ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY

Run-off means the draining or flooding off of precipitation from a catchment area through a surface
channel.

Overland Flow is the excess precipitation moving over the land surfaces to reach smaller channels.

Surface runoff a flow travelling all the time over the surface as overland flow and through the channels
as open channel flow and reaching the catchment area.

Interflow is a part of the precipitation that infiltrates and moves laterally through upper crusts of the soil
and returns to the surface at some location away from the point of entry into the soil. This is sometimes
called as through flow, storm seepage, subsurface flow, or quick return flow. Interflow is classified as:

1. Prompt interflow – an interflow with the least lag

2. Delayed flow

Groundwater flow or Groundwater runoff is a part of run-off that percolates deeper into the soil and
reaching groundwater storage.

Classification of Runoff:

1. Direct Runoff
The part of runoff that enters the stream immediately after the precipitation. It includes surface
runoff, prompt interflow, and precipitation on the channel surface. This is sometimes called as
direct storm runoff or storm runoff.
2. Baseflow
The delayed flow that reaches the stream essentially as groundwater flow including delayed
interflow.
Watershed – the entire area of a river basin whose surface runoff (due to a storm) drains into the river in
the basin. Also known as drainage basin, or catchment area.

Parts of Watershed

 Drainage Divide – the boundary line, along a topographic ridge, separating the two adjacent
watersheds.
 Concentration point or Measuring point – the single point or location at which all surface drainage
from a watershed comes together or concentrates as outflow of the basin in the stream channel.
 Concentration time – the time required for the rain falling at the most distant point in a watershed
to reach the concentration point.

Physical Characteristics of a Watershed

 The number of streams

 the length of streams
 stream density – which is expressed as the number of streams per square kilometer area of the
watershed.
 drainage density – which is expressed as the total length of all stream channels per unit area of
the watershed.

Other Characteristics of a Watershed

1. Slope of the watershed

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
For large watershed:

1.5 (𝐶𝐼)𝑁
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
∑𝐿
Where:
CI = contour interval
Nc = number of contours crossed by all subdividing lines
∑ 𝐿 = total length of subdividing lines

2. Shape of the watershed – the shape of a drainage basin can generally be expressed by:
 Form factor, 𝐹 = =
Where
Wb = axial width of basin
Lb = axial length of basin, i.e., the distance from the measuring point to
the most remote point on the basin
 Compactness factor, 𝐶 =
√
Where
Pb = perimeter of the basin
2√𝜋𝐴 = circumference of circular area, which equals the area of the basin

Classification of Streams

1. Influent and Effluent Streams

a. Influent Streams – when the seepage from the stream feeds the groundwater resulting in
the build up of water mound. This happens when the ground water table is below the bed
of the stream. Such streams will dry up completely in rainless period and are called
ephemeral streams.
b. Effluent Streams – the ground water feed the stream. This happens when the ground
water table is above the bed of the stream.
2. Intermittent and Perennial Streams
a. Intermittent Streams – when the ground water table lies above the stream during the wet
season but drops below the bed during the dry season. The stream flows during wet
season due to surface runoff and groundwater contribution but becomes dry during dry
seasons.
b. Perennial Streams – when the ground water table never drops below the bed of the
stream even in the most severe droughts and therefore they flow throughout the year.

Estimation of Run-off

Run-off – is that balance of water, which flows or runs over the natural ground surface after losses by
evaporation, interception and infiltration.

Yield of Catchment – the net quantity of water available for storage, after all loses, for the purposes of
water resource utilization and planning, like irrigation, water supply, etc.

Maximum Flood Discharge – it is the discharge in times of flooding of the catchment area, i.e., when the
intensity of rainfall is greatest and the condition of catchment regarding humidity is also favorable for an
appreciable run-off.

Run-off Estimation Methods:

1. Empirical Formulae, curves, and tables

Where R = run-off, P = precipitation, a, b, and n are constants.

