The Child and Adolescent

Learners and Learning

Principles

First Semester
Issues and Theories about Human
Development
Introductory Message ……………………………………………. 03
What I Need To Know ……………………………………………. 04
What I Know ……………………………………………. 05

LESSON 1: Issues on Human Development 06-17

What’s In ……………………………………………. 06
What’s New ……………………………………………. 06-07
What is it? ……………………………………………. 08-16
What’s More? ……………………………………………. 17

LESSON 2: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories 18-26

What’s In ……………………………………………. 18
What’s New ……………………………………………. 19-20
What is it? ……………………………………………. 20-26
What’s More? ……………………………………………. 26

What I Have Learned? ……………………………………………. 27

What I Can Do? ……………………………………………. 27-28
Assessment ……………………………………………. 29-32
Additional Activities ……………………………………………. 32-33
Answer Key ……………………………………………. 34
References ……………………………………………. 35-36

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Introductory Message

Learning about ourselves and others both benefits our knowledge and
intelligence. Starting with knowing about our development leads to learning our whole
selves. From gaining insights and learning to change throughout a person’s life.
Studying human development educates people on the subject matter, guides social
policies, and enhances our understanding of how individuals and societies evolve.
Moreover, delving into human development contributes to fostering a more
informed and compassionate approach to addressing the diverse needs of individuals
and communities. So, what does this module provide in helping you to understand
human development?
1. It outlines the concepts, issues and theories on human development.
2. It helps you understand the influence of different theories and issues on
our development.
3. It allows you to distinguish the differences of developmental theories and
issues.
Substantial knowledge about the issues and theories on human development is
important as it helps you to determine the things that influence your development. In this
module, you are guided through a set of learning parts that will help you understand the
underlying issues and theories about human development.
1. What I Need to Know- Introducing the learning objectives of the lesson.
2. What I Know- A test to assess your prior knowledge about the lesson.
3. What’s In- Connecting your previous knowledge with the new lesson.
4. What’s New- Introducing the new lesson through an activity.
5. What Is It- Discovering and understanding the issues and theories about
human development.
6. What’s More- Enrich your learnings about the issues and theories on
human development.
7. What I Have Learned- Process what you have learned throughout the
module through an activity.
8. What I Can Do- Application of what you have learned into real life
situations.
9. Assessment- Evaluates your level of mastery in achieving the learning
objectives.
10. Additional Activities- Improves your mastery of learning about the lessons.
This module will help give you all the essentials needed in understanding the
issues and theories about human development.

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What I Need To Know

Many important questions have been discussed in the history of developmental

psychology. Understanding the issues in human development and the theories that
explain them is vital for several reasons. First and foremost, it helps us make sense of
how people grow and change throughout their lives. By studying these issues, we gain
valuable insights into the factors that shape individuals, from childhood to old age. This
knowledge isn't just about personal growth; it also extends to how societies function and
what influences our behaviors.

Moreover, delving into developmental theories provides a framework for

organizing and interpreting these observations. Theories, proposed by influential
psychologists, offer us tools to comprehend complex aspects of human behavior.
Additionally, understanding these theories assists policymakers in crafting strategies
that support individuals at various stages of life, promoting overall well-being in society.

In essence, the study of human development and its associated theories is like
having a roadmap for understanding ourselves and others. It guides us in navigating the
diverse challenges and experiences people face, fostering a more compassionate and
informed approach to individual and societal growth. This knowledge becomes a
cornerstone for creating supportive environments that nurture the potential inherent in
each stage of human life. This module should enable the learners to:

1. Distinguish the issues and theories that affect human development.

2. Appreciate the influence and impact of developmental theories in our lives.
3. Narrate the application of the theories or concepts of development issues
in self-development through an activity.

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What I Know

Directions: Before starting this module, let us see what you already know about the
Issues and Theories on Human Development.
Instructions: Read the statements carefully then write TRUE if the statement is correct
and FALSE if you think the answer is not correct.
__________ 1. Nature refers to the biological and genetic predispositions inherited by
individuals from their parents at birth.
__________ 2. John Locke believes that the mind is a blank state at birth (tabula rasa)
with experience determining our knowledge.
__________ 3. Plato and Sigmund Freud supported the idea that some are inborn.
__________ 4. Psychoanalytic theories are influenced by the work of Aristotle.
__________ 5. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes,
skills, and abilities.
__________ 6. Early experience is considered to be giving a large impact on an
individual's development.
__________ 7. They called the supporters of nature hereditarian or nativist.
__________ 8. Continuous development emphasizes learning and personal
experiences as significant factors shaping our identity.
__________ 9. Carl Rogers is the founding father of Psychoanalysis.
__________ 10. Frustration is the psychosexual stage refers to the theoretical notion
that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular
stage of his development.
__________ 11.The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It
consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality.
__________ 12. Erik Erikson was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way
parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how
their personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as
adults.
__________ 13. Ego operates according to the reality principle.
__________ 14. Id holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire
from our parents and society.
__________ 15. Electra complex is the most important aspect of the phallic stage.

