developed by ASHRAE are
calculated and plotted from these formulations (Wang and Lavan 1999). Applying
Dalton’s law to moist air gives:

Pat  pa  pw (3)

where:

Pat = atmospheric pressure of the moist air,

pa = partial pressure of dry air,
pw = partial pressure of water vapor,

The moist air state can be described by several parameters:

i. Humidity and Enthalpy

The humidity ratio of moist air, w , in (kg H2O/kg dry air) is defined as the ratio of the
mass of the water vapor, mw to the mass of dry air, mda (Wang and Lavan 1999):

mw pw
w  0.61298 (4)
mda pat  pw

The relative humidity of moist air,  , or RH, is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction
of water vapor, xw , to the mole fraction of saturated moist air at the same temperature
and pressure, xws . Using the ideal gas equations, this relationship can be expressed as:

  xw xws T ,P  pw pws T ,P (5)

and

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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nw nws
xw  ; xws 
nda  nw nd a  nws

xda  xw  1 (6)

Where

pws = pressure of saturated water vapor,

T = temperature,
nda , nw , nws = number of moles of dry air, water vapor, and saturated water vapor,

Then, within the temperature range 0 to 100C, the enthalpy of the moist air can be
calculated as:

h(T , w)  cp.daT  w  hg0  cp.wT  (7)

where

cp.da , cp.w = specific heat of dry air and water vapor at constant pressure,
hg0 = specific enthalpy of saturated water vapor at 0C.

ii. Moist Volume, Density, Specific Heat, and Dew Point

The specific moist volume v , is defined as the volume of the mixture of dry air and the
associated water vapor when the mass of the dry air is exactly 1 kg:

V
v (8)
ma

where V = total volume of the moist air. Since moist air, dry air, and water vapor
occupy the same volume,

RaTR
v (9)
Pat 1  1.6078w

Moist air density, often called air density  , is defined as the ratio of the mass of dry
air to the total volume of the mixture, or the reciprocal of the moist volume:

ma 1
  (10)
V v

The sensible heat of moist air is the thermal energy associated with the change of air
temperature between two state points. In Equation (7),  cp.da  wcpw  T indicates the

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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sensible heat of moist air, which depends on its temperature T . Latent heat of moist air,
often represented by w  hg 0 , is the thermal energy associated with the change of state of
water vapor.

cp.a  cp.da  wcp.w (11)

The dew point temperature Tdew , is the temperature of saturated moist air of the moist air
sample having the same humidity ratio at the same atmospheric pressure. Two moist air
samples of similar dew points Tdew at the same atmospheric pressure have the same
humidity ratio w and the same partial pressure of water vapor pw .

iii. Wet Bulb Temperature

The wet bulb temperature of moist air Twb , corresponds to the equilibrium temperature
of water mass evaporating in air in the case where the heat required for evaporation is
extracted from air. The difference T  Twb  is representative of the relative humidity
HR of air since:

 It is equal to zero if air is saturated (HR=100%): no evaporation is possible

 It increases with the difference  pw×s T   pw  , which is the motor term of mass
transfer, hence it decreases when HR  pw pw×s T  increases.

iv. Psychrometric Charts

Moist air has seven independent thermodynamic properties or property groups: h , T ,

 , Twb , pat ,   v and w  pw  Tdew . When pat is given, any additional two of
independent properties determine the state of moist air on the psychrometric chart and
the remaining properties.

A psychrometric chart is a graphical presentation of the thermodynamic properties of

moist air and various air-conditioning processes and air-conditioning cycles (eg: the
case of HD process). A psychrometric chart also helps in calculating and analyzing the
work and energy transfer. Psychrometric charts currently use two kinds of basic
coordinates (Wang and Lavan 1999):

1. h-w charts: In h-w charts, enthalpy h , representing energy, and humidity ratio w ,
representing mass, are the basic coordinates. Psychrometric charts published by
ASHRAE and the Charted Institution of Building Services Engineering (CIBSE) are
h-w charts.

2. T -w charts: In T -w charts, temperature T and humidity ratio w are basic

coordinates. Psychrometric charts published by Carrier Corporation, the Trane
Company, etc. are T -w charts (Wang and Lavan 1999).

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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Figure 1 shows an abridged ASHRAE psychrometric chart.

