Shambhavi Tripathi

Sem – 04
Life span development

Module 1

Lifespan Development refers to the full process of human development from conception to
death. It is a holistic approach to understanding all of the physiological, cognitive, emotional,
and social changes that people go through.
1) is the pattern of the progressive, orderly and predictable changes that begin at conception
and continue throughout the life.
a) How is development predictable?
In the course of development, the individual human progresses from dependency
to increasing autonomy. It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence,
yet has a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and
each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences.
b) How development is progressive?
The normal processes of development in the majority of plants and animals may
be considered progressive since they lead to increases in size and complexity and
to the addition of new elements to the system.

2) Development can be defined as systematic changes and continuities in the individual that
occur between conceptionand death, or from “womb to tomb.” Development entails
many changes; by describing these changes as systematic, we imply that they are orderly,
patterned, and relatively enduring—not fleeting and unpredictable like mood swings.
Development also involves continuities, ways in which we remain the same or continue
to reflect our past selves.
3) Quantitative development refers to the changes that children will go through as they gain
knowledge and grow larger physically. Qualitative stage are changes that are in the way
that the child thinks and behaves. It is also in how they perceive the world as they grow
older.

4) So broadly speaking, we can categories various different aspects of development which

goes from physical, social, emotional, psychological, cultural and many more. In any
particular aspect we can observe a milestone which signifies the development. Generally
such milestones are during certain stages. Like for example, how a 4 Months. Holds head
steady without support. (physical development) How a 20 year youngster is able to form
groups and take part in societal issues.(social development) but yes all such aspects are
interconnected and creates a complex system within an individual.
Lifespan perspective:
An approach to studying development which emphasizes that development is lifelong,
multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and multidisciplinary
1)Lifelong development means that development is not completed in infancy or childhood or at
any specific age; it encompasses the entire lifespan, from conception to death.
2) Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like
physical, emotional, and psychosocial development. Development is multidirectional and results
in gains and losses throughout life. ... Development is influenced by contextual and socio-
cultural influences.
3) The aging process is multidirectional and involves both losses and gains. ... For example,
physical stamina gradually decreases with age, but accumulated knowledge or “wisdom” tends to
gradually increase.
4) Plasticity can be defined as the brain's capacity to achieve lasting structural changes in
response to environmental demands that are not fully met by the organism's current functional
capacity basically, development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or
changeable.
5) Contextual perspectives consider the relationship between individuals and their physical,
cognitive, and social worlds. They also examine socio-cultural and environmental influences on
development.
6) development is multidisciplinary because it encompasses several academic specialties;
healthcare, educational, social science, etc. Various disciplines study lifespan development
because each of them are influenced and intertwined with the others.
7) development involves growth, maintainence and regulation.

Principles of development
1) Development follows a pattern generally the two trends.i.e. cephalocaudal . One example
of this is the gradual change in head size relative to body size during human growth. ...
Finally, in adults, the head represents approximately 12% of the body length. The
cephalocaudal trend is also the trend of infants learning to use their upper limbs before
their lower limbs.
And Proximodistal The proximodistal pattern of development is where growth starts at
the centre of the body and moves towards the extremities. An example of such a pattern
is the early development of muscular control of the trunk and arms relative to the hands
and fingers.
2) Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general
activity always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus moves its whole body
but is incapable of making specific responses. With respect to emotional behaviour
infants approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of general fear
response.Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds of behaviour,
such as, crying, turning away and hiding etc.

3) Development leads to integration Basically Integration occurs when separate people or

things are brought together

4) The process of growth and development continues from the conception till the individual
reaches maturity. Development of both physical and mental traits continues gradually
until these traits reach their maximum growth. It goes on continuously throughout life.
Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end.

5) Rate of development is not uniform. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has
its own particular rate of growth. There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and
there are periods of imbalance.

6) Most Traits are Correlated in Development: Generally, it is seen that the child whose
mental development is above average, is also superior in so many other aspects like
health, sociability and special aptitudes.

7) Development goes from Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and
other. More specifically, it is the inability to accurately assume or understand any
perspective other than one’s own. To Allocentrism is a collectivistic personality attribute
whereby people center their attention and actions on other people rather than themselves.
It is a psychological dimension which corresponds to the general cultural dimension of
collectivism.

8) Development goes from Heteronomy refers to action that is influenced by a force outside
the individual, in other words the state or condition of being ruled, governed, or under the
sway of another, as in a military occupation. Basically , as children are in control of their
parents and teachers. To autonomy is independence in one's thoughts or actions. A young
adult from a strict household who is now living on her own for the first time is an
example of someone experiencing autonomy..

Periods of development

1) Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the
body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern.
Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to
birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.
2) Infancy and toddler hood
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and
change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is
transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of
time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and
sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile,
energetic child.

3) Early childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years
which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-
old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater
independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world.
4) Middle childhood
The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what
children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early
grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new
academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making
comparisons between self and others.
5) Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall
physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time
of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to
consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom.
6) Early adulthood
It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the
future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the
status of a full adult in the eyes of others.
7) Middle adulthood
The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is
a period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period
at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and world.

Late adulthood
A better way to appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go
beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal
aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age
and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the
changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring
to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same
age).

Influences on the life span development

A child’s development is influenced by a wide range of factors that are governed by both
nature and nurture.
1) Genes / hereditary/ nurture

Gene-Environment Interactions: The environment a child is exposed to both in utero

and throughout the rest of his or her life can also impact how genes are expressed. For
example, exposure to harmful drugs while in utero can have a dramatic impact on later
child development. Height is a good example of a genetic trait that can be influenced by
environmental factors.4 While a child's genetic code may provide instructions for tallness,
the expression of this height might be suppressed if the child has poor nutrition or chronic
illness.

Genetic influences have an enormous influence on how a child develops. However, it

is important to remember that genetics is just one piece of the intricate puzzle that
makes up a child’s life.

2) Environmental influences
A) Family
One of the most important influencing factor on your child’s development is
his/her family. Irrespective of who is your child’s primary caregiver – you and
your spouse, older siblings, or relatives – the bonding provided within a family
home helps nurture and protect your child physically and emotionally.

B) Physical environment
The effect of the environment on child development cannot be understated, and
this includes the physical surroundings they are raised in. If your living
environment is cramped, noisy and filled with aggression, your child’s
personality can be affected. If you have too many people living at home and if the
attention towards him is divided, he may seek out alternative forms of attention
which can lead to an emotional distance between him/her and you. Similarly,
unpleasant surroundings often cause children to block out or bury negativity,
making them more introverted.
C) Financial situation
It has been well established that the privilege of wealth is real and that it has a
greater impact on childhood development than education. For instance, rich
parents can afford to spend more time with their children and poorer parents are
too caught up in making ends meet to have the privilege of quality time.
D) Health and nutrition
Nutrition is crucial for the physical and mental growth of a child. A balanced diet
is also required by pregnant women as malnutrition can lead to problems like low
birth weight, miscarriages, stillbirths, slowed development, and so on. In children,
habits like unhealthy or excessive eating can lead to weight gain, obesity,
diabetes, stunted growth, lethargy, and a host of other complications.
E) Learning
In addition to learning at school, make sure that your home environment also
stimulates your child’s mental development. This includes cognitive, linguistic,
emotional, and motor skills. The best environment for this is a calm and loving
home that allows your child to focus on improving his abilities.

Influences in context – The ecological approach

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory views child development as a

complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding
environment, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural
values, laws, and customs.

Bronfenbrenner divided the person’s environment into five different systems: the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the
chronosystemm.
1) The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory, and are the
things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment,
such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be
influenced by other people in their environment and is also capable of
changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.
If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to
have a positive effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents
will have a negative effect on the child.
2) The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and
teachers, or between school peers and siblings.

For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this
interaction may influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem
is a system of microsystems.

According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers
get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the
child’s development, compared to negative effects on development if the
teachers and parents do not get along.

3) The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by

Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal
social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly
influence them as they affect one of the microsystems.

Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces,

parent’s friends and the mass media. These are environments in which the
child is not involved, and are external to their experience, but nonetheless
affects them anyway.

The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result
of something which happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect
on development.

4) The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems

theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development,
such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity.

Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs
and perceptions about events that transpire in life.

5) fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is known

as the chronosystem.
This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and
historical events.
These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also
include non-normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or
having to move to a new house.

Theoretical perspective on development

According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through a

series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult
personality. His theory described how personality developed over the course of
childhood.

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain
erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is
particularly sensitive to stimulation.

During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of
pleasure.

Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or
stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual
stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.

1) Oral stage (birth to 12-18 months)

During the oral stage, the infant’s primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process—the child must
become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud
believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression.
Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-
biting.

2) Anal stage (12-18 months to 3 years)

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is
toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing
this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using
the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children
feel capable and productive

3) Phallic stage (3 -6 years)

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on
the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between
males and females.

He also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess
the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that
he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.

4) Latency stage (6 years- puberty)

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id’s energies
are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with
peers and adults outside of the family.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed
or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas
such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in
the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

5) Genital stage (puberty through adulthood)

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During
the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person’s life.
Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction
of the most basic needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Criticisms of the Psychosexual Stages

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention
of female psychosexual development.
His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are
impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has
been conducted tends to discredit Freud’s theory.

Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior
was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time
between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a
relationship between the two variables.

Freud’s theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also,
Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual
observation and study of children.

Erik Erikson psychosocial Theory

Erikson’s theory described the impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships
played a role in the development and growth of human beings.
In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times,
the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.
Learning perspective

Learning perspective:
Learning perspective is concerned with behaviour that can be observed and
studied objectively and scientifically.