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LESSON 1 Issues on Human
Development

What’s In

Many important questions have been discussed in the history of developmental

psychology. These questions challenge every theory on human development. It was
debated by many psychologists up until now, showing that understanding how we
develop and change over our lives is complex. Due to this, it serves as a catalyst for the
refinement of developmental theories, compelling experts to revisit frameworks and
contribute to a deeper comprehension of human development.

In this lesson, this module will describe the concept of every issue on human
development that was developed throughout the years by many psychologists.
Moreover, it will compare and contrast many theories that serve as an issue to many
developmental experts. Lastly, it will tackle the broad theories that affect human
development.

What’s New

Guess the Word Challenge!

Directions: With the given hint pictures, try to guess the following words by filling the
space in the missing letters.

1. N _ _ U _ E

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2. D _ _ E _ _ P _ E _ _

3. _ S Y_ _ O _ _ G _

4. _ U_ T U R _

5. P H _ _ _ S _ P _ _ R S

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What Is It

Major Questions That Sets The Issues On Human Development:

1. Is development due more to genetics or environment?
2. Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in
stages?
3. Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development
or are later events equally important?
In relation to these questions, below are the issues tackled by many
psychologists.
A. Nature VS Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment,
usually referred to as the nature versus nurture debate, is one of the oldest issues in
both philosophy and psychology. Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported
the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke
argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth,
with experience determining our knowledge. Some aspects of development are
distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by
environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Nature- refers to the biological heredity and genetic predispositions inherited by

individuals from their parents at birth.

As articulated by Buheji (2018) in the "nature vs. nurture" debate, nature

encompasses an individual's innate qualities, a perspective often associated with
nativism. This innate aspect of nature encompasses physical characteristics such as
eye color, facial features, personality traits, and behavioral tendencies. Those who
support the notion that these traits are primarily influenced by genetic factors are
commonly referred to as hereditarians or nativists. Thus, the concept of nature plays a
crucial role in discussions surrounding the origins of individual differences and the
interplay between genetic and environmental influences on human development.

Nurture- pertains to environmental factors that significantly shape an individual's

growth and maturation.

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Coon and Mitterer (2014) define nurture as the collective influence of all external
conditions that impact a person. This encompasses a diverse range of factors, including
parenting style, educational experiences, and cultural background. Empiricists, as
proponents of this perspective, contend that the external environment and experiences
play a pivotal role in determining an individual's characteristics, behaviors, and overall
development. The concept of nurture underscores the importance of external influences
in shaping the course of human life and is central to the ongoing nature vs. nurture
debate within the field of developmental psychology.

B. Early Experience VS Later Experience

A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the
relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we
more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally
important role?

Early Experience
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood.
According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of
five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or abusive
childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
● Experience throughout infancy.
● Considered to be giving a large impact on an individual’s development.

Later Experience
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood
events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life.
Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into
well-adjusted adults.
● Key determinant of an individual’s development.

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● Key factor of overcoming early traumatic experiences that burden an
individual’s development.

C. Continuity VS Discontinuity
Continuity
This perspective on development underscores the idea that personal growth is a
gradual and continuous journey, suggesting that individuals evolve over time through a
series of interconnected experiences. It places a premium on the notion that learning
and personal encounters play pivotal roles in shaping one's identity, implying that the
accumulation of knowledge and the impact of various life events contribute significantly
to who we become.

Moreover, the emphasis on quantitative changes implies a focus on measurable

aspects of development. This could involve assessing factors such as skill acquisition,
knowledge expansion, or behavioral adjustments. The quantitative lens suggests a
method of evaluating progress and transformation, aligning with the idea that
development is a tangible and trackable process with identifiable milestones and
changes over time.

Examples:
➢ Early Childhood (0-5 years): In the early years, children start by babbling,
imitating sounds, and eventually forming simple words. As they interact with their
environment, they assimilate new vocabulary and begin constructing basic
sentences.
➢ Middle Childhood (6-11 years): During this period, language development
becomes more sophisticated. Children expand their vocabulary, grasp
grammatical structures, and enhance their ability to express complex thoughts.
Reading and writing skills also progress.
➢ Adolescence (12-18 years): Teenagers experience a surge in language
complexity. They develop more advanced communication skills, understand
abstract concepts, and refine their use of language for various purposes, such as
academic writing or social interactions.
➢ Adulthood (19+ years): Language development continues into adulthood.
Individuals refine their communication skills, adapting language use to different
contexts and audiences. They may acquire additional languages, and their
vocabulary continues to expand through ongoing learning and experiences.