Figure 1. The abridged ASHRAE psychrometric chart: (i) the determination of moist air
properties (ii) air properties change in HD process

2.2. Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes

In a humidifying process, water vapor is added to moist air and increases the humidity
ratio of the moist air entering the humidifier if the moist air is not saturated. In HD
process, humidification of moist air is usually performed by evaporation from a water
spray, or a wetted medium. The humidifying capacity is given by:

mhu  Vs s  wout  win  (12)

where wout , win = humidity ratio of moist air leaving and entering the humidifier.

Generally, nozzles are used to spray preheated water into moist air in order to humidify
it. A condenser (generally cooling coil) is used to cool and dehumidify the moist air.
When moist air flows through the humidifier, the moist air is humidified and
approaches saturation. This actual adiabatic saturation process approximately follows
the thermodynamic wet bulb line on the psychrometric chart as shown by line ab
(Figure 1). The humidity ratio of the moist air is increased while its temperature is
reduced. The cooling effect of this adiabatic saturation process is called evaporative

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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cooling.

In a cooling and dehumidifying process, both the humidity ratio and temperature of
moist air decrease. Some water vapor is condensed in the form of liquid water, called a
condensate. This process is shown by curve b-c on the psychrometric chart in Figure 1.
Three types of heat exchangers are used in a cooling and dehumidifying process: (1)
water cooling coil; (2) direct expansion DX coil, where refrigerant evaporates directly
inside the coil’s tubes; and (3) air washer, in which chilled water spraying contacts
condition air directly (Wang and Lavan 1999). The temperature of chilled water
entering the cooling coil or air washer Twe , determines whether it is a sensible cooling
or a cooling and dehumidifying process. If Twe is smaller than the dew point of the
entering air in the washer, or Twe makes the outer surface of the water cooling coil
Ts×t  Tdew×in it is a cooling and dehumidifying process. If Twe  Tdew×in or Ts×t  Tdew×in
sensible cooling occurs. The cooling coil’s load or the cooling capacity of the air washer
qcc , is:

qcc  ms  ha.in  ha.out   mc hc (13)

where
ha.in , ha.out = enthalpy of moist air entering and leaving the coil or washer,
mc = mass flow rate of the condensate,
hc = enthalpy of the condensate,

Since the thermal energy of the condensate is small compared with qcc , in practical
calculations the term is often neglected, and

qcc  ma  ha.in  ha.out  (14)

The sensible heat ratio of the cooling and dehumidifying process SHRc can be
calculated from

qcs
SHRc  (15)
qcc

where qcs = sensible heat removed during the cooling and dehumidifying process.

SHRc is shown by the slope of the straight line joining points b and c. The relative
humidity of moist air leaving the water cooling coil or DX coil depends mainly on the
outer surface area of the coil including pipe and fins.

2.3. Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination

Conventional desalination methods such as MSF, ME, VC and RO are suitable for large

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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and medium capacity fresh water production (100-50,000 m3/day). El Dessouky and
Ettouney (2001) presented these processes in detail. These technologies are expensive
for small amounts of fresh water and cannot be used in locations where there are limited
maintenance facilities (Nafey et al. 2004a-b). On the other hand, most remote arid areas
need low capacity desalination systems.

The humidification dehumidification (HD) desalination process is viewed as a

promising technique for small capacity production plants. The process has several
attractive features, which include conceptual simplicity with respect to other
desalination processes, operation at low temperature, ability to utilize sustainable
energy sources, i.e. solar and geothermal, and requirements of low technology level
(Bourouni et al. 2001, Bouchekima et al. 2001, Houcine et al. 2006, Al-Hallaj et al.
2006). Also, it can be designed to minimize the amount of energy discarded to the
surroundings. Capacity of HD units is between conventional methods and solar stills
(Nawayesh et al. 1999a-b).

HD units work with distillation under atmospheric conditions by an air loop saturated
with water vapor, and has three main sections: the humidifier, dehumidifier and heat
source. This can be described by bringing warm unsaturated air into contact with warm
saline water under specified conditions in order to reach a certain desired air humidity
(Figure 2.a). This step is followed by stripping out the water vapor in the humidified air
by passing it through a condenser. The vapor carrying capability of air increases with
temperature; 1 kg of dry air can carry 0.5 kg of water vapor and about 2803 kJ when its
temperature increases from 30 to 80°C. The HD process should essentially include a
heating device for both air and feed water and a humidifying apparatus in order to bring
them into contact. In order to achieve a full saturation of the air stream it was found that
structured packing in the humidification unit is required (Dai and Zhang 2000). The
air/water ratio should be optimized to maximize the system efficiency.