There are two important learning theories

1. Behaviourism

is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply a response to
environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response
behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as

‘learning theory’).
Therefore, when born our mind is ‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate).

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens unconsciously.

When you learn through classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned response is paired with
a specific stimulus. This creates a behavior.

The best-known example of this is from what some believe to be the father of classical
conditioning: Ivan Pavlov.

Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of

learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that
behavior.

2. social learning ( social cognition)

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing,
modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social
learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence
human learning and behavior.

In society, children are surrounded by many influential models, such as parents within the
family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These
models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro
and anti-social, etc.

Some criticisms arise from their commitment to the environment as the chief influence on
behavior. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and
attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that
behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).
Social learning theory is not a full explanation for all behavior. This is particularly the case when
there is no apparent role model in the person’s life to imitate for a given behavior.

Cognitive perceptive

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
1) The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening

Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)

They are separate beings from the people and objects around them

They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

2) The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.

Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of
others.

While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

3) The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example

Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle.
4) Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems

Abstract thought emerges

Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning

Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Ethological perceptive

Ethological theories note that responsiveness to The environment varies across the life-span and
that the environment has an effect on development. Environmental influences will have different
effects at different times.

Ethology is a theory that emphasizes the ability of biology to impact behavior. Ethology states
that behavior can be directly related and linked to not only biology, but to evolution and the
impact of this is heightened even more so during particularly critical and sensitive periods in an
individual’s development.

• “Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is
characterized by critical or sensitive periods.” In other words, there are times when we are most
sensitive to particular types of stimuli.

• A zoologist by the name of Konrad Lorenz conducted a groundbreaking study on ethology by

using the behavior of greylayGeese.Greylag geese are known for following their mothers (or the
first moving object they see) immediately upon hatching.

Contextual perceptive

According to contextual perspective human development can be understoodOnly in its social

context.
Contextualists emphasize individual differences.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the
development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky contended that thinking has social origins, social
interactions play a critical role especially in the development of higher-order thinking skills, and
cognitive development cannot be fully understood without considering the social and historical
context within which it is embedded.

Module 02
Conception occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by a sperm from the father. In
humans, the conception process begins with ovulation, when an ovum, or egg (the largest cell in
the human body), which has been stored in one of the mother’s two ovaries, matures and is
released into the fallopian tube. Ovulation occurs about halfway through the woman’s menstrual
cycle and is aided by the release of a complex combination of hormones.
The Zygote

Within several hours of conception, half of the 23 chromosomes from the egg and half of the 23
chromosomes from the sperm fuse together, creating a zygote — a fertilized ovum. The zygote
continues to travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

The Embryo

Once the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, it is known as the embryo. During the
embryonic phase, which will last for the next six weeks, the major internal and external organs
are formed, each beginning at the microscopic level, with only a few cells. The changes in the
embryo’s appearance will continue rapidly from this point until birth.

The Fetus

Beginning in the ninth week after conception, the embryo becomes a fetus. The defining
characteristic of the fetal stage is growth. All the major aspects of the growing organism have
been formed in the embryonic phase, and now the fetus has approximately six months to go from
weighing less than an ounce to weighing an average of six to eight pounds. That’s quite a growth
spurt.

Multiple birth

A multiple birth is when a mother is pregnant with more than one baby. This may mean a twin
pregnancy, triplet pregnancy, or more.

Identical twins are also known as monozygotic twins. They result from the fertilization of a
single egg that splits in two. Identical twins share all of their genes and are always of the same
sex. In contrast, fraternal, or dizygotic, twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs
during the same pregnancy. They share half of their genes, just like any other siblings. Fraternal
twins can be of the same or different sexes. Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are fertilized
by two separate sperm. Dizygotic twins are also known as fraternal or non-identical twins. They
are the most common type of twin

Mechanism of hereditary

Under heredity we include all the factors that were present in the organism at birth. In other
words, it is the sum-total of inborn individual tracts. Heredity has two aspects – biological and
psychological. Biologically, it means the sum total of biological traits that are present in the
fertilised ovum. Psychologically it means the traits, innate tendencies, and capacities that
resemble between the parents and the child.
Biological : in the same, the brothers and sisters bear resemblance to their parents as regard the
physical characteristics such as size, form, appearance, colour of the skin, colour of the eyes,
strength of muscles, invertible disease etc. Identical twins resemble each other at birth in every
respect. Fraternal twins resemble in majority of the traits. Siblings resemble in many
characteristics.

Mental : many mental characteristics are inherited. Every child at birth instinctively sucks,
breathes, laughs, cries and moves limbs. All the instincts are inherited. Intelligence also seems to
be inherited, because in a number of cases the intellectual caliber of children resembles that of
their parents.

Stages of prenatal development

Germinal Stage

The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the
single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of
mitosis, the zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A
significant number of zygotes never progress past this early part of cell division, with as many as
half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells
multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually
become the placenta, while the inner cells form the embryo.

Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as
implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny
blood vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will
provide nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not
always an automatic and sure-fire process.

Embryonic Stage

At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week
after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes
distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the
brain.

Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop
into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to
form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the
neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.

Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and
mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds
that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those
of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

Fetal Stage

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes
known as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the
brain. This period of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is
marked by amazing change and growth.

The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop.
The neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these
neurons have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the
connections between neurons, also begin to develop.

The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical
growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the
second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body
systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form. Perhaps most
noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

Maternal factors in prenatal development

1) Nutrition is perhaps the most influential non-genetic factor in fetal development.1

Maternal body composition, nutritional stores, diet, and ability to deliver nutrients
through the placenta determines nutrient availability for the fetus.1 Prenatal nutrition
influences fetal growth, normal development of physiological function2 and gestational
weight gain (GWG). GWG is a complex progression that supports fetal growth and
development. Maternal physiology and metabolism as well as placental metabolism also
influence GWG. Maternal homeostasis changes can alter placental structure and function,
influencing fetal growth.
2) Physical activity and Regular exercise during pregnancy can improve your posture and decrease
some common discomforts such as backaches and fatigue. There is evidence that physical activity
may prevent gestational diabetes (diabetes that develops during pregnancy), relieve stress, and build
more stamina needed for labor and delivery.
3) Taking drugs during pregnancy also increases the chance of birth defects, premature babies,
underweight babies, and stillborn births. Exposure to drugs such as marijuana – also called weed,
ganja, dope, or pot – and alcohol before birth has been proven to cause behavior problems in early
childhood.
4) Drugs or medication taken by the mother may cross the placenta and reach the
developing fetus. The possible effects may include developmental delay, intellectual
disability, birth defects miscarriage and stillbirth.
5) A pregnant woman living with HIV can pass on the virus to her baby during pregnancy,
childbirth and through breastfeeding. If you are a woman living with HIV, taking
antiretroviral treatment correctly during pregnancy and breastfeeding can virtually
eliminate the risk of passing on the virus to your baby.
6) Babies born to older mothers have a higher risk of certain chromosome problems, such as
Down syndrome. The risk of pregnancy loss is higher. The risk of pregnancy loss — by
miscarriage and stillbirth — increases as you get older, perhaps due to pre-existing
medical conditions or fetal chromosomal abnormalities.
7) If a baby’s and mother’s blood are incompatible, it can lead to fetal anemia, immune
hydrops (erythroblastosis fetalis) and other complications. The most common type of
blood type incompatibility is Rh disease (also known as Rh incompatibility). The Rh
factor is a protein on the covering of red blood cells.
8) During X-rays, high dose of ionizing radiation on embryo or foetus may causes some
effects such as miscarriage, restriction of fetal growth, congenital malformation (which
include microcephaly), or lead to mental retardation sometimes can cause cancer during
childhood.
9) Exposure to these hazards during pregnancy may cause negative health effects for the
mother and baby. The negative health effects that may be caused by exposure to these
hazards include: miscarriage, still birth, delayed fetal growth, birth defects and increased
risk for certain illnesses in the baby.

Chromosome and gene related abnormalities

1) Down syndrome
Down syndrome (sometimes called Down’s syndrome) is a condition in which a child is
born with an extra copy of their 21st chromosome — hence its other name, trisomy 21.
This causes physical and mental developmental delays and disabilities.
Many of the disabilities are lifelong, and they can also shorten life expectancy. However,
people with Down syndrome can live healthy and fulfilling lives. Recent medical
advances, as well as cultural and institutional support for people with Down syndrome
and their families, provides many opportunities to help overcome the challenges of this
condition.
In children with Down syndrome, one of the chromosomes doesn’t separate properly. The
baby ends up with three copies, or an extra partial copy, of chromosome 21, instead of
two. This extra chromosome causes problems as the brain and physical features develop.

At birth, babies with Down syndrome usually have certain characteristic signs, including:

Flat facial features

Small head and ears
Short neck
Bulging tongue
Eyes that slant upward
Atypically shaped ears
Poor muscle tone

2) Klinefelter syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition that results when a boy is born with an extra
copy of the X chromosome. Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition affecting males,
and it often isn’t diagnosed until adulthood. Klinefelter syndrome may adversely affect
testicular growth, resulting in smaller than normal testicles, which can lead to lower
production of testosterone. The syndrome may also cause reduced muscle mass, reduced
body and facial hair, and enlarged breast tissue. The effects of Klinefelter syndrome vary,
and not everyone has the same signs and symptoms.

Signs and symptoms may include (babies)

Weak muscles
Slow motor development — taking longer than average to sit up, crawl and walk
Delay in speaking
Problems at birth, such as testicles that haven’t descended into the scrotum

3) Fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome affects a child's learning, behavior, appearance, and health.

Symptoms can be mild or more severe. Boys often have a more serious form of it than
girls.Children who are born with this genetic condition can get special education and
herapy to help them learn and develop like other kids. Medicines and other treatments
can improve their behavior and physical symptoms.