Discontinuity
This perspective on human development places a spotlight on the role of genetic
predispositions in guiding individuals through discernible stages. The concept of

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discontinuous development within this framework suggests that these stages are
characterized by qualitative shifts or distinct changes rather than a smooth, continuous
progression.

In essence, discontinuous development implies that individuals pass through

identifiable phases, each marked by unique characteristics and behaviors. These shifts
are considered qualitative because they signify fundamental changes in cognition,
emotion, or behavior that differentiate one stage from another.

When discussing discontinuity theories in psychology, it often refers to stage

theories. These theories propose that human development occurs in discrete,
sequential stages, with each stage having its own set of characteristics, challenges, and
achievements. This perspective underscores the idea that development is not a uniform
process but rather unfolds in distinct, qualitatively different phases driven, in part, by
genetic factors.

Examples:
➢ Preconventional Moral Reasoning (Childhood): In the preconventional stage,
individuals make moral decisions based on self-interest and avoidance of
punishment. This is typically characteristic of children, where their moral
reasoning is guided by external consequences.
➢ Conventional Moral Reasoning (Adolescence): During adolescence, individuals
often transition to conventional moral reasoning. This stage involves adhering to
societal norms and rules, seeking approval, and maintaining social order. Moral
decisions are influenced by a desire to conform to the expectations of others.
➢ Postconventional Moral Reasoning (Adulthood): Not everyone reaches this
stage, but some individuals transition to postconventional moral reasoning in
adulthood. At this level, moral decisions are guided by personal principles, ethical
values, and a sense of justice that may transcend societal norms. Individuals
critically evaluate and reflect on the principles underlying moral choices.

Three Broad Areas of Theories

Most developmental theories fall under three broad areas which are the
psychoanalytic, learning, and cognitive theories.

A. Psychoanalytic Theories
Theories that were influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of
psychosexual stages.

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Theorist Erik Erikson expanded on Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of
psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different
stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development
throughout the lifespan.

Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so

developmental theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning
theories rely more on the environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual
differences are an important component of these theories. Today, psychologists look at
both norms and individual differences when describing child development.

Erikson believed that we are aware of what

motivates us throughout life and that the ego has
greater importance in guiding our actions than does the
id. We make choices in our lives consciously and these
choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural
needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are
motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the
world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable
individuals, that we can make a contribution to society,
and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all
psychosocial problems.
Erikson’s theory is based on what he calls the
epigenetic principle, encompassing the notion that we
develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages, and that our
environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages.
Epigenetics explains how early experiences can have lifelong impacts. The
genes children inherit from their biological parents provide information that guides their
development.
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through
eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each
stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively
affect personality development:
1. TRUST VS MISTRUST - It is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth and continues to
approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about
the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability
and consistency of care.
Example:

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Trust: If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a
sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and
affectionate.
Mistrust: Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care
and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity.
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT - According to Erikson, children at this
stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills
and a sense of independence.
Example:
Autonomy: If encouraged and supported in their increased independence,
children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.
Shame and Doubt: On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or
criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT - During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert
themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.
Example:
Initiative: When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative,
they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.The children
will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment. They can begin
to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense
of purpose.
Guilt: If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or
criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.This could
potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY - Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving
industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of
five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their
peers to gauge their abilities and worth.
Example:
Industrial - They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to
understand that they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of
confidence in their ability to achieve goals.
Inferiority - They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that
their efforts aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of
inadequacy.
5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION - During this stage, adolescents search for a
sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal
values, beliefs, and goals.
Example:

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Identity - This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which
helps them form their own unique identity.
Role Confusion - If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore
or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role
confusion. This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and
future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion
about their personal identity.
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION - During this stage, the major conflict centers on
forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Example:
Intimacy: Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form
intimate, reciprocal relationships with others. They can form close bonds and are
comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share
oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make
personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.
Isolation: If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to
earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION - During this stage, individuals focus more
on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to
society.
Example:
Generativity: If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the
world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in
society, they will feel a sense of generativity. Generativity involves concern for others
and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring,
leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.
Stagnation: If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not
involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation. Stagnation
involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth,
and feelings of emptiness.
8. EGO INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR - It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.
Example:
Ego Integrity: If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life,
they will experience ego integrity. This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of
their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a
sense of wisdom and fulfillment.
Despair: On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they
have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may

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experience despair. Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment
with one’s life, and a fear of impending death.

B. Learning Theories
Learning Theories highlights or analyzes the potential effects or impacts of the
environment on the behavior that a person has. It is a factor in each individual's
learning, abilities, and practices and is also regarded as one of the wide areas of theory.

Important Processes:
1. Classical Conditioning - it is one of the most well-known when it comes to
psychology history, and it was discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
To define it in simple terms, it involves pairing two stimuli in order to create
additional knowledge based on the association of unrelated or different stimuli
that have shown to be recognized in any circumstance.
2. Operant Conditioning - Also commonly referred to as instrumental conditioning,
which is a learning process that occurs between a behavior's incentive and
punishment, and which implies that consequences have an impact on behavior.