The system design can be based on natural or forced air convection (Bourouni et al.
2001). Air humidification decreases the air density because of the low molecular
weight of water. This implies that air will rise in a humidifier because of the decrease
in its density. On the other hand, air dehumidification in the condenser would increase
the air density. Accordingly, the air would sink in the condenser; hence, a convection
cell can be initiated within the system. In the case of forced air convection, a blower is
used to move the air from the humidifier to the dehumidifier.

The HD process can be classified also to direct or indirect. In direct HD process the
water is in a direct contact with air (e.g. solar still, air washer). The indirect solar HD
process has the advantage of separating the heating surface from the evaporation zone,
and therefore, the heating surface is relatively protected from corrosion or scale
deposits. The HD process can be used in a closed or open air cycle. In an open air cycle,
the amount of fresh air feed to the unit increases water productivity while the closed air
cycle has the higher thermal efficiency.

Several layouts for the humidification dehumidification process can be considered

(Ettouney 2005) including the conventional system combined with either one of the
following units to condense/extract the water vapor from the air: (1) water condenser,

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
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(2) membrane air drying, (3) vapor compressor, and (4) lithium bromide absorption
desorption (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Different layouts of Humidification Dehumidification (HD) process (a)

Conventional Humidification Dehumidification process; (b) Humidification vapor
compression; (c) Humidification process combined with desiccant material; (d)
Humidification and membrane drying, (Ettouney, 2005)

Figure 3 shows a typical closed loop HD process configuration driven by solar energy
(Nafey et al. 2004a); the corresponding thermodynamic cycle is presented in the Figure
1. In this process solar collectors are used to preheat water and air.

The disadvantage of the HD is the low conversion ratio in the humidifier which is less
than 0.01 kg product per 1 kg water flowing in the humidifier (Muller-Holst et al.
1999). This ratio is increased upon the increase of the hot water temperature, air and
water flowrates. On the other hand, the evaporation efficiency decreases at higher water
or air flow rates because of the increase in the sensible heat load of the system. This
would reduce the water evaporation rate and humidification efficiency. Reduction of the
condenser heat transfer area requires use of finned tube configuration. This is necessary
because of the low heat transfer coefficient on the air side; this is irrespective of water
vapor condensation, which account for a very small percentage of the entire air stream.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of (HD) process driven by solar energy,

(Nafey et al. 2004a)

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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

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SWGH concept is presented with a particular interest to the condenser. Two types of condensers were
tested and their performances discussed]
Dawoud B., Zurigat Y.H., Klitzinga B., Aldoss T., Theodoridis G. (2006). On the possible techniques to
cool the condenser of seawater greenhouses, Desalination 195, 119–140. [In this paper a theoretical study
of possible cooling techniques for the condenser of SWGH is presented. Possible candidate techniques are
discussed. Theoretical assessment of these techniques is conducted and the results are reported]
El-Dessouky H.T., Ettouney H.M. (2001). Fundamentals of salt water desalination, Elsevier. [The book
focuses on the processes widely used in desalination industry (MSF, MED and RO). Also, other
desalination processes with attractive features and high potential are considered].
Ettouney H. (2005) Design and analysis of humidification dehumidification desalination process.
Desalination 183, 341–352. [This paper evaluates the characteristics of several layouts for the
Humidification Dehumidification process].
Farid M.M., Nawayseh N.K., Al-Hallaj S., Tamimi A.R. (1995). Solar desalination with humidification
dehumidification process: Studies of heat and mass transfer, Proc., Conference: SOLAR 95, Hobart,
Tasmania, 1995, pp. 293–306. [This paper studied the different principles of heat and mass transfer
occurring during humidification dehumidification process].
Farid M.M., Hamad F. (1993). Performance of a single basin solar still, Renewable Energy 3, 75–83. [In
this paper a single-basin solar still was tested and the influence of the different parameters on its
efficiency was studied].
Fath H.E.S., Ghazy A. (2002). Solar desalination using humidification dehumidification technology.
Desalination 142, 119-133. [In this paper a numerical study has been carried out to investigate the
performance of a simple solar desalination system using Humidification-Dehumidification processes].
Fath H.E.S. (1998). Solar desalination: A promising alternative for water provision with free energy,