2. Infiltration Method - By deducting the infiltration loss, i.e., the area under the infiltration curve,
from the total precipitation or by the use of infiltration indices, which are already discussed. These
methods are largely empirical and the derived values are applicable only when the rainfall
characteristics and the initial soil moisture conditions are identical to those for which these are
derived.
3. Rational Method – a rational approach is to obtain the yield of a catchment by assuming a suitable
run-off coefficient.

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝐶𝐴𝑃
Where A = area of catchment, P = precipitation, C = run-off coefficient
4. Overland Flow Hydrograph - Overland flow occurs as a thin sheet of water over the ground surface
(soon after a storm starts), joins a stream channel, and then flows in the channel to the
concentration point.

5. Unit Hydrograph Method - The hydrograph of direct surface discharge measured at the outlet of
drainage area, which produces a unit depth of direct runoff (i.e., a Pnet of 1 cm over the entire
area of the catchment) resulting from a unit storm of specified duration (called unit period) is
called a unit hydrograph of that duration.
WATER SUPPLY

A. Water Demand – the quantity of water that is needed by the population to be covered. The water
to be supplied should be sufficient to cover both existing and future consumers. In addition to the
projected consumptions, an allowance for non-revenue water (NRW) that may be caused by
leakages and other losses should be included.
 Water demand are influenced by the following factors:
o Service of water to be implemented
o Size of the community
o Standard of living of the populace
o Quantity and quality of water available in the area
o Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the consumers
o Climatological conditions
o Habits and manners of water usage by the people
B. Service Level
1. Level I (Point Source) – This level provides a protected well or a developed spring with an
outlet, but without a distribution system. The users go to the source to fetch the water. This
is generally adaptable for rural areas where affordability is low and the houses in the intended
service area are not crowded. A Level I facility normally serves an average of 15 households
within a radius of 250 meters.
2. Level II (Communal Faucet System or Stand Post) – This type of system is composed of a
source, a reservoir, a piped distribution network, and communal faucets. Usually, one faucet
serves four to six households within a radius of 25 meters. It is generally suited for rural and
urban fringe areas where houses are clustered in sufficient density to justify a simple piped
system. The consumers still go to the supply point (communal faucet) to fetch the water.
3. Level III (Waterworks System or Individual House Connection) – This system includes a
source, a reservoir, a piped distribution network, and individual household taps. It is generally
suited for densely populated urban areas where the population can afford individual
connections.
C. Water Demand Computation
1. Demand Variations and Demand Factors
 Minimum day demand – the minimum amount of water required in a single day over a
year.
 Average day demand – the average of the daily water requirement spread in a year.
 Maximum day demand – the maximum amount of water required in a single day over a
year.
 Peak hour demand – the highest hourly demand in a day.

Demand Parameter Demand Factor

Minimum day demand 0.3 of average day demand
Average day demand (ADD) 1.0
Maximum day demand 1.3 of average day demand
Peak hour demand 2.5 of ADD (>1,000 connections)
3.0 of ADD (<1,000 connections)

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒂𝒚 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝑯 𝐱 𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑯𝑯 𝐱

𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝐱
𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐱 𝑵𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

 Factors included in Water Demand Computation

i. Design Period – the span of time in which the initial capital outlay and succeeding
outlays for expansion and rehabilitation can be rationally recovered.
ii. Design Population – the targeted number of people that the project will serve.
iii. Population Growth Factor – expressed as:

𝑷𝑮𝑹 = (𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒑. 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉)𝒏

iv. Water Consumption – water demand expressed in per capita consumption per
day. The common unit is in liters per capita per day (lpcd).

Connection Type Water Consumption

Level II Public Faucets: 50 – 60 lpcd
(Each public faucet should serve 4 – 6
households)
Level III House Connection 80 – 100 lpcd
Institutional Connection 1.0 m3 /d
Commercial Connection 0.8 m3 /d
v. Non–Revenue Water – the amount of water that is produced but not billed as a
result of leaks, pilferages, free water, utility usages, etc. The water demand
projection should assume that the NRW of the new system will be fifteen percent
(15%) of the estimated consumptions. The plan’s figure can be increased up to a
total of 20% at the end of 10 years. These assumed NRW figures require good
maintenance of utilities, pro-active leakage prevention, and no illegal
connections for 100% recovery of supplied water.