Example:
Social Learning Theory - It was created by psychologist Albert Bandura as an
alternative to the prior research of colleague B.F. The behaviorist Skinner is well-known
for his influence. Although behavioral psychology concentrates on the ways in which the
environment and reinforcement impact behavior, Bandura argued that people may
acquire new behavioral skills through observation.

C. Cognitive Theories
The focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities is a
central theme in the field of cognitive development. This area of study explores how
individuals acquire, organize, and use information as they grow and mature. It
encompasses a range of cognitive functions, including perception, memory,
problem-solving, language acquisition, and reasoning.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, made significant

contributions to the understanding of cognitive development
with his theory. Piaget's theory of cognitive development posits
that individuals progress through distinct stages as they
develop intellectually.

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Abnormal Behavior VS Individual Differences

Abnormal Behavior
This is an individual behavior that is difficult to recognize or verify because only
experts, such as psychologists, are aware that you have it. However, on instance, it can
also be recognized based on a person's conduct or manner of speaking.

Individual Differences
It highlights the variations in each person's psychological, personal, and
emotional traits.

Types of Individual Differences:

➢ Physical Differences
➢ Differences in intelligence
➢ Differences in attitudes
➢ Differences in achievement
➢ Differences in motor ability
➢ Racial differences
➢ Differences due to nationality
➢ Differences due to economic status.
➢ Emotional differences
➢ Personality differences
Causes of Individual Differences:
➢ Heredity
➢ Influence of caste, race and nation
➢ Sex differences
➢ Age and intelligence
➢ Temperament and emotional stability
➢ Economic condition and education
➢ Environment

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What’s More

Directions: Now that you are done reading and comprehending the discussion above,
answer the following questions based on what you have understood.

1. Based on your own understanding about the abnormal behavior, why is it

important to tackle and comprehend its concept?

2. What is the importance of continuous development (continuity) in people’s proper

growth and development?

3. Why do you think that our development is complex and always open for updating
or revising?

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LESSON 2 Developmental Theories and
Other Relevant Theories

What’s In

In order to make sense of how people grow and change, we need to determine
and study the theories on human development. These theories, proposed by
psychologists, give us frameworks to understand the patterns and stages of human
development. By exploring these theories, we gain valuable insights into factors like
how children learn, how personalities develop, and how people age. It guides educators
in adapting teaching methods to different age groups, helps parents understand their
children better, and assists policymakers in creating supportive environments for
individuals at various stages of life.

This lesson on developmental theories is like having a roadmap that aids us in

understanding and supporting the journey of human growth and development. In this
lesson, it will be tackled the different theories concerning the development of people
and other theories that are related to the given approach.

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What’s New
Word Puzzle.
Directions: Finish the puzzle. Make use of the hints provided to help you fill in the blanks
with the right words.

DOWN:
2. Chewing, sucking, and biting are primary sources of pleasure for infants,
reducing tension.
3. Both sexes start to find new pleasure in masturbating as their sensitivity
moves to their genitalia.
7. Develops from the id and makes sure that the impulses of the id can be
articulated in
a way that is appropriate for everyday life.
8. The main component of personality, and the source of all psychological
energy.

ACROSS:
1. Reflects our internalized moral standards and ideals, which are shaped by our
upbringing and societal influences, and serves as a guide for our decision-making
processes.

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4. The second stage of sexual development, marked by the child's intense
enjoyment of the anus and its related cleansing properties
5. Children's sexual desires are repressed at this period, which results in a
dormant libido and no further psychosexual development.
6. Intimate relationships begin to form throughout this period as romantic and
sexual emotions begin to emerge.

What Is It

SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Shlomo Freud is a Viennese doctor and
the founding father of psychoanalysis. He was an Austrian
neurologist and the most influential intellectual legislator of
his age. He believed that the way parents dealt with
children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would
determine how their personalities developed and whether
or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
Freud theorized that the unconscious would
remember and store all our experiences, later they pop up
from time to time through dreams and associative
thoughts. By revealing traumatic memories and desires
through conversation we can free ourselves from our neuroses and live a more healthy
and fulfilled life. He recommended that we should not strive to eliminate our complexes
but to get into accord with them. They are legitimately what directs our conduct in the
world.
Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual
development: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

Psychosexual Theory is proposed by Sigmund Freud that revolves around the
idea that sexual and aggressive drives are the dominant driving forces of human
personality and behavior. He believed that personality is developed through a series of
childhood stages in which pleasure seeking energies become focused on a certain
erogenous zone that needs to be stimulated.
It claims that as we grow up we pass through five critical phases. Our sex drive,
which Freud called the libido, focuses in a different erogenous zone at each phase. The
phases are called: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