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

simple technology and a clean environment. Desalination 116, 45-56. [This paper presents an overall
review and technical assessment of the various and up-to-date developments in single and multi-effect
solar stills].
Finlay I.C., Harris D. (1984). Evaporative cooling of tube banks, Intern. J. Refrigeration 7 (4), 214–224.
[Thermal rating methods for evaporatively cooled banks of tubes are reviewed under different
classifications].
Goosen M.F.A, Salbani, S.S., Paton C., Perret J., Al-Nuaimi A., Haffar I., Al-Hinai H., Shayya W.H.
(2003). Solar energy desalination for arid coastal regions: development of a humidification-
dehumidification seawater greenhouse, Solar Energy, 75, 413-419 [In this paper one thermodynamic
model, based on heat and mass balances, for the SWGH id detailed. This latter was used to determine the
influence of greenhouse-related parameters on the process].
Goosen M.F.A, Shayya W. (1999) Water management, purification and conservation in arid climates: vol.
I. Water management. Lancaster, PA, USA: Technomic Publishing Co. 1–6. [The aim of this introductory
chapter is to provide a brief overview of some of the key water issues facing arid regions. It focuses on
different methods for increasing the usable water supply, water pollution and economic development,
management of irrigation systems and water policy]
Hamed O.A., E.I. Eisa, Abdalla W.E. (1993). Overview of solar desalination. Desalination 93, 563-579
[This paper presents an overview of solar powered desalination plants based on nearly 50 scientific papers
and technical reports.]
Hasan A., Siren K. (2003). Performance investigation of plain and finned tube evaporatively cooled heat
exchangers, Appl. Therm. Eng. 23, 325–340. [The performance of two evaporatively cooled heat
exchangers was investigated under similar operating conditions of air flow rates and inlet hot water
temperatures].
Herbert W. Stanford III. (2003). HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers, Fundamentals, Application
and Operation, Marcel Dekker, Inc [This book provides practical information and guidance relative to the
application, design, purchase, operation, and maintenance of water chillers and cooling towers.]
Hesselgreaves J.E. (2001). Compact Heat Exchangers, Selection, Design and Operation, Pergamon [The
purpose of this book is to summarize industrial concepts that have been developed in the last 10 years in
the field of heat exchangers].
Hestroni G. (1982). Handbook of Multiphase Systems. McGraw Hill Book Co. [This book presents the
different applications of Multiphase systems and the governing related mechanisms]
Houcine I., Ben Amara M., Guizani A., Maâlej M. (2006). Pilot plant testing of a new solar desalination
process by a multiple-effect-humidification technique. Desalination 196, 105–124. [The aim of this
investigation was to experimentally test a new solar desalination process working with an air multiple-
effect humidification–dehumidification technique].
Hyland R.W., Wexler A. (1983). Formulations for the Thermodynamic Properties of Dry Air from 173.15
to 473.15 K, and of Saturated Moist Air from 173.15 to 372.15 at Pressures up to 5 Mpa, ASHRAE
Trans., 89/2, 520-535. [In this paper, formulations and sample calculations are given for the volume,
enthalpy and entropy of dry and moist air, along with relationships for the volume, enthalpy and entropy
of saturated moist].
Kassam A., and Smith M. (2001). FAO Methodologies on Crop Water Use and Crop Water Productivity,
Paper NO CWP-M07, Expert Meeting on crop water productivity, Rome 3-5 December 2001. [This note
provides an overview of the FAO methodologies that have been developed and promoted for the
computation of crop water requirements, crop water productivity under adequate and deficit water supply
and for irrigation requirements and scheduling.]
Khalil A. (1993). Dehumidification of atmospheric air as a potential source of fresh water in the UAE.
Desalination 93. 587–96. [A cooling/dehumidification process to recover water from ambient humid air
in coastal regions in UAE was investigated. The process was analyzed and the parameters controlling the
heat and mass transfer rates are optimized for the climatic conditions in humid regions in the UAE].
Kittas C., Bartzanas T. Jaffrin A. (2003). Temperature Gradients in a Partially Shaded Large Greenhouse
equipped with Evaporative Cooling Pads, Biosystems Engineering 85 (1), 87-94. [To predict the