There are several, including:

Trouble learning skills like sitting, crawling, or walking

Problems with language and speech

Hand-flapping and not making eye contact

Temper tantrums

Poor impulse control

Anxiety

Extreme sensitivity to light or sound

Hyperactivity and trouble paying attention

Aggressive and self-destructive behavior in boys.

4) Turner syndrome.

Turner syndrome, a condition that affects only females, results when one of the X
chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or partially missing. Turner syndrome can cause
a variety of medical and developmental problems, including short height, failure of the
ovaries to develop and heart defects.

Turner syndrome may be diagnosed before birth (prenatally), during infancy or in early
childhood. Occasionally, in females with mild signs and symptoms of Turner syndrome, the
diagnosis is delayed until the teen or young adult years.

Signs and symptoms of Turner syndrome may vary among girls and women with the
disorder. For some girls, the presence of Turner syndrome may not be readily apparent, but in
other girls, a number of physical features and poor growth are apparent early. Signs and
symptoms can be subtle, developing slowly over time, or significant, such as heart defects.

5) XYY syndrome

XYY syndrome is a genetic condition that occurs when a male has an extra copy of
the Y chromosome in each of their cells (XYY). Sometimes, this mutation is only
present in some cells. Males with XYY syndrome have 47 chromosomes because of
the extra Y chromosome. This condition is also sometimes called Jacob’s syndrome,
XYY karyotype, or YY syndrome. According to the National Institutes of Health, XYY
syndrome occurs in 1 out of every 1,000 boys.

Symptoms in a baby who has XYY syndrome can include:

Hypotonia (weak muscle tone)

Delayed motor skill development, such as with walking or crawling

Delayed or difficult speech.

6) PKU

Phenylketonuria (fen-ul-key-toe-NU-ree-uh), also called PKU, is a rare inherited disorder

that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in the body. PKU is caused by
a defect in the gene that helps create the enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine.

Without the enzyme necessary to process phenylalanine, a dangerous buildup can

develop when a person with PKU eats foods that contain protein or eats aspartame, an
artificial sweetener. This can eventually lead to serious health problems

PKU signs and symptoms can be mild or severe and may include:

A musty odor in the breath, skin or urine, caused by too much phenylalanine in the body
Neurological problems that may include seizures
Skin rashes (eczema)
Fair skin and blue eyes, because phenylalanine can’t transform into melanin — the
pigment responsible for hair and skin tone
Abnormally small head (microcephaly)
Hyperactivity
Intellectual disability
Delayed development
Behavioral, emotional and social problems
Psychiatric disorders.

7) Single – cell anemia

Sickle cell anemia is one of a group of disorders known as sickle cell disease. Sickle cell anemia
is an inherited red blood cell disorder in which there aren't enough healthy red blood cells to
carry oxygen throughout your body.

Normally, the flexible, round red blood cells move easily through blood vessels. In sickle cell
anemia, the red blood are shaped like sickles or crescent moons. These rigid, sticky cells can get
stuck in small blood vessels, which can slow or block blood flow and oxygen to parts of the
body.

Signs and symptoms of sickle cell anemia usually appear around 5 months of age. They vary
from person to person and change over time. Signs and symptoms can include: Anemia. Sickle
cells break apart easily and die, leaving you with too few red blood cells. Red blood cells usually
live for about 120 days before they need to be replaced. But sickle cells usually die in 10 to 20
days, leaving a shortage of red blood cells (anemia).Episodes of pain ,Swelling in hands and
feet., Frequent infection

Delayed growth and puberty

Vision problems.
Birth and new born

Stages of childbirth

First stage: This starts with contractions and your cervix dilating and ends when your cervix is
fully open. This stage is further broken down into latent phase and active phase. In early labor,
your contractions are regular, but still quite far apart. Cervical dilation in latent labor is from 0 to
6 centimeters and the dilation is gradual. During the active phase of labor, your cervix will dilate
more rapidly.

Second stage: This is when you push your baby through the birth canal.

Third stage: This ends with the delivery of the placenta, also called afterbirth.

Fourth stage: the mother stays in bed and her recovery is monitored.

Methods of delivery

1) Medicated delivery
Analgesics are medications that relieve pain.
Anesthetics are medications that produce a loss of sensation.

You're familiar with analgesics such as aspirin and Tylenol. These are drugs that relieve pain.
During childbirth stronger analgesics such as Demerol are frequently used. These drugs are
usually given intravenously, through an IV drip. In this case the medication is "dripped"
slowly through a needle that has been inserted in one of your veins or muscles (the buttocks,
for example) after labor is well underway. Medication is fed to the needle through a tube
connected to a plastic bag.

The effect of analgesics on the newborn depends on the dosage and how close to delivery the
drug is administered. Some infants are born sleepy and unable to suck; others might have
trouble breathing and need oxygen. These side effects are not dangerous and quickly wear off.

2) Natural or prepared delivery

natural or prepared childbirth . This approach involves being informed about labour and birth
and the procedures involved. The mother is an active participant in the decisions made during the
birth of her child. Relaxation and breathing techniques, as opposed to drugs , are used to control
pain during childbirth. Medical treatment is only used where there is a valid reason. A partner is
present and helps the woman through the birth, reminding her of what she should be doing at a
particular stage and by noticing when she is tense, in addition to providing emotional support.

3) Cesarean delivery
Cesarean delivery (C-section) is a surgical procedure used to deliver a baby through
incisions in the abdomen and uterus.

A C-section might be planned ahead of time if you develop pregnancy complications

or you’ve had a previous C-section and aren’t considering a vaginal birth after
cesarean (VBAC). Often, however, the need for a first-time C-section doesn’t become
obvious until labor is underway.

4) Medical monitoring
A medical monitoring system is a wearable computing device, including a
microcontroller and a transceiver to record human body activities and statuses. Such
systems are initially applied in the field of healthcare, especially for
continuous monitoring and logging patients vital parameters

*The newborn size and appearance , trends of development and birth complications -from
ppt*
Module 03

Physical development during infancy and toddler hood –

Two directions- A. Cephalocaudal and B. Proximodistal

Physical development refers to biological changes that children undergo as they age.
Important aspects that determine the progress of physical development in infancy and
toddlerhood include physical and brain changes; development of reflexes, motor skills,
sensations, perceptions, and learning skills; and health issues.

1) Neonatal stage –
The first 4 weeks of life are termed the neonatal period. Most babies weigh
between 5 ½ and 10 pounds, and are between 18 and 22 inches long. Male babies
are generally slightly heavier and longer than female babies. Neonates born
weighing less than 5 ½ pounds are of low birthweight. Infants who arrive before
their due date are preterm or premature, and these babies may or may not have a
low birthweight. Babies who arrive on or shortly after their due date are full‐term.
Infants who arrive 2 or more weeks after their due date are postmature.

2) Subcortical changes-
Fetal and neonatal brain developments are also rapid. The lower, or subcortical, areas of
the brain (responsible for basic life functions, like breathing) develop first, followed by
the higher areas, or cortical areas (responsible for thinking and planning). Most brain
changes occur prenatally and soon after birth.

3) Reflex and motor skills-

Reflexes are automatic reactions to stimulation that enable infants to respond to the
environment before any learning has taken place. For instance, babies automatically suck
when presented with a nipple, turn their heads when a parent speaks, grasp at a finger that
is pressed into their hand, and startle when exposed to loud noises. Some reflexes, such as
blinking, are permanent. Others, such as grasping, disappear after several months and
eventually become voluntary responses.

Motor development follows cephalocaudal (center and upper body) and

proximodistal (extremities and lower body) patterns, so that motor skills become
refined first from the center and upper body and later from the extremities and
lower body. For example, swallowing is refined before walking, and arm
movements are refined before hand movements.

4) Sensation and perception-

Infants are born with functioning sensory organs, specialized structures of the
body containing sensory receptors, which receive stimuli from the environment.
Sensory receptors convert environmental energy into nervous system signals that
the brain can understand and interpret. For example, the sensory receptors can
convert light waves into visual images. The human senses include seeing, hearing,
smelling, touching, and tasting.

Malnutrition in infancy –

A) Kwashiorkor - Kwashiorkor is a type of severe malnutrition that is most common in

children. It occurs due to a lack of protein in the diet, which affects the balance and
distribution of fluids in the body and often leads to a swollen belly.

Children with kwashiorkor may not grow to an expected height due to

malnutrition at an early age.

B) Marasmus - Marasmus is a form of malnutrition. It happens when the intake of

nutrients and energy is too low for a person’s needs. It leads to wasting, or the
loss of body fat and muscle. A child with marasmus may not grow as children
usually do. Malnutrition happens when a lack of nutrients causes health
problems, usually because a person’s diet does not contain all the vitamins and
nutrients that the body needs to function.

Early sensory capacities –

1) Touch and pain sensitivity- Touch is a powerful learning tool for enhancing a
baby's early emotional learning. A baby's skin is very sensitive; stroke it
gently and tenderly. He will wriggle his whole body and thrust his legs out.
He may smile and look relaxed. All of a baby's skin is sensitive to touch.
Caress him with gentle, swooping palmar strokes from the top of his head and
down his back and legs. His sensory system will get a special message as well
as a massage! He will feel safe, whole, and lovable.

Babinski reflex- Some of a baby's earliest responses to touch are reflexive. If

you stroke the sole of a newborn's foot, his toes flare out in a Babinski reflex.
Later, in neurologically normal infants, the toes curl when the sole is stroked.
If you stroke a tiny baby's mouth on one side, then he will turn toward that
side in a rooting reflex.

“All or nothing” - Babies under one year respond to touch with an “all or
nothing” response. If you tickle one foot gently, both the tickled foot and the
other foot are likely to move. As babies develop, they gain more muscular
control and begin to respond just to the touched foot or hand.