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During each stage of sexual development, sexual energy or the libido is
expressed in different ways and through different body parts. Each psychosexual stage
is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can
successfully advance to the next stage. The resolution of each of these conflicts
requires the expenditure of sexual energy, and the more energy that is expended at a
particular stage, the more important characteristics of that stage remain with the
individual as he/she matures psychologically.
Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops
advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning
the battle it means that they are resolving the conflict, then most of the troops, which
represent the libido, will be able to move on to the next battle. The battle that we are
talking about here is each stage of sexual development. So the greater the difficulty
encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to remain behind to
fight and, thus, the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.
Some people cannot leave one stage and proceed to the next. And here is where
frustration, overindulgence, and fixation will enter. Freud thought that psychosexual
conflict can lead to frustration, overindulgence, and fixation.
Frustration
One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any
particular stage may not have been adequately met, in which case there is frustration.
Overindulgence
The person’s needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to
leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
For example, during the first two years of life, the infant who is neglected or insufficiently
fed or who is over-protected or over-fed might become an orally-fixated person. Mental
abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully and the person becomes
‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how childhood experiences
determine adult personality.
Fixation
Both frustration and overindulgence or any combination of the two, may lead to
what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to
the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual’s libido has been permanently
“invested” in a particular stage of his development.

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STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

First Stage: Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

During this stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. Infants derive pleasure
and comfort from sucking, chewing, and biting.
Personality and behavioral problems occur when oral needs are not met or over
indulged. In adult personality, an oral fixation may be manifested by gossiping and
talking too much, overeating, smoking, and alcoholism.

Examples:
(Before)
Pedro is weaned off his mother’s breast without trauma.
Jose's mother stops feeding him within 4 months of birth, which is too early.
Juan is often left alone crying when she is hungry
(After)
Pedro becomes a healthy and independent adult.
Jose suffers from trauma and develops an oral fixation. He tries to compensate
for it by chewing gum all the time.
Juan spends her entire life looking for the oral stimulation he was denied as an
infant and therefore develops a manipulative and addictive personality.

Second Stage: Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

In this stage, anal activities such as expulsion and/or the retention of bowels
relieve tension and are experienced as pleasurable. The libido is now focused on the
anus. An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.

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1. Anal-expulsive personality – too lenient or too late toilet training; messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality.
2. Anal-retentive personality – too harsh or too early toilet training; stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

Third Stage: Phallic Stage (age 3-6)

At this stage, children begin to discover the differences between males and
females. Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in
both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. Freud believed that boys develop
sexual desire for their mothers, and a desire to eliminate their fathers who are their
competitors for their mother’s affection or what’s known as Oedipus Complex.
Oedipus Complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. The Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict,
arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.
The boy’s hostile fantasies and impulses about their fathers create fear of
retaliation called Castration Anxiety. Because of this, the boys learn to cope with the use
of identification or adopting the roles and behaviors of their fathers.
As boys experience castration anxiety, girls experience penis envy and blame
their mother for the anatomical “shortcomings.” They then transfer their love to their
fathers and desire girls to be with their father to compensate for the lack of penis or
what we call Electra Complex.

Fourth Stage: Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

The libido is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual
development occurs. The word “latent” means hidden. During this stage, children’s
sexual impulses become suppressed, and no further psychosexual development occurs
because our superego strengthens and we strongly identify with social values,
same-sex heroes, and friends.
Psychoanalysis defines this developmental stage as the time between around
the age of six and puberty. The fulfillment of primary sexual urges dominates all other
stages of a child's development, according to psychoanalytic theory, including the anal,
oral, genital, or Oedipus complex, and puberty stages. In the latency phase, kids
typically play with other kids their own age and identify with their parents' sex.
“During the latency stage, the libido is in “do not disturb mode.” According to
Freud, this is the time when asexual, labor-intensive pursuits like education, hobbies,
and interpersonal connections were infused with sexual energy. According to him, this is
the stage at which people acquire sound social and communicative abilities. He thought
that failing to pass this stage could lead to immaturity for the rest of one's life, meaning
that one would not be able to form and sustain satisfying relationships as an adult, both
sexual and non-sexual.

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The majority of sexual impulses are repressed when they are latent, and sexual
energy can be channeled toward friendships, hobbies, and academic pursuits. Play
becomes mostly limited to youngsters of the same gender as the child's energy is
directed toward learning new skills and information

Fifth Stage: Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

During this stage, the libido re-emerges after its latent period and is directed
towards peers of the other sex, marking the onset of mature adult sexuality. Individuals
start to become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires
more maturely and responsibly. This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual
emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships.
The sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than
self-pleasure, like during the phallic stage. So it simply means that in genital stage, once
we reach puberty our libido starts to become active again and we develop an interest in
sexual partners.
Interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage, as opposed to earlier
phases where the focus was exclusively on individual needs. Finding equilibrium
amongst the several facets of life is the aim of this stage. In contrast to numerous
previous phases of growth, Freud thought that the ego and superego were now
completely developed and operational. The id, which controls younger children, requires
that the most fundamental needs and desires be met right away.