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

temperature gradients along a greenhouse, a simple climate model was proposed which incorporated the
effect of ventilation rate, roof shading and crop transpiration.]
Kittas C., Bartzanas T. (2007). Greenhouse microclimate and dehumidification effectiveness under
different ventilator configurations. Building and Environment 42, 3774–3784. [In this paper, the
efficiency of two different greenhouse ventilation opening configurations on greenhouse microclimate
during dehumidification process with simultaneously heating and ventilation was analyzed by means of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) using a commercial program based on the finite volume method.]
Kumar A.M., Tiwari G.N. (1998). Optimization of collector and basin areas for a higher yield for active
solar stills. Desalination 116, l-9. [This communication presents a thermal analysis of an active solar still
for the optimization of collectors as well as the basin area for a higher yield for a given water depth.].
Mahmoudi H., Spahis N, Goosen MF, Ghaffour N, Drouiche N, Ouagued A. (2010a). Application of
geothermal energy for heating and fresh water production in a brackish water greenhouse desalination
unit: a case study from Algeria. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 14, 512–517. [The aim of this paper is to
outline new brackish water greenhouse desalination unit powered by geothermal energy for the
development of arid and relatively cold regions, using Algeria as a case study.]
Mahmoudi H., Spahis N., Sabah A., Abdul-Wahab S.A.A, Sablani S.S, Goosen M.F.A. (2010b).
Improving the performance of a Seawater Greenhouse desalination system by assessment of simulation
models for different condensers, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, in press. [The main
objective of this paper is the development of mathematical model for a new proposed passive condenser
in order to enhance the performance of a humidification–dehumidification Seawater Greenhouse
desalination system]
Mahmoudi H., Ouagued A., Ghaffour N. (2009a). Capacity building strategies and policy for desalination
using renewable energies in Algeria. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 13, 921–6. [In this paper, an overview of
capacity building strategy and policy for desalination in Algeria is presented].
Mahmoudi H., Spahis N., Goosen M.F.A., Sablani S., Abdul-wahab S., Ghaffour N., (2009b).
Assessment of wind energy to power solar brackish water greenhouse desalination units: a case study
from Algeria. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 13, 2149–55. [In this study, the potential of using wind energy
to drive small scale desalination units in southern Algeria was investigated].
Mahmoudi H., Abdul-Wahab S.A., Goosen M.F.A., Sablani S.S., Perret J., Ouagued A. (2008). Weather
data and analysis of hybrid photovoltaic–wind power generation systems adapted to a seawater
greenhouse desalination unit designed for arid coastal countries. Desalination 222, 119–27. [The aim of
this research is to develop the idea of using solar/photovoltaic or wind energy to power the seawater
greenhouse].
Molineaux B., Lachal B., Guisan O. (1994). Thermal analysis of five unglazed solar collector
systems for the heating of outdoor swimming pools. Solar Energy 53, 25-32. [The performance and
behavior of five unglazed solar collector installations, devoted to the heating of five outdoor
swimming pools located in Switzerland, is studied on the basis of experimental data collected in
1988].
Mortensen L.M. (2000). Effects of air humidity on growth, flowering, keeping quality and water
relations of four short-day greenhouse species, Scientia Horticulturae 86, 299-310 [The objective of
this study was to evaluate growth, morphology and keeping quality as influenced by air humidity in
some flowering greenhouse plants].
Muller-Holst H., M. Engelhardt, W. (1999). Scholkopf, Small-scale thermal seawater desalination
simulation and optimization of system design, Desalination 122, 255–262. [This paper presents an
optimized distillation method which was originally developed at the University of Munich and which was
protected by patent].
Nafey A.S., Fath H.E.S., El-Helaby S.O., Soliman A.M. (2004a). Solar desalination using humidification
dehumidification processes. Part I. A numerical investigation, Energy Conversion and Management 45,
1243–1261. [A numerical investigation of a humidification dehumidification desalination (HDD) process
using solar energy is presented]
Nafey A.S., Fath H.E.S., El-Helaby S.O., Soliman A.M. (2004b). Solar desalination using

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

humidification–dehumidification processes. Part II. An experimental investigation. Energy Conversion