Water Sources

A. Water Resources – After the demand has been estimated, the next step is to look for a source
that passes both the quantity and quality requirements.
Factors considered when choosing water source:
 Adequacy
 Quality
 Cost
 Legality
 Politics
B. Classification of Water Sources
1. Rainwater – a product of water vapor that has risen due to evaporation and accumulated
in the atmosphere, which condenses and falls on the Earth's surface. As the water vapor
that has accumulated in cloud formations condenses, it forms drops of rain that fall to
the Earth.
2. Surface Water – surface water is exposed to the atmosphere and subject to surface
runoff. It comes from rains, surface runoff and groundwater, and includes rivers, lakes,
streams, ponds, impounding reservoirs, seas, and oceans. The quantity of surface runoff
depends on a large number of factors; the most important of which are the amount and
intensity of rainfall, the climate and vegetation, and the geological, geographical, and
topographical features of the catchment area. The quality of surface water is determined
by the amount of pollutants and contaminants picked up by the water in the course of
its travel. While flowing over the ground, surface water collects silt, decaying organic
matter, bacteria and other microorganisms from the soil. Thus, all surface water sources
should be presumed to be unsafe for human consumption without some form of
treatment.
3. Groundwater – the portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground
surface to form underground deposits called aquifers. The upper surface of groundwater
is the water table. Groundwater is often clear, free from organic matter and bacteria due
to the filtering effect of soil on water percolating through it. However, groundwater
almost always contains minerals dissolved from the soil. Groundwater is often better in
quality than surface waters, less expensive to develop for use, and usually provides more
adequate supply in many areas in the country.

 Types and extraction of Groundwater:

 Spring – is a point where groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where
the aquifer surface meets the ground surface. A spring may be ephemeral
(intermittent) or perennial (continuous). Springs can be developed by enlarging
the water outlet and constructing an intake structure for water catchment and
storage.
 Well – is a hole constructed by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or
drilling for the purpose of withdrawing water from underground aquifers. Wells
can vary greatly in depth, water volume and water quality. Well water typically
contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment
to soften the water by removing minerals such as arsenic, iron and manganese.
Well water may be drawn by pumping from a source below the surface of the
earth. Alternatively, it could be drawn up using containers, such as buckets that
are raised mechanically or by hand.
 Infiltration Well - Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells, constructed by digging
a trench into the water-bearing sand and installing perforated pipes in it. Water
collected in these pipes converges into a “well” from which it is pumped out.

C. Development of Water Sources

1. Rainwater – Rainwater would be an immediate resource to augment the existing
water supply systems by "catching water wherever it falls". Rainwater can be utilized
as an important source of water supply in areas where rain is well distributed
throughout the year and where surface and groundwater are scarce.
2. Spring - Springs are outcrops of groundwater that often appear as small water holes
or wet spots at the foot of hills or along river banks. To obtain satisfactory water, it is
necessary to find the source, properly develop it, eliminate surface water intrusion,
and prevent animals from gaining access to the spring. There should be no immediate
upstream settlements, as these would pose the risk of biological contamination.
 Steps in Developing Springs
a. Enlarge the eye of the spring to increase the quantity of water yield. This
is accomplished by digging out the area around the hole down to the
impervious layer to remove silt, mineral matter and rock fragments.
During excavation, avoid disturbing the underground rock formation to
prevent the deflection of the spring to another direction or rock
formation.
b. Against the eye of the spring, pile stones that will serve as the foundation
of the spring box.
c. Construct a spring box around the enlarged eye of the spring. This is to
protect the spring water from contamination.
d. If there are several small springs located in the same area, construct a silt
trap to serve as the reservoir collecting water from the springs.
 Basic Design Feature of a Spring Box
o Spring Box with Permeable Side
o Spring Box Design with Permeable Bottom
3. Infiltration Wells - An infiltration well involves a simple means of obtaining naturally
filtered water. It consists of a system of porous, perforated, or open-joint pipe or
other conduit that drains to a receiving well. The pipe is surrounded by gravel and is
located in a porous formation such as sand and gravel below the water table. The
collecting system should be located 6 m or more from a lake or stream or under the
bed of a stream or lake. It is sometimes found desirable, where possible, to carefully
place a cofferdam, cutoff wall, or puddle clay dam between the collecting conduit and
the lake or stream to form an impervious wall. It is not advisable to construct an
infiltration well unless the water table is relatively stable and the water intercepted
is free of pollution. The depth of the collecting pipes should be about 3 m below the
normal ground level, and below the lowest known water table, to assure a greater
and more constant yield.
4. Surface Water – Surface water supplies include water from streams, rivers, lakes,
ponds, seas and oceans. Surface water usually contains organic and inorganic
minerals and needs expensive water treatment. Unless surface water is the only
option, surface water should be avoided for rural water supplies.