PSYCHOANALYSIS
Overview of Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is both an approach to therapy and
theory of personality. It emphasizes unconscious motivation-
the main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious
mind.
Three Structures of Personality:
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego

Tripartite Theory of Personality

Freud, in 1923, saw the personality structured into three parts, the id, ego, and
superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives.
These are systems and not parts of the brain, or in any way physical. These systems
work together to create complex human behaviors.

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The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It
consists of all the inherited components of personality, including
the sex or life instinct that is called – Eros (which contains the
libido), and aggressive or death instinct that is called - Thanatos.
It operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every
wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of
the consequences. The id is driven by the pleasure principle,
which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants,
and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the
result is a state of anxiety or tension. For example, an increase
in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat
or drink. The id is very important early in life because it ensures
that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until
the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants are ruled entirely by the id; there is no
reasoning with them when these needs demand satisfaction.

The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id

and the external real world (like a referee). It is the
decision-making component of personality. The ego operates
according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of
satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or postponing
satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego
considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in
deciding how to behave. Everyone has an ego.

The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of your
personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one
component of your full personality. The ego operates based on the reality principle,
which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The
reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon
or abandon impulses.

The term ego is often used informally to suggest that someone has an inflated
sense of self. However, the ego in personality has a positive effect. It is the part of your
personality that keeps you grounded in reality and prevents the id and superego from
pulling you too far toward your most basic urges or moralistic virtues. Having a strong
ego means having a strong sense of self-awareness.

25
Freud compared the id to a horse and the ego to the horse's rider. The horse
provides power and motion, while the rider provides direction and guidance. Without its
rider, the horse would wander wherever it wished and do whatever it pleased. The rider
gives the horse directions and commands to get it where it wants it to go. The ego also
discharges tension created by unmet impulses through secondary process thinking, in
which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image
created by the id's primary process.

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society

which are learned from one's parents and others. It is similar to a
conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of
guilt. The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It
suppresses all id's unacceptable urges and struggles to make the
ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic
principles. The superego is present in the conscious,
preconscious, and unconscious.

When talking about the id, the ego, and the superego, it is important to remember
that these are not three separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. These
aspects are dynamic and always interacting to influence an individual's overall
personality and behavior. With many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict
might arise between the id, ego, and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to
refer to the ego's ability to function despite these dueling forces. A person who has good
ego strength can effectively manage these pressures, while a person with too much or
too little ego strength can be unyielding or disruptive

Trait Approach to Personality

Trait approach to personality presumes that stable traits, which serve as the
fundamental units of a person's personality, determine behavior. It says that traits
remain consistent over time, but may vary between individuals and this variation may be
due to genetic differences. It is sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because
of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests.

What’s More

Directions: Now that you are done reading and comprehending the discussion above,
answer the following questions based on what you have understood.

26
1. What do you think is the most important part of theory about Sigmund Freud?
And why?

2. Why do you think it is important to learn and to have knowledge about who
Sigmund Freud is?

3. What are your understanding about ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO?

4. How can you relate these theories in your life?

5. Do you think Freud thought that these stages symbolized our desires and
conflicts within our unconscious mind? Explain your answer.

27
What I Have Learned

Fill in the blanks.

Directions: Complete the statement below by writing the correct answers in the blank.

Philosophers such as (1)____________ and (2)____________ supported the

idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as (3)____________
argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth,
with experience determining our knowledge.
Most developmental theories fall under three broad areas which are the
(4)________________, (5)________________, and cognitive theories.
The (6)_________ is dormant during this stage, and no further psychosexual
development occurs. The word “latent” means (7)_____________. During this stage,
children’s sexual impulses become suppressed, and no further psychosexual
development occurs because our (8)______________ strengthens and we strongly
identify with social values, same-sex heroes, and friends.
Freud compared the id to a (9)____________ and the ego to the
(10)_____________.

What I Can Do

AM I WISE?
Directions: Write a 300 - 500 words essay about what you believe to develop and
improve your personality, moral value, and principle as a whole person you are right
now. Carefully analyze what you wrote and subject your answer to further criticism using
these guide questions:

1. Analyze your environment, including family, friends, and school. How have these
influenced your development?
2. How have your genetics influenced your development, and in what ways has
your environment played a role?
3. Consider a challenging period in your life. How did you navigate the psychosocial
conflicts associated with that stage?

28
RUBRIC FOR ESSAY

The content was profound understanding of chosen 10

CONTENT issues and developmental theories, integrating them
seamlessly throughout the essay. Applies personal or
observed experiences effectively to support arguments.

ORGANIZATION The paper was clear and well-organized, with a logical 5

flow of ideas.