and Management 45, 1263–1277. [An experimental investigation of a humidification–dehumidification
desalination (HDD) process using solar energy at the weather conditions of Suez City, Egypt, is
presented]
Nawayseh N.K., Farid M.M., AL-Hallaj S., Tamimi A.R. (1999a) Solar desalination based on
humidification process: I–Evaluating the heat and mass transfer coefficients, Energy Conversion and
Management 40, 1423–1439. [This paper aims to develop a correlation for the heat and mass transfer
coefficient in Humidification Dehumidification units. The developed correlations were used in the second
part of this work]
Nawayseh N.K., Farid M.M., Omar A.Z., Sabrin A. (1999b). Solar desalination based on humidification
process—II. Computer simulation, Energy Conversion and Management 40, 1441–1461. [The main
objective of this work was to construct a simulation program that could be used in the design of
Humidification Dehumidification Desalination Units].
Nawayseh N.K., Farid M.M., Omar A.Z., Al Hallaj S.M., Tamimi A.R. (1997). A simulation study to
improve the performance of a solar humidification-dehumidification desalination unit constructed in
Jordan. Desalination 109, 277-284. [In this paper an attempt was made to study the possibility of
improving the performance of a desalination unit constructed previously in Jordan through a simulation
program].
Paton A.C., Davies A. (2006). The seawater greenhouse cooling, freshwater and fresh produce from
seawater. The 2nd International Conference on Water Resources in Arid Environments, King Saud
University Riyadh 2006. [The seawater greenhouse installed in Oman was presented ]
Paton A.C. (2001). Seawater Greenhouse Development for Oman: Thermodynamic Modeling and
Economic Analysis, MEDRC Project 97-AS-005b. [The main objective of this study was to determine the
influence of greenhouse-related parameters on a desalination process that combines fresh water
production with the growth of crops in a greenhouse system]
Paton C., Davies A. (1997). The seawater greenhouse for arid lands. In: Proceedings of Mediterranean
conference on renewable energy sources for water production. [In this paper, the main concepts of the
Seawater greenhouse was presented]
Perret J.S., Al-Ismail A.M., Sablani S.S. (2005). Development of a Humidification-Dehumidfication
System in a Quonset Greenhouse for Sustainable Crop Production in Arid Regions. Biosystems
Engineering 91 (3), 349-359. [This paper presents a pilot design for a humidification–dehumidification
system in a Quonset greenhouse. The
objective of this study was to investigate the potential of saline/brackish water evaporation and freshwater
condensation to provide an alternative source of freshwater for irrigation in a greenhouse].
Pita E.G., John J.E.A., (1970) The effect of forced convection on evaporative cooling of sprays in air,
Proc. 4th International Heat Transfer Conference, Paris-Versailles, 7, 1970, Paper CT3.12. [Equations of
motion, heat and mass transfer for a liquid drop evaporating in a gas are developed].
Rodriguez L.G. (2001). Seawater desalination driven by renewable energies: A review, Desalination 143,
103–113. [This paper deals with seawater desalination systems driven by renewable energies. A review of
pilot plants and perspectives of development was presented].
Sablani S. S., Perret J., Goosen M. F. A., Paton C., Davies P. A., Al-Hinai H., Al-Nuaimi A., Shayya W.
H. (2005). Development of Humidification-Dehumidification Seawater Greenhouse Technology for Arid
Coastal Regions, Third LACCEI International Latin American and Caribbean Conference for Engineering
and Technology (LACCEI’2005). ―Advances in Engineering and Technology: A Global Perspective‖, 8-
10 June 2005, Cartagena de la India, COLOMBIA [A thermodynamic simulation study was performed
for the seawater greenhouse].
Sablani S., Goosen M.F.A., Paton C., Shayya W.H., Al-Hinai H. (2003). Simulation of fresh, water
production using a humidification–dehumidification seawater greenhouse. Desalination 159, 283–288. [A
thermodynamic simulation study was performed on the influence of greenhouse-related parameters on a
desalination process that combines fresh water production using humidification-dehumidification with the
growth of crops in a greenhouse].

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

Soufari S.M., Zamen M., Amidpour M. (2009). Performance optimization of the humidification–
dehumidification desalination process using mathematical programming. Desalination 237, 305–317. [In
this paper the humidification–dehumidification desalination process was studied and its performance
optimized using mathematical programming. An advantage of this method was the consideration of
simultaneous effect of various parameters on process performance].
Trieb F., Nitsch J., Kronshage S., Schillings C., Brischke L. A., Knies G. (2000). Combined solar power
and desalination plants for the Mediterranean region: Sustainable energy supply using large-scale solar
power plants. Proc. EUROMED, Sharm El-Sheikh, 423-430. [This paper gives a review of concentrating
solar power technologies and shows their perspectives for sustainable development and climate
protection].
Vlachogiannis M. , Bontozoglou V., Georgalas C., Litinas G. (1999). Desalination by mechanical
compression of humid air. Desalination 122. 35–42. [A novel desalination concept was described,
combining the principles of humidification-dehumidification and mechanical vapor compression].
Vorosmarty C.J., Green P., Salisboury J., Lammers R.B. (2000). Globar Water Resources: Vulnerability
from Climate Change and Population Growth, Science 289, 284-288 [In this paper the situation of water
resources and word population growth were discussed].
Wang S.K., Lavan Z. (1999) Chapter 9: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration, Mechanical Engineering
Handbook, Ed. Frank Kreith, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC. [This chapter gives an overview of the
different Air-Conditioning Refrigeration systems and their corresponding thermodynamic cycles].
www.seawatergreenhouse.com [This website present the different seawater greenhouse projects installed
worldwide]