5. Production Well – A production well is a hole which has been dug, bored, driven or
drilled beneath the ground for the purpose of extracting ground water.
The first step in considering the use of wells as the sources of water supply is to
calculate the total capacity of the existing wells, and compare this capacity to the
demand for water based on the population to be served. The supply-demand analysis
shows whether the existing wells can still be utilized or if new wells are needed.
 Steps in Developing Production Well:
o Utilize Existing Well – If wells already exist, they should be checked for
capacity and water quality. Wells that have the desired capacity and
water quality should be given priority in selection. If capacity of a well is
not sufficient, it should be checked to see if it can be developed to
improve the yield. If water quality is the problem, a decision has to be
made whether to go for a new well or to provide some treatment
facilities.
o New Well Sources
i. Determine the best possible well sites
ii. Do preliminary well design
iii. Select the method of construction
iv. Construct the well
v. Test for safe yield
 Well Hydrology
Beneath the ground, most rocks and soil contain voids, pores or fissures.
Subsurface water, which fills these voids and pores, occurs in two zones.
o Unsaturated zone – lies immediately beneath the ground surface and
contain both water and air in the voids and pores.
o Saturated zone – where the voids are all filled with water. Water in the
saturated zone is referred to as groundwater or aquifer.
o Water table – the boundary between the unsaturated zone and the
saturated zone. The water table is not stationary. It moves up during rainy
season when percolation is high and moves down during dry season
when groundwater discharge is higher. In general, the shape of the water
table tends to follow the topography of the land.
o Unconfined / Water Table Aquifer – its upper limit is the water table.
Unconfined aquifers are often shallow and the hydraulic pressure at its
surface water level or water table is equal to atmospheric pressure.
o Confined / Artesian Aquifer – it is sandwiched between an upper
impermeable layer and a lower impermeable layer.
 Classification of Wells based on Aquifer tapped
o Shallow wells – Generally, a well is considered shallow if it is less than 20
meters deep. Shallow wells tap the upper water-bearing layer
underground. This permeable layer, however, usually has limited safe
yield due to its great dependence on seasonal rainfalls. Therefore, the
supply capacity of shallow wells could be unreliable and sometimes
intermittent. Also, the water extracted from the upper strata is usually
more affected by contamination since the aquifer being tapped is near
the ground surface where possible sources of contamination abound.
Protection against contamination is therefore one of the main
considerations in constructing a shallow well.
o Deep wells – Deep wells, which are over 20 meters deep, tap the deeper
unconfined aquifer. This aquifer is not confined by an overlying
impermeable layer and is characterized by the presence of a water table.
A deep well is less susceptible to surface contamination because of the
deeper aquifer. Also, its yield tends to be more reliable since it is less
affected by seasonal precipitation.
o Artesian wells – Artesian wells are much like the deep wells except that
the water extracted is from a confined aquifer. The confining
impermeable layers are above and below the aquifer. Groundwater
recharge enters the aquifer through permeable layers at high elevations
causing the confined groundwater at the lower elevations to be under
pressure. In some cases, the hydraulic pressure of the aquifer is sufficient
for a well to flow freely at the well head.

 Well Design
o Elements of a Drilled Well Structure:
 Estimated Well Yield – the quantity of water the well can produce
 Well Depth
 Casing Diameter
 Well Screen
 Gravel Pack
 Cement Grout