DEVELOPMENT Points are thoroughly developed and have a high level 5

of creativity in presenting ideas.

TOTAL 20

Assessment

Directions: Now that you are finished accomplishing the module, let us check what you
have learned. Answer the questions given below by encircling the letter of the correct
answer.

1. What do you call the philosophical and psychological debate that existed
centuries ago concerning the relative contributions of environment and
inheritance?
a. Nature vs. Nurture
b. Early Experience vs. Later Experience
c. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
d. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences
2. What development has influenced Shaina to be a child with a heart of
righteousness because her parents nurtured her well, fostering in her the fear of
God despite the fact that she lives in an area where there is constant trouble?
a. Continuity
b. Nature
c. Discontinuity
d. Nurture
3. Danica states that Andrea acts differently because she is abnormal. But Bea
claims that Andrea is just different from her ideal personality. Which issue or
debate on human development is relevant in this situation?
a. Nature vs. Nurture
b. Early Experience vs. Later Experience

29
c. Continuity vs. Discontinuity
d. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences
4. Nathan is Nestor's youngest child, and he discovered that his son seems to be
developing at a more mature pace in terms of thinking and conduct. What kind of
development is this?
a. Nature
b. Continuity
c. Nurture
d. Discontinuity
5. Learning theories are one of the important processes that include classical and
social conditioning and social learning. They focus on the development of mental
processes, skills, and abilities.
a. The first statement is correct, while the second statement is also correct.
b. The first statement is wrong, while the second statement is also wrong.
c. The first statement is correct, while the second statement is wrong.
d. The first statement is wrong, while the second statement is correct.
6. He is a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with
children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their
personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as
adults.
a. Erik Erikson
b. Jean Piaget
c. Sigmund Freud
d. Carl Rogers
7. In Psychosexual Development of Sigmund Frued, What is the primary focus of
the genital stage?
a. Resolving the Oedipus complex
b. Achieving sexual pleasure through mature relationship
c. Developing a strong ego
d. Establishing a sense of industry
8. The following statements are true about Sigmund Freud, except:
a. He was the most influential intellectual legislator of his age.
b. He proposed a stage theory of psychosocial development.
c. He explained the role of conflict through the analogy of military troops on
march.
d. He is an Austrian Neurologist, considered as one of the pioneering figures
in the field of psychology.
9. Tamy has a 2-year-old son. What stage of sexual development would she apply
to his son? How will she apply for this?

30
a. Tamy’s son is in the oral stage. Tamy should breastfeed his son whenever
he needs it.
b. Tamy’s son is in the phallic stage. She should let her son discover the
difference between the female and male gender.
c. Tamy’s son is in the latency stage. Her son’s libido is inactive, and her son
should focus on his other work.
d. Tamy’s son is in the anal stage. Tamy should toilet train his son.
10. Which of the following situations demonstrates that a person has a strong ego.
a. Warner obeys norms and authorities and as a result suppresses his
desires which leads to the development of perversions.
b. Seby is disciplined at work, has a loving relationship, and a fulfilled sex
life.
c. Verna sexual needs are more important than social norms or other
people’s feelings.
d. Cameron is egoistic and feels no guilt for breaking the law or hurting
others.
11. Your professor told your classmate that he should create an essay regarding
psychoanalytic theory. But your classmate has no idea what psychoanalytic
theory is, and he asked you to elaborate on this topic for him. How will you
elaborate on this topic?
a. Prepare a method of discussion based on his learning style and elaborate
on psychoanalytic theory.
b. Show him a video on YouTube that discusses psychoanalytic theory.
c. Present a flashcard that contains pictures of the brain.
d. I will apologize to my classmate because I also don’t know what
psychoanalytic theory is.
12. According to Freud, it is the stage of sexual development where no further
psychosexual development takes place during this stage.
a. Phallic Stage
b. Anal Stage
c. Oral Stage
d. Latency Stage
13. In Freud’s Tripartite Theory of Personality, what component of personality that is
present from birth?
a. ID
b. Subconscious Mind
c. Superego
d. Ego
14. In psychosexual theory, how is "fixation" defined by Freud?
a. An excessive attachment to one's mother

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b. Getting stuck in a particular psychosexual stage
c. A defense mechanism against repressed desires
d. The inability to form intimate relationships
15. What is the goal of the "repression" defense mechanism according to
psychosexual theory?
a. To forget traumatic experiences
b. To satisfy basic needs
c. To express unconscious desires
d. To protect the ego from anxiety

Additional Activities

Life Journey Collage.

Directions: Group yourselves with 5 to 10 members. Provide each group with the
materials needed and listed below. Create a "Life Journey Collage" representing the
various issues and challenges individuals might face across different stages of human
development. Find images and words in the magazines that symbolize key aspects of
human development, such as education, relationships, career, health, and societal
influences.Then, discuss your choices, explaining why you selected certain images and
how they relate to the challenges individuals encounter during their life journey. After
completion, each group must present their collage, facilitating a discussion on the
diversity of experiences and challenges in human development.