Biographical Sketches

Karim Bourouni, Assistant Professor at the National Engineering School of Tunis (ENIT) and researcher
in the Research Unit Energetic in Buildings and Solar System in the same school in Tunisia. He got his
graduation in Engineering from ENIT in Industrial Engineering in 1994 and received his PhD in
Mechanical Engineering in University of Marseille (France) in 1998. The subject of his PhD was
characterization of heat and mass transfer in falling-film, horizontal-tube evaporators used in a small
desalination unit functioning by air humidification and dehumidification. Since his PhD, his main
research field of interest is the development of small desalination units driven by renewable energies for
remote areas. In particular, he focused on humidification dehumidification processes driven by solar
energy and Reverse Osmosis coupled to hybrid systems (Wind and Photovoltaic). He coordinates several
national and international cooperation projects in the field of desalination and renewable energies
(European FP6 projects, AUF, PRF, etc.). He is member in several Desalination Associations
(International Desalination Association, European Desalination Society, Arabic Water Council, Tunisian
Association of Desalination, etc.) and reviewer for some journals (Desalination Journal, Canadian Journal
of Chemical Engineering, etc.).He is author of about 40 publications in referred journals and several
proceedings of international scientific conferences and workshops.

Thameur Chaibi, A Senior Researcher at the National Research Institute for Rural Engineering
(INRGREF), water and Forestry, Tunis, Tunisia. Assigned to the program of renewable energies use in
rural areas (solar thermal desalination for irrigation, Geothermal water use for heating greenhouses).
Responsible for the experimental research station of the INRGREF in "Hazeg" (Eastern coast part
Tunisia). His tasks include coordination of the experimentation protocols, related to field of irrigation
systems and water quality improvements in arid area conditions, carried out by the researchers of the
institute. He holds his master degree in hydraulic and rural development Engineering from the National
Institute of Agronomy in Tunis, June 1987 and prepare his Ph.D. degree at the Uppsala University in
Sweden. He coordinates several international projects: project of using geothermal energy, in the southern
part of Tunisia (Kebili), for heating greenhouses and producing fresh water for irrigation (
SERST/Tunisia, PUGA/Belgium, the project of introducing solar energy applications in rural areas of
Tunisia (AOAD : Arab Organization for Agricultural Development, the project of solar drying coffee
product in Kagera region of Tanzania. (SIDA Sweden, KARADEA solar facility in Tanzania, the project
of optimization and design of geothermal water-cooling towers in the south of Tunisia. (Tunisian
Agricultural Ministry), the Project INCO-MED on Policy Initiative to Overcome Water Competition

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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Water Desalination by Humidification and
Dehumidification of Air, Seawater Greenhouse Process - Karim Bourouni, Mohamed Thameur Chaibi, Ali Al Taee

between the Vital Economic Sectors of Agriculture and Tourism in the Mediterranean. He taught in
different international training courses in the field of renewable energy applications in rural areas
(Damas- Syria-1988, Amman- Jordan- 1993, Malta (1998), Tanzania (2000, 2002).

Ali Altaee: A researcher in the Environmental engineering, wastewater treatment and water desalination.
He finished his PhD at the department of Environmental Engineering in Brighton University, the UK. He
did several research studies in water treatment and membrane separation technologies at, Brighton
University, the University of New South Wales and Surrey University. Then in 2008 he joined Doosan
R&D Center in Dubai, UAE.Research interests: Membrane separation technologies, seawater
desalination, wastewater treatment and modeling, pollutant transport in soil and aquifers, soil and aquifer
treatment and remediation. The author has several papers in seawater desalination, wastewater treatment
and soil remediation. He also has few patents in seawater desalination, ion separation, renewable energy
methods, and membrane separation processes.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)