2) Smell/taste/texture- Tiny babies make upset faces when tasting bitter or sour
substances. Most love sweet tastes. They have several hundred more taste
buds for sweet in their mouths than adults do. Because it is naturally sweet,
strained applesauce is a hit with babies as a first solid food, along with rice
cereal, which is the least allergenic of early solid foods. Older babies often
reject certain tastes and textures. They may not like the grainy texture of
strained liver. When starting to feed an older baby solid foods, realize that the
taste of a cold metal spoon may not be comfortable. At first, offer small tastes
of new foods on a warm spoon.

3) Hearing - Babies are quite sensitive to sounds even before they are born.
(After birth, babies prefer to hear a mother's voice reading a story she has read
while the baby was still in the womb.) Babies are also sensitive to harsh
sounds. Even babies in a newborn nursery begin to cry when they hear
another baby crying. Loud or harsh adult talk worries a baby. Often infants
and toddlers burst into tears if an adult's voice rises in anger, exasperation, or
scolding. Babies love crooning, gentle voices. Most babies love it when an
adult speaks in "Parentese"-drawing out vowels, raising the voice an octave,
and speaking slowly in short phrases with loving tones. Cascades of
chemicals and electrical impulses flow through the baby's brain when he hears
"Parentese." This style of speaking with a baby wires words into the brain.
Also wired in is the certainty of being loved and feeling like an especially
important little person.

4) Sight- During the first weeks of life, babies usually prefer being turned to the
right or left when lying down. The Tonic Neck Reflex (TNR) causes them to
extend one fisted arm while the other flexes, in a “fencer” position. Until the
TNR has mostly disappeared, any visual stimulation for a newborn should be
presented on either side of the baby’s body, but not directly overhead. A 4-
month-old is delighted by the visual stimulus of a mobile suspended in the
crib directly over his tummy or feet. How he stares at the interesting, colorful
objects safely attached to the hanging mobile! His legs start to kick. His
whole body mobilizes as those swinging objects present an attractive visual
display. At 4 months the baby can keep kicking for over 20 minutes in order
to keep those mobile hangings making interesting visual patterns in the air.
By providing this visual stimulus, you are not only serving the baby’s sight
system, but also convincing him of his efficacy ashe mobilizes his limbs to
keep that mobile moving.
Your face, with a loving expression, is a most welcome visual stimulus for a
baby. Babies can see best about 12 to 18 inches from their eyes. Thus, the diapering
table, when you are bending over a baby as you change his diaper, is a visual
stimulation locale par excellence!
Learning and remembering-

1) Conditioning - Learning is the process that results in relatively permanent change in

behavior based on experience. Infants learn in a variety of ways. In classical
conditioning (Pavlovian), learning occurs by association when a stimulus that evokes
a certain response becomes associated with a different stimulus that originally did
not cause that response. After the two stimuli associate in the subject's brain, the new
stimulus then elicits the same response as the original. For instance, in psychologist
John B. Watson's experiments with 11‐month‐old “Little Albert” in the 1920s,
Watson classically conditioned Albert to fear a small white rat by pairing the sight of
the rat with a loud, frightening noise. The once‐neutral white rat then became a
feared stimulus through associative learning. Babies younger than age 3 months
generally do not learn well through classical conditioning.

In operant conditioning (Skinnerian), learning occurs through the application of

rewards and/or punishments. Reinforcements increase behaviors, while punishments
decrease behaviors. Positive reinforcements are pleasant stimuli that are added to
increase behavior; negative reinforcements are unpleasant stimuli that are removed to
increase behavior. Because reinforcements always increase behavior, negative
reinforcement is not the same as punishment. For example, a parent who spanks a
child to make him stop misbehaving is using punishment, while a parent who takes
away a child's privileges to make him study harder is using negative reinforcement.
Shaping is the gradual application of operant conditioning. For example, an infant
who learns that smiling elicits positive parental attention will smile at its parents
more. Babies generally respond well to operant conditioning.

2) Imitation / observational learning- In observational learning, learning is achieved by

observing and imitating others, as in the case of an infant who learns to clap by
watching and imitating an older sibling. This form of learning is perhaps the fastest
and most natural means by which infants and toddlers acquire new skills.

3) Habituation and dishabituation –

Habituation refers to the gradual decrease in responsiveness due to repeated presentations

of the same stimulus. Habituation is commonly used as a tool to demonstrate the cognitive
abilities of infants and young children. It allows people to tune out non-essential stimuli and
focus on the things that really demand attention. Habituation is something that happens
regularly in your everyday life, yet you are probably largely unaware of it.

Habituation is when a child becomes desensitized to stimuli and stops paying

attention. Any parent who has ever told her child ‘no’ too many times knows what
habituation is; the child will start to ignore the word ‘no’ because it becomes so
normal. Think about habituation, like when you walk into a dark room.

Dishabituation is when we respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again. When

we repeatedly see or experience a stimulus, our response to it grows weaker. For
example, you play peek-a-boo with a baby by covering your face with a blanket.
4) Memory and it’s Development,-
Short-term memory is the kind of memory we use when we recognize that an object
that is briefly out of sight is the same when it reappears, kind of memory is important
for babies—they need to track objects (such as balls and cats) as they move behind
furniture and other objects, and they need to be able to connect what they see before
and after they blink. In fact, we have discovered that by 4 months babies have this
kind of memory—they notice when something changes after it has been out of view
momentarily. But, the number of things they can remember this way is extremely
limited. We found that 4- and 6-month-old babies remember only one thing. By 10
months, babies remember several things, suggesting that their short-term memory
develops extremely rapidly in the first year of life. In general, we have discovered
that although short-term memory emerges early in life, it rapidly develops between 4
and 10 months of age. These early limits on short-term memory might be especially
important for helping young babies deal with the overwhelming amount of new
information they encounter each day.

If infants can store the colors of the squares in memory, they should notice the color
changes and look longer at the changing displays. We measure how much infants can
remember by varying the number of squares on the screen. We have found that 4- to
6-month-old infants seem to be able to remember only 1 square, whereas 10- to 13-
month-old infants seem to be able to remember one of multiple items.

Motor development-

Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process
better known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled,
reflexive movements they are born with. Over time, they learn to move their body parts
voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin
developing motor skills from the center of the body outward and from head to tail. They learn to
control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver
their arms before they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before
they learn how to move their arms and legs.

For example- The sucking reflex- Allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the
first days of life. This is a permanent ability, but as babies grow, they can control when they
drink. Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby to
turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his airflow. Another
reflex that also helps babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle
their face and mouth into the caregiver's chest or shoulder. This may help them find a food
source, such as their mother's breast; this helps the baby communicate to caregivers that they are
hungry and ready to eat. Rooting disappears around 3 weeks of age.
Denver Development screening- The Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST) was
devised to provide a simple method of screening for evidences of slow development in infants
and preschool children. The test covers four functions: gross motor, language, fine motor-
adaptive, and personal-social. It has been standardized on 1,036 presumably normal children
(two weeks to six years of age) whose families reflect the occupational and ethnic characteristics
of the population of Denver.

Other motor skills/ milestones-

1) Head control- Head control is a big developmental step and a precursor to moving the
entire body. It begins to develop during tummy time, and by 6 months, most babies can
hold their heads steady in different positions. Head control and vision work together for
purposeful body movement. Head control, along with other physical changes, is a sign
that babies are prepared for solid foods. Head control also improves respiratory control,
which supports speech. This helps babies progress from cooing to babbling.
2) Hand control is the ability to accurately use and manipulate objects, utensils, tools and
even fingers in isolation for functional task performance. Finger strength is one of the
most significant underlying abilities that impacts a child’s ability to demonstrate hand
control. It influences the ability to maintain effective finger positioning for very precise
movements required of many fine motor tasks (e.g. drawing, writing, cutting).
3) Locomotion- Locomotor skills are an important group of gross motor skills that kids
begin to learn as babies. Walking—one of the biggest physical development milestones
of all for young children—is the first locomotor skill. In walking and the other locomotor
skills that follow it, the feet move the body from one place to another. These skills are the
starting point for many sports and leisure activities, from soccer to golf to dance and
more.
Gross and motor skills-

Gross motor skills are the abilities usually acquired during childhood as part of a child’s motor
learning. By the time they reach two years of age, almost all children are able to stand up, walk
and run, walk up stairs, etc. These skills are built upon, improved and better controlled
throughout early childhood, and continue in refinement throughout most of the individual’s years
of development into adulthood. These gross movements come from large muscle groups and
whole body movement. These skills develop in a head-to-toe order. The children will typically
learn head control, trunk stability, and then standing up and walking.

Fine motor skill (or dexterity) is the coordination of small muscles, in movements—usually
involving the synchronisation of hands and fingers—with the eyes. The complex levels of
manual dexterity that humans exhibit can be attributed to and demonstrated in tasks controlled by
the nervous system. Fine motor skills aid in the growth of intelligence and develop continuously
throughout the stages of human development.

1) Babies that are 2-4 months old develop the grasp reflex and should be given small objects that
they can hold in their hands. Ensure the objects are not so small that they can be swallowed
unknowingly. It might take some time for the baby to hold the object, but eventually, he will
grasp it involuntarily.

2) Between the ages of 4-8 months, babies should be encouraged to play with small objects.
They would now transfer objects from one hand to the other, easily pick up medium-sized
objects and can also put them in their mouths or pull them out of containers. To avoid choking
hazards, you must avoid any small object that can be swallowed accidentally.

3) At 7-9 months of age, babies have an improved ability to reach forward and sidewards. They
should be encouraged to reach for small objects by placing them at a small distance from the
baby. Babies can also now place objects in containers and should be encouraged with activities
that involve the same.

4) By 12 months of age, babies should be encouraged with activities that involve pointing and
poking. Also, activities involving picking up crayons and other slender objects as babies are now
learning to use their thumbs.

5) By the time they are eighteen months, babies can hold crayons and activities like drawing and
colouring should be encouraged.
Sensory and perceptual Development-

Sensation” occurs when information, interacts with sensory receptors –the eyes , the ears,
tongue, nostrils and skin (Santrock,2013) • “Perception” –Interpretation of what is sensed. – Air
waves that comes in contact with ears might be interpreted as a nonoise.

Ecological theory of Gibson-

Gibson emphasized the importance of environment and context in learning and, together with
husband and fellow psychologist James J. Gibson, argued that perception was crucial as it
allowed humans to adapt to their environments. Gibson stated that “children learn to detect
information that specifies objects, events, and layouts in the world that they can use for their
daily activities”.Thus, humans learn out of necessity. Children are information “hunter-
gatherers”,gathering information in order to survive and navigate in the world.

Gibson identified four important aspects of human behavior that develop:

Agency – Self-control, intentionality in behavior

Agency is learning to control both one’s own activity and external events

Babies learn at an early age that their actions have an effect on the environment

For example: Babies were observed kicking their legs at a mobile hanging above them. They had
discovered their kicking made the mobile move.

Prospectivity – Intentional, anticipatory, planful, future-oriented behaviors

For example: A baby will reach out to try and catch an object moving toward them because the
baby can anticipate that the object will continue to move close enough to catch. In other words,
the baby perceives that reaching out his/her hand will afford him/her to catch the object.

Search for Order – Tendency to see order, regularity, and pattern to make sense of the world

For example: Before 9 months, infants begin to recognize the strong-weak stress patterns in their
native language

Flexibility – Perception can adjust to new situations and bodily conditions (such as growth,
improved motor skills, or a sprained ankle)

Examples: Three-month-old infants lying under a mobile had a string attached to their right leg
and then to the mobile so that when they moved their leg the mobile would move. When the
string was switched to the left legs, the infants would easily shift to moving that leg to activate
the mobile.

Perception is an ongoing, active process.

Visual perception:

- newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision.

- after one year , the infants vision approximates that of an adult.

- at birth babies can distinguish between red and green ( Adams 1989)

- adult like functioning in all three types (red, blue, green) of colour sensitive
Receptors is present by 2 months of age.

Visual preferences:

- 2 to 3 months infants preferred to look at some stimuli than others.

- Fantz used a “ looking chamber” to study infants perception of stimuli.

Depth perception-

Aim: Gibson and Walk tested whether youngsters would crawl over an apparent cliff – if the
neonates did it could be assumed that the ability to see depth was not inborn.

Procedure: Their apparatus consisted of a ‘bridge’ either side of which was a sturdy glass
platform. One side of this had a chequered pattern immediately under the glass (the ‘shallow
side’). On the other side of the bridge was a ‘cliff’ – the chequered pattern was beneath a vertical
drop.

Experiment:
1) The independent variable (IV) was whether the infant was called by its mother from the cliff
side or the shallow side (of the visual cliff apparatus).

2) The dependent variable (DV) was whether or not the child would crawl to its mother.

3)This was a repeated measures design because the infant was called from both the cliff side and
the shallow side of the apparatus.
Sample: 36 infants ranging in age from six months to 14 months. Their mother also participated
in the experiment.

Conclusion:
1) Gibson and Walk found that, even when encouraged to do so by their mothers, 92% of the
babies refused to cross the cliff – even if they patted the glass.

2) the infants were able to detect the danger from the ‘cliff’ side, Gibson and Walk concluded
that their depth perception might be innate – it was at least present as soon as they could crawl.

However, as human infants take several months to crawl it is possible that they had learned their
ability to perceive depth during this time.

Depth perception also gradually develops during the first several months. Infants first become
sensitive at about two months to motion-carried information for distance, as when one surface
moves in front of another. At about four months, infants are able to perceive depth via the
difference in the optical projections at the two retinas to determine depth, known as stereopsis.
Stereoscopic depth cues provide information about distances of objects in near space as a
function of their relative horizontal positions in the visual field. At about seven months, infants
are able to perceive depth in a flat, two-dimensional picture.

Sensory motor stages of cognitive development (Piaget’stheory)

The sensorimotor stage “extends from birth to the acquisition of language”. In this stage, infants
progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences
(such as vision and hearing) from physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking,
and stepping). Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform
within it. They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic
thought toward the end of the stage.

Physical reality-
1) Object permeance- object permanence is just one of many important developmental
milestones with your little one. In a nutshell, object permanence means your baby
understands that things they can’t see — you, their cup, a pet — still exist.

If you hide a favourite toy when playing with a very young baby, what happens? They
might seem briefly confused or upset but then quickly give up on looking for it. It’s quite
literally “out of sight, out of mind.”

Once your baby has grasped object permanence, though, they’ll probably look for the toy
or try to get it back — or even loudly voice their displeasure at its disappearance. That’s
because they know the toy still exists!

The development of object permanence helps your baby reach even more adorable
milestones, including: memory development exploration pretend play language
acquisition.

2) Casuality – Children begin to develop cause-and-effect thinking skills as early as eight

months of age2. Cause-and-effect thinking, or causality, allows us to make inferences and
reason about things that happen around us. Causality helps us understand things as simple
as “If I don’t water the plants they’ll die” to things more complicated such as other
people’s intentions and behaviors. When children understand cause and effect, they also
begin to understand the operation of mechanisms, which allows them to understand
causal relationships. When a child asks “why” for the first time, this question more than
likely coincides with their first attempt to explain something. Asking “why” helps
children fill in the blanks (so to speak), allowing them to fully understand both the cause
and effects and mechanisms of the new situation or information they’ve been presented
with.

Language development-

Language development is the process by which children come to understand and communicate
language during early childhood.

As infants’ brains continue to develop, infants also develop the ability to communicate; to
comprehend and produce spoken language. Babies learn language by taking in information
through their senses of hearing and sight as they learn to process the meanings behind those
sights and sounds. They use their mouths, tongues, and ears as they learn to mimic the sights and
sounds of other people in order to create their own sounds and communications. In order to learn
from their environment, babies need functional hearing abilities and a well-formed mouth, lips,
vocal chords and tongue. They also need a well-formed brain, for it is the brain that provides for
the baby’s instinct to mirror, copy and mimic facial expressions and movements they encounter.
1) Crying - Between birth and three months of age, most infants acquire the following
abilities: seem to recognize their mother's voice , quiet down or smile when spoken to,
turn toward familiar voices and sound, make sounds indicating pleasure, cry differently
to express different needs,grunt, chuckle, whimper, and gurgle, begin to coo (repeating
the same sounds frequently) in response to voice, make vowel-like sounds such as "ooh"
and ah”.
2) Sounds of babbling- Between three and six months, most infants can do the following:
turn their head toward a speaker watch a speaker's mouth movements respond to changes
in a tone of voice make louder sounds including screeches vocalize excitement, pleasure,
and displeasure cry differently out of pain or hunger laugh, squeal, and sigh sputter
loudly and blow bubbles shape their mouths to change sounds vocalize different sounds
for different needs communicate desires with gestures babble for attention mimic sounds,
inflections, and gestures , make many new sounds, including "p," "b," and "m," that may
sound almost speech-like.
3) Gestures- Between nine and 12 months babies may begin to do the following:
Listen when spoken to
Recognize words for common objects and names of family members
Respond to simple requests
Understand “no”
Understand gestures
Associate voices and names with people
Know their own names.
Babble both short and long groups of sounds and two-to-three-syllable repeated sounds
(The babble begins to have characteristic sounds of their native language.)
Use sounds other than crying to get attention
Use “mama” and “dada” for any person
Shout and scream
Repeat sounds
Use most consonant and vowel sounds
Practice inflections
Engage in much vocal play

First word: this event usually occurs at about 10 to 15 months of age. The infants spoken
vocabulary rapidly increases once the first word is spoken (camaioni 2002)

Two word Utterance:

At the age of 18 to 24 months children usually utter two word statements.
During this stage they quickly grasp the importance of expressing concepts and
Role of language in communication.
Telegraphic speech: use of short and precise words to communicate.

Biological and environmental factors are important in language development.

Language acquisition device(LAD): a biological endowment, hypothesized by
Chomsky, that enables the child to detect certain language categories, such as
Phonology, syntax and semantics.
Chomsky argued that all humans are born with the knowledge of what makes a human
language. Included in this innate knowledge must be details of important characteristics
of all the world’s languages. The term universal grammar has been used to describe the
knowledge contained in the LAD. The process of language development is envisioned as
one in which the child discovers which grammar rules contained within universal
grammar apply to the language that the child is learning.

According to Chomsky, humans are born with the LAD, but other species are not.
Nonhuman primates and other species do not spontaneously learn human languages.

Infant directed speech: speech often used by parents and other adults when they talk to
babies. It has a higher than normal pitch and involves the use of
Simple words and sentences.

Psychosocial Development-

1) Emotional development, emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and

regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and change in these capacities
throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The development of emotions
occurs in conjunction with neural, cognitive, and behavioral development and
emerges within a particular social and cultural context.
The expression of emotions during infancy promotes the transition from complete
dependency to autonomy. The expression of interest promotes exploration and
cognitive development. Social (intentional) smiles and other expressions of joy
promote social interaction and healthy attachment relationships with primary
caregivers. The expression of sadness encourages empathy and helping behaviour,
and the expression of anger signals protest and discomfort. Infants’ unique tendency
to experience and express particular emotions and the threshold for expressing those
emotions is usually referred to as their temperament or characteristic emotionality.

2) Crying- Crying is an important means of communication for babies. It plays a crucial

role in ensuring the survival, health and development of the child. Being able to
recognize different types of crying is therefore the key to effectively meeting the
child’s needs, and a relief for many parents.
For infants, crying is the sole form of communication and there are three distinct
types: A “basic cry” is a rhythmic pattern consisting of a cry followed by silence; an
“anger cry” is similar to a basic cry but with more volume due to the release of
excessive air through the infant’s vocal chords; and a “pain cry” is a loud cry
followed by periods of breath holding.

3) Smiling- Smiling is a developmental milestone that most babies reach by the time that
they are six, seven or eight weeks old. 1) The spontaneous smile or reflexive
smiling can occur as early as your baby's first few days of life and should be present
by the time he is ten weeks old.
2) The social smile is a developmental milestone most infants reach when they are
one to two months old. Not having a social smile by six months of age is commonly
considered to be an early sign of autism.

4) Fear - Stranger anxiety is the distress that babies experience when they meet or are
left in the care of people who are unfamiliar to them. Stranger anxiety is a perfectly
normal developmental stage that often begins around 6 to 8 months. Stranger anxiety
typically peaks between 12 and 15 months and then begins to gradually decrease as
your baby continues to grow and develop. The development of stranger anxiety
coincides with a baby’s budding sense of organization and order in the world. Around
the time that stranger anxiety begins, baby realizes that the relationship they have
with the people they spend the most time with (often their parents) is different than
the relationship they have with strangers and other people they don’t know well. As
they realize this, babies seek out the familiar and express distress around the
unfamiliar.

Separation anxiety or protest- Babies and toddlers often get clingy and cry if you or
their other carers leave them, even for a short time. Separation anxiety and fear of
strangers is common in young children between the ages of 6 months and 3 years, but
it's a normal part of your child's development and they usually grow out of it.

Social referencing- Social referencing refers to the process wherein infants use the
affective displays of an adult to regulate their behaviors toward environmental objects, persons,
and situations. Social referencing represents one of the major mechanisms by which infants come
to understand the world around them.

Emotional regulation can be defined by two components: emotions as regulating and emotions as
regulated. The first, “emotions as regulating,” refers to changes that are elicited by activated
emotions (e.g., a child’s sadness eliciting a change in parent response). The second component is
labeled “emotions as regulated,” which refers to the process through which the activated emotion
is itself changed by deliberate actions taken by the self (e.g., self-soothing, distraction) or others
(e.g., comfort).

5) Temperament- A temperamental disposition refers to distinctive patterns of feelings

and behaviors that originate in the child’s biology and appear early in development.
1) Difficult children (10%): Children that fall into this type of temperament are
irregular when it comes to feeding and sleeping. At the same time, they’re extremely
active and have a hard time adapting. Therefore, they tend to reject and shy away
from new or strange situations. As for their mood, they’re irritable and aggressive,
have little emotional self-regulation, and have a negative disposition. When it comes
to external stimuli, they respond intensely. 2) Easy children (40%):
Children that fall into this category have a high biological rhythm. Furthermore, they
display interest in new experiences and situations and have the ability to adapt well to
change. Their responses to emotions are of low to moderate intensity. They have a
positive disposition and are happy and affectionate.

Factors- Goodness of fit: A common theory for supporting unique temperaments is

“goodness-of-fit.” The main rationale behind goodness-of-fit theory is that children’s
development is shaped by the interaction between their own characteristics and the
environment around them. Essentially there is no one-size-fits-all approach to
interacting with children and the classroom environment may not impact all children
the same way. For example, a loud and boisterous environment might be perfect for
some children and distressful for others.

Parenting and temperament: Parenting and temperament are often seen as

independent contributors to social development, but the literature also suggests ways
in which these constructs are linked across time. The linkage may involve whether
and how parenting predicts changes in child temperament, as well as whether and
how child temperament influences changes in parenting.

Personality development-

1) Trust- During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning
Basic Trust or Mistrust (Hope) . Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and
security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns
"basic mistrust."

The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of psychologist Erik Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth and lasts until your child is around 18
months old. According to Erikson, it is the most important period of your child's life, as it shapes
their view of the world as well as their overall personality.

Erikson believed that early patterns of trust help children build a strong base of trust that’s
crucial for their social and emotional development. If a child successfully develops trust, they
will feel safe and secure in the world. You’re essentially shaping their personality and
determining how they will view the world.

Trust- Believing in caregivers, Trusting that the world is safe and Knowing that needs will be
met, etc.

Mistrust- Distrusting caregivers, Fearing the world And Unsure that needs will be met

2) Developing sense of self and independence-

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of
psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to around
age 2 or 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a
greater sense of self-control.
It is important for young children to begin developing a sense of personal independence
and control. As they learn to do things for themselves, they establish a sense of control
over themselves as well as some basic confidence in their own abilities.

Toilet training plays a major role; learning to control one’s body functions leads to a
feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences,
and clothing selection.
Kids in this stage of development often feel the need to do things independently, such as
picking out what they will wear each day, putting on their own clothes, and deciding
what they will eat. While this can often be frustrating for parents and caregivers, it is an
important part of developing a sense of self-control and personal autonomy.

Social development

1) Transition to parenthood: Within the family life-cycle literature, the addition of a first
child to the marital system is considered one of the stages that a family will likely
experience during its developmental lifetime. For the couple experiencing the birth of a
first child, this change is one of most unsettling, but most common, examples of change
within a marital relationship. Indeed, having a baby has been ranked as high as sixth out
of 102 stressful life events.
2) Family as a system: Children begin to develop social skills in infancy from their earliest
bonds, relationships and interactions with family members. They perceive and discover
communication, collaboration and cooperation by both observing parents and siblings as
they interact with each other, and by engaging directly with different members of the
family. Families that treat each other with respect and love promote a positive example of
social interaction for very young children. Families that spend quality time together –
enjoying activities together and sharing meals at the dinner table, for example – also
promote healthy socialization development in young children by fostering group bonding,
communication and sharing.
3) Reciprocal socialisation- Reciprocal socialization is when both the parent and child
socialize each other through their interactions. For instance, a parent teaches the child
how to speak, and later on parents pick up new slang phrases and words used by their
children . Another example of reciprocal socialization is during the bonding process
between a mother and infant. Mother and child start synchronizing actions and
movements when looking at each other. This leads to scaffolding behaviors, in which a
parent’s responses support and encourage the child’s behavior. When baby makes a
sound, the mother may respond in kind or even say certain words to encourage the baby.
Eventually, the child starts mimicking those words, which the mother encourages even
further.
4) Family as a system / home impacts on the infants and toddlers-
Children’s surroundings have a huge impact on their well-being. A healthy, safe home is
essential for a child to grow, learn and explore. A problematic home environment, by
contrast, can have detrimental effects on a child’s intellectual, social and emotional
development. Research has shown that a negative home environment during the early
years of life can lead to impaired development, including

Poor language skills

Behavioral problems
Deficits in school readiness

A child’s early home environment has also been linked to longer-term outcomes,
including

High school graduation

Teen parenthood
Adult employment and earnings

Day care

1) Adult care givers- —the practice in which the care of each infant or toddler is
assigned to one specific caregiver who is principally responsible for caring for that
child in the care setting and communicating with the child’s family.
Responsibilities include

Fostering a relationship with the child and his or her family;

Observing, documenting, and anticipating and planning for each child’s development
process and learning;
Supporting the child through transitions;
Carrying out the majority of the child’s personal care routines; and
Providing emotional support.
2) Programs and activities-
There are many preschool level activities for infants in daycare, or for toddlers. At
such a young age, it is important to focus on helping infants or toddlers improve in
five areas of development:

Physical – Physical development includes physical health, well-being, and basic

movement skills. Activities for infants in daycare which focus on physical
development are designed to help with; large and small muscle control, fitness, and
coordination.
Social-Emotional and social development focus on teaching your child how to create
and maintain relationships with others, as well as managing feelings or emotions.
Learning – Every child has a different approach to learning. Some children are hands-
on learners, while others can just listen or read to grasp what is being taught. It
doesn’t really matter how your infant takes on new tasks or information, there are
activities for infants in daycare with any learning style.
Thinking – Life is full of problems and choices, this is why development in this area
is so important. Daycare activities for infants will give them the opportunity to solve
minor problems and make simple decisions.
Communication – Infant activities that focus on communication skills will help your
toddler or infant learn how to communicate with others. This includes answering or
asking questions, reacting and responding to situations, as well as writing skills.
There are many communication development activities for infants in daycare.

3) Staff communication with parents-the center administrators communicating regularly

and clearly with their staff members and with the parents of the children who are
enrolled in the center. Good communication can prevent misperceptions and
mismatched expectations, encourage improved cooperation and foster a team
approach to caring for the children. Day care administrators should use a mix of
written, verbal and electronic means to communicate with both parents and staff.

The research evidence supports the contention that better quality child care is related
to better cognitive and social development for children. While these effects of child
care quality are in the modest to moderate range, they are found even after adjusting
for family selection factors related to both the quality of care and to children’s
outcomes. Numerous studies have found short-term effects of child care quality on
children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development during the preschool years

Module 04
. Physical development during Childhood
Body growth and changes-

Children begin to lose their baby fat, or chubbiness, around age 3. Toddlers soon acquire the
leaner, more athletic look associated with childhood. The child's trunk and limbs grow longer,
and the abdominal muscles form, tightening the appearance of the stomach. Even at this early
stage of life, boys tend to have more muscle mass than girls. The preschoolers' physical
proportions also continue to change, with their heads still being disproportionately large, but
less so than in toddlerhood.

Three‐year‐old preschoolers may grow to be about 38 inches tall and weigh about 32 pounds.
For the next 3 years, healthy preschoolers grow an additional 2 to 3 inches and gain from 4 to
6 pounds per year. By age 6, children reach a height of about 46 inches and weigh about 46
pounds. Of course, these figures are averages and differ from child to child, depending on
socioeconomic status, nourishment, health, and heredity factors.

Brain development
Brain and nervous system developments during early childhood also continue to be
dramatic. The better developed the brain and nervous systems are, the more complex
behavioral and cognitive abilities children are capable of.

The brain is comprised of two halves, the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
Lateralization refers to the localization of assorted functions, competencies, and skills
in either or both hemispheres. Specifically, language, writing, logic, and
mathematical skills seem to be located in the left hemisphere, while creativity,
fantasy, artistic, and musical skills seem to be located in the right hemisphere.
Although the hemispheres may have separate functions, these brain masses almost
always coordinate their functions and work together.

The two cerebral hemispheres develop at different rates, with the left hemisphere
developing more fully in early childhood (ages 2 to 6), and the right hemisphere
developing more fully in middle childhood (ages 7 to 11). The left hemisphere
predominates earlier and longer, which may explain why children acquire language so
early and quickly.

The nervous system undergoes changes in early childhood, too. The majority of a
child’s neurons, or cells that make up nerves, form prenatally. However, the glial
cells, (nervous system support cells surrounding neurons) that nourish, insulate, and
remove waste from the neurons without actually transmitting information themselves,
develop most rapidly during infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood. The myelin
sheaths that surround, insulate, and increase the efficiency of neurons (by speeding up
the action potential along the axon) also form rapidly during the first few years of life.
The postnatal developments of glial cells and myelin sheaths help to explain why
older children may perform behaviors that younger children are not capable of.

Motor skills-
Both gross and fine motor skills develop and are refined during early childhood; however,
fine motor skills develop more slowly in preschoolers. If you compare the running abilities of
a 2‐year‐old and a 6‐year‐old, for example, you may notice the limited running skills of the 2‐
year‐old. But the differences are even more striking when comparing a 2‐year‐old and 6‐year‐
old who are tying shoelaces. The 2‐year‐old has difficulty grasping the concept before ever
attempting or completing the task. children must be ready, have adequate opportunities, and
be interested in developing motor skills to become competent at those skills.

Nutrition
Feeding and eating habits are important aspects of development during early
childhood.

It affects their skeletal growth, body shape, and susceptibility to disease.

Energy requirements for individual children are determined by the basal metabolism
rate.( minimum amount of energy a person uses in a resting state.)

Deaths-
The majority of deaths during early childhood are due to accidental injuries rather
than illnesses. The most common source of deadly accidents for preschoolers is the
automobile. Other causes of childhood death include drowning, suffocating, being
burned, being poisoned, and falling from heights. Young children’s sense of
adventure often outweighs their understanding of the dangers inherent in various
activities and situations. Therefore, adequate adult supervision is necessary at all
times whether at home, in daycare, or on the playground.

Cognitive development-

Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6–11 years old).
Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete
information. Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and
future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can
process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect
relationships. However, children’s attention spans tend to be very limited until they
are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.

Piaget’s preoperational stages

Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the Preoperational Stage.
According to Piaget, this stage occurs from the age of 2 to 7 years. In the
preoperational stage, children use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas,
which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might
become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might
become a brave knight with a sword.

The term Operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this

stage are considered pre-operational. Children’s logic is based on their own personal
knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge.

The preoperational period is divided into two stages: The Symbolic Function
Substage occurs between 2 and 4 years of age and is characterized by the child being
able to mentally represent an object that is not present and a dependence on
perception in problem solving. The Intuitive Thought Substage, lasting from 4 to 7
years, is marked by greater dependence on intuitive thinking rather than just
perception At this stage, children ask many questions as they attempt to understand the
world around them using immature reasoning.

Pretend Play: Pretending is a favorite activity at this time. A toy has qualities beyond the way
it was designed to function and can now be used to stand for a character or object unlike
anything originally intended. A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby or the queen of a
faraway land. Piaget believed that children’s pretend play helped children solidify new
schemata they were developing cognitively. This play, then, reflected changes in their
conceptions or thoughts. However, children also learn as they pretend and experiment.
Egocentrism in early childhood refers to the tendency of young children not to be able to take
the perspective of others, and instead the child thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just
as they do. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead
attributes his own perspective to situations. For example, ten year-old Keiko’s birthday is
coming up, so her mom takes 3 year-old Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his
sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister
will too.

Animism refers to attributing life-like qualities to objects. The cup is alive, the chair that falls
down and hits the child’s ankle is mean, and the toys need to stay home because they are
tired. Cartoons frequently show objects that appear alive and take on lifelike qualities.

Young children do seem to think that objects that move may be alive, but after age
three, they seldom refer to objects as being alive

Conservation refers to the ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter does
not change the quantity. Let’s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Dad gave a slice of
pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to 3-year-old Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice
was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did.
Kenny did not understand that cutting the pizza into smaller pieces did not increase
the overall amount. This was because Kenny exhibited Centration, or focused on only
one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others. Kenny focused on the five
pieces of pizza to his sister’s one piece even though the total amount was the same.
Keiko was able to consider several characteristics of an object than just one. Because
children have not developed this understanding of conservation, they cannot perform
mental operations.

Vygotsky theory-
1)
The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner
can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.

Thus, the term “proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to
mastering.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by

independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for
a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough
of a “boost” to achieve the task.
To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators
are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning
process:

• The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a
more knowledgeable other).
• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and
practice their skills.
• Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent
peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

2) Scaffolding- is a teaching method that helps students learn more by working with
a teacher or a more advanced student to achieve their learning goals. The theory
behind instructional scaffolding is that, compared to learning independently,
students learn more when collaborating with others who have a wider range of
skills and knowledge than the student currently does. These instructors or peers
are the "scaffolding" who help the student expand her learning boundaries and
learn more than she would be able to on her own. Vygotsky scaffolding is part of
the education concept "zone of proximal development" or ZPD. The ZPD is the
set of skills or knowledge a student can't do on her own but can do with the help
or guidance of someone else. It's the skill level just above where the student
currently is.

For example, say there is a kindergartner who is learning how to read and write. He knows all the
letters of the alphabet, but he can’t yet read or write words. No matter how much guidance he
was given, he could never read a novel on his own at this point, but with a teacher’s help, he can
learn how to read and write short words like “at,” “boy” and “dog” because this skill is within is
ZPD. It would have taken him much longer to learn this skill on his own, but it’s still simple
enough that he can understand it if he has someone to explain it to him. The student’s ZPD is
reading and writing short words, and the teacher who helps him learn them is the scaffolding.

3) Language and thought

Young children use language not only for social communication but also to
planguide, and monitor their behaviour in a self regulatory fashion.The use of
language for self regulation is called inner speech or private speech.
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during the early childhood years.

Psychosocial development

1) Self understanding - During early childhood, children start to develop a "self-

concept," the attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that they believe define
them. By age 3, (between 18 and 30 months), children have developed their
Categorical Self, which is concrete way of viewing themselves in "this or that"
labels. For example, young children label themselves in terms of age "child or
adult", gender "boy or girl", physical characteristics "short or tall", and value,
"good or bad." The labels are used to explain children's self-concept in very
concrete, observable terms. For example, Seth may describe himself this way:
"I'm 4. I have blue eyes. I'm shorter than Mommy.
2) Emotional development - As with emotional development, both internal and
external variables can affect young children's self-concept. For example, a child's
temperament can affect how they view themselves and their ability to successfully
complete tasks. Children with easy temperaments are typically willing to try
things repeatedly and are better able to handle frustrations and challenges. In
contrast, children with more difficult temperaments may become more easily
frustrated and discouraged by challenges or changes in the situation.
3) Moral development - During early childhood, children also grow in their ability to
tell the difference between moral rules, social norms, and personal choices. By
around age 5, children see that moral rules are intended to prevent "really wrong"
behavior that could potentially hurt or take away from others. In contrast, social
norms are rules about socially-defined behaviors that are wrong or right; however,
violating these rules will not hurt other people. For example, Kayla knows that
hitting Darin is morally wrong, because it will hurt him and make him cry. In
contrast, Kayla knows that playing in the mud in a new dress is wrong because it
will probably make Grandma mad, but it's not something that her peers will get
upset or angry about. Kayla will also be able to identify different personal
choices. She'll realize that even though she doesn't like to put ketchup in her
macaroni and cheese, it's okay for Frankie to eat this concoction if he likes that
taste.

By ages 6 and 7, the ability to differentiate between moral rules, social norms, and
personal choices matures, and children can take more circumstances and
possibilities into account when thinking about the ramifications of different
behavior. For example, Becky knows that it is not okay to copy her friend’s
homework, even if she didn’t have time to complete her math problems because
she was at soccer practice (e.g., a moral rule). She also knows that even though it
won’t hurt anyone, giggling with and tickling her sister during a religious service
is inappropriate (e.g., a social norm). Finally, she can think about the
consequences of going outside on a chilly day without a jacket, and choose to do
so (against her father’s advice) ahnyway (e.g., a personal choice).

4) Sibling relationship and birth order - Sibling relations provide an important

context for the development of children’s understanding of their social, emotional,
moral and cognitive worlds.In particular, siblings play an important role in the
development of children’s understanding of others’ minds, namely their
understanding of emotions, thoughts, intentions and beliefs. Siblings seem to
demonstrate an understanding of others’ minds and emotions during real-life
interactions long before they show this understanding on more formal
assessments. In particular, this understanding is revealed during episodes of
teasing, pretend play, conflict resolution, teaching, and through their use of
emotional and mental language during conversations.Young siblings who engage
in frequent pretend play demonstrate a greater understanding of others’ emotions
and thinking, show evidence of creativity in their play themes and object use, and
are more likely to construct shared meanings in play. Individual differences in
pretend play and conflict management strategies predict children’s social
understanding over time,conflict resolution skills at age six,and adjustment to first
grade.

Middle childhood

Physical development-

Rates of growth generally slow during middle childhood. Typically, a child will gain about 5-7
pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year. Many girls and boys experience a prepubescent
growth spurt, but this growth spurt tends to happen earlier in girls (around age 9-10) than it does
in boys (around age 11-12). Because of this, girls are often taller than boys at the end of middle
childhood. Children in middle childhood tend to slim down and gain muscle strength and lung
capacity making it possible to engage in strenuous physical activity for long periods of time.

The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. That is not to say, however, that the brain is fully
developed by age 7. The brain continues to develop for many years after it has attained its adult
size. The school-aged child is better able to plan, coordinate activity using both left and right
hemispheres of the brain, and to control emotional outbursts. Paying attention is also improved
as the prefrontal cortex matures. As the myelin continues to develop throughout middle
childhood, the child’s reaction time improves as well.

During middle childhood, physical growth slows down. One result of the slower rate of growth is
an improvement in motor skills. Children of this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform
both gross motor skills such as riding a bike and fine motor skills such as cutting their
fingernails.

In general, children lose the teeth in the middle of the mouth first and then lose the teeth next to
those in sequence over the 6-year span. By age 12, generally all of the teeth are permanent teeth,
however, it is not extremely rare for one or more primary teeth to be retained beyond this age,
sometimes well into adulthood, often because the secondary tooth fails to develop.
Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports. And in fact,
many parents do. Nearly 3 million children play soccer in the United States. This activity
promises to help children build social skills, improve athletically, and learn a sense of
competition. It has been suggested, however, that the emphasis on competition and athletic skill
can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit. In many
respects, it appears that children’s activities are no longer children’s activities once adults
become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children.

Health Risks: Childhood Obesity

Nearly 20 percent of school-aged American children are obese.[1] This is defined as being at least
20 percent over their ideal weight. The percentage of obesity in school aged children has
increased substantially since the 1960s, and it continues to increase. This is true in part because
of the introduction of a steady diet of television and other sedentary activities. In addition, we
have come to emphasize high fat, fast foods as a culture. Pizza, hamburgers, chicken nuggets and
“lunchables” with soda have replaced more nutritious foods as staples.

One consequence of childhood obesity is that children who are overweight tend to be ridiculed and teased
by others. This can certainly be damaging to their self-image and popularity. In addition, obese children
run the risk of suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries, and an increased risk of heart disease
and stroke in adulthood. It may be difficult for a child who is obese to become a non-obese adult. In
addition, the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen dramatically in recent years.

The most common injury is majorly accidents that happens in forms of burns, fractures or such injuries.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in children 5 to 14 years of age. Child cancer mainly
attack the white blood cells (Lukemia) , brain , bone,Lymph system, muscles, kidneys, and
nervous system.

Children with disabilities

1) Learning disability - a child with a learning disability has problems in a specific area or
with a specific task or type of activity related to education. A learning difficulty refers to
a deficit in a child’s ability to perform an expected academic skill (Berger, 2005). These
difficulties are identified in school because this is when children’s academic abilities are
being tested, compared, and measured. Consequently, once academic testing is no longer
essential in that person’s life (as when they are working rather than going to school) these
disabilities may no longer be noticed or relevant, depending on the person’s job and the
extent of the disability.

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is

characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor
spelling and decoding abilities. Dyslexia is one of the most commonly diagnosed
disabilities and involves having difficulty in the area of reading. This diagnosis is used
for a number of reading difficulties. For example, the child may reverse letters, may have
difficulty reading from left to right, or may have problems associating letters with
sounds. Dyslexia appears to be rooted in some neurological problems involving the parts
of the brain active in recognizing letters, verbally responding, or being able to manipulate
sounds.

2) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is considered a neurological and

behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out
distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts. The most commonly recommended
treatment involves the use of medication, structuring the classroom environment to keep
distractions at a minimum, tutoring, and teaching parents how to set limits and encourage
age-appropriate behavior (NINDS, 2006). Some people say that the term Attention
Deficit is a misnomer because people who suffer from ADHD actually have great
difficulty tuning things out. They are bombarded with information… their brains are
trying to pay attention to everything. They do not have a deficit of attention- they are
trying to pay attention to too many things at once, so everything suffers.

Recent research suggests that several brain structures may be implicated in ADHD. These
studies have mainly focused on the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex.Some studies
suggest that the frontal lobe is underdeveloped in children and adults with ADHD.[5][6]
The frontal lobe is involved in executive function, attention, planning, impulse control,
motivation, and decision making. In some cases the development is delayed, but catches
up to expected standards by adulthood; in other cases, the frontal lobe never fully
develops.

Cognitive development

Children in middle childhood are beginning a new experience—that of formal education.

In the United States, formal education begins at a time when children are beginning to
think in new and more sophisticated ways. According to Piaget, the child is entering a
new stage of cognitive development where they are improving their logical skills. During
middle childhood, children also make improvements in short term and long term
memory.

1) Concrete operational thought - According to Piaget, children in early childhood are in

the preoperational stage of development in which they learn to think symbolically
about the world. From ages 7 to 11, the school-aged child continues to develop in
what Piaget referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.
This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. The child can use logic to
solve problems tied to their own direct experience but has trouble solving
hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems. The child uses
inductive reasoning, which means thinking that the world reflects one’s own personal
experience. For example, a child has one friend who is rude, another friend who is
also rude, and the same is true for a third friend. Using inductive reasoning, the child
may conclude that friends are rude.
2) Classification can include new ways of arranging information, categorizing
information, or creating classes of information. Many psychological theorists,
including Piaget, believe that classification involves a hierarchical structure, such that
information is organized from very broad categories to very specific items.
3) Understanding that objects have an identity or qualities that do not change even if the
object is altered in some way. For instance, the mass of an object does not change by
rearranging it. A piece of chalk is still chalk even when the piece is broken in two.
4) During middle childhood, children also understand the concept of reversibility, or that
some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. Water can
be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again. But eggs cannot be unscrambled.
Arithmetic operations are reversible as well: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 – 3 = 2.

During middle childhood, children are able to learn and remember due to an
improvement in the ways they attend to and store information. As children enter
school and learn more about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and
learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant
reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new
information. New experiences are similar to old ones or remind the child of
something else about which they know. This helps them file away new experiences
more easily.

Children in middle childhood also have a better understanding of how well they are
performing on a task and the level of difficulty of a task. As they become more
realistic about their abilities, they can adapt studying strategies to meet those needs.
While preschoolers may spend as much time on an unimportant aspect of a problem
as they do on the main point, school-aged children start to learn to prioritize and gage
what is significant and what is not. They develop metacognition or the ability to
understand the best way to figure out a problem. They gain more tools and strategies
(such as “i before e except after c” so they know that “receive” is correct but
“recieve” is not.)

Language Development

Vocabulary
One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a
vocabulary to do so. By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words. It grows at
the rate of 20 words per day, a rate that exceeds that of preschoolers. This language explosion,
however, differs from that of preschoolers because it is facilitated by being able to associate new
words with those already known (fast-mapping) and because it is accompanied by a more
sophisticated understanding of the meanings of a word.
A child in middle childhood is also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, if
asked for the first word that comes to mind when one hears the word “pizza”, the preschooler is
likely to say “eat” or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the school-
aged child is more likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say “food” or
“carbohydrate”.

Grammar and Flexibility

School-aged children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility. While
preschoolers are likely to be reluctant to give up saying “I goed there”, school-aged children will
learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.

While the preschool years might be a good time to learn a second language (being able to
understand and speak the language), the school years may be the best time to be taught a second
language (the rules of grammar).

Intelligence
Schooling brings assessment of intellectual skills. Some assessments are achievement tests.
These are designed to measure what a child has learned and are administered at the end of a
course of study. Aptitude tests are designed to measure a child’s potential to learn and may be
used as entrance requirements. Intelligence tests are one type of aptitude test. However,
intelligence tests are not uniformly administered. They are more likely used as part of a clinical
assessment in situations in which a child needs special attention or instruction.

Howard Gardner suggests that there are many talents abilities that can set a person apart and help
them be successful that go beyond academic intelligence. His domains of intelligences include
logical-mathematical, linguistic, and spatial intelligence, which are the kinds of abilities
measured by intelligence tests. Other intelligences include bodily-kinesthetic intelligence which
focuses on movement, strength, accuracy, and endurance; musical intelligence, intrapersonal
intelligence, or knowledge of one’s own motivations and internal psychological state;
interpersonal intelligence, or the ability to read others accurately, negotiate, communicate and
exhibit other interpersonal skills; naturalistic intelligence such as the knowledge of climate,
crops, or animals vital to success in farming or herding; and existential intelligence that involves
spiritual or philosophical understandings that address life’s bigger questions about existence and
purpose.

Robert Sternberg offers another model of intelligence that takes us outside academic intelligence.
His triarchic theory of intelligence includes academic intelligence or “book smarts” which is the
type of intelligence IQ tests measure. But also considered key are creative or experiential
intelligence and practical intelligence. Creative intelligence is the ability to use what has been
learned or to put knowledge into experience. Practical intelligence or “street smarts” also
referred to as common sense is the ability to understand what is called for in a situation and to
act accordingly. These intelligences are important for success in life.

Psychosocial Development
Entering school often means entering the society or culture of children. Children establish a
language, set of rules, behaviors, and roles for one another. This society of children can serve as
a living laboratory for