Materials:
● Magazines
● Scissors
● Glue
● Large poster boards or paper
● Markers

Be guided by the criteria below:

Excellence Good Satisfactory Needs

Creativity (25 Exceptionally Creativity is Adequate Limited

points) creative use of evident, with a creativity, but the creativity, and
images and variety of collage lacks a the collage lacks
words, images diverse and visual interest.
demonstrating a contributing to imaginative
high level of the overall approach.
originality. appeal.

32
Relevance (20 All images and Most elements Some relevance, Limited
points) words are highly are relevant, but there are relevance; the
relevant to key effectively instances where collage struggles
aspects of communicating the connection to convey key
human challenges in to human aspects of
development, human development is human
clearly development. unclear. development.
conveying
challenges at
different stages.

Collaboration Seamless Effective Adequate Limited

(20 points) collaboration collaboration collaboration, collaboration,
with all group with evidence of but there are with little
members teamwork, instances of evidence of
actively though some minimal effective
contributing and members may teamwork and teamwork.
effectively have been less communication.
communicating. engaged.

Explanation (20 Clear, insightful Adequate Explanations are Limited or

points) explanations explanations present but lack unclear
provided during with some depth, making it explanations,
the presentation, insight into the somewhat hindering
demonstrating a choices made, challenging to understanding of
deep contributing to understand the the collage.
understanding of an collage fully.
the chosen understanding of
elements. the collage.

Organization (15 The layout is A well- Adequate Limited

points) exceptionally structured layout organization, but organization,
well-organized, enhances the the layout could and the layout
contributing to a overall benefit from detracts from the
cohesive presentation of improved overall
narrative of the the collage. structure. presentation.
life journey.

Reflection (15 Thoughtful Some reflection Limited Minimal or no

points) reflection on the is evident, reflection, with reflection on the
diversity of showing an only basic diversity of
experiences and awareness of considerations experiences and
challenges, diverse of different challenges.
demonstrating a experiences and perspectives.
high level of challenges.
critical thinking.

Total Points:100

33
Answer Key

34
References

Blakeley, S. (2021). Abnormal Behavior: Examples & Criteria | What is Abnormal

Behavior in Psychology? Study.com.
https://study.com/learn/lesson/abnormal-behavior-examples-criteria.html

Cherry, K. (2023, March 13). Freud's Stages of Human Development: The 5

Psychosexual Stages of Development by Age. Very Well Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

Cherry, K. (2022, September 13). Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud's Elements of
Personality. Very Well Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/the-id-ego-and-superego-2795951

Individual differences - definition, causes, types. BrainKart.

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Individual-differences_37801/

Kalat, J. W. (2013). Introduction to Psychology (9th ed.). North Carolina, USA.

Wadsworth Cengage Learning
http://www.ifeet.org/files/Introduction-to-Psychology-9e-by-James-Kalat.pdf 2.

Kassel, G. (2020, February 20). What are Freud’s psychosexual stages of

development? Healthline.
https://www.healthline.com/health/psychosexual-stages#phallic-stage

Kil, M.B. (2022, November 20). Issues on Human Development. SlideShare.

https://www.slideshare.net/MelfrinBarcenillaKil/issues-on-human-development-2543446
33

Koblin, J. (2020. October 27). Psychosexual Development by Sigmund Freud. Sprouts

School. https://sproutsschools.com/psychosexual-development-theory-freud/

Ledesma, O. M. (n.d.). PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles

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Macapagal, M.E.J. & Teh, L. A. (2007). General Psychology for Filipino College
Students. Bellarmine Hall, Katipunan Avenue, Loyola Heights, Quezon City. Ateneo De
Manila University Press

Mcleod, S., PhD. (2023b). Freud’s Psychosexual Theory and 5 Stages of Human
Development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

MSEd, K. C. (2023b, March 13). Freud's Stages of Human Development. Verywell Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

StudySmarter. (n.d.). Continuity vs Discontinuity Theories in Human Development.

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/psychology/developmental-psychology/con
tinuity-vs-discontinuity/

Sus, V., & Drew, C. (2023, October 19). 21 Nature vs Nurture Examples.
HelpfulProfessor.com. https://helpfulprofessor.com/nature-vs-nurture-examples/

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Peer Evaluation:

Student’s Name Evaluation Grade

Caballa, Mariecris R. 39

Cumigad, Irish Nikki 20

Garcia, Ruella T. 40

Gonzales, Erie Anne Ivory C. 39

Guiraldo, May Anne 39

Hufana, Jasper 40

Lim, Rizza Ice Zhea 40

Maranan, Maria Amanda J. 40

Melendres, Juliana S. 40

Novio, Ellaine Marie P. 40

Ocampo, Prince David C. 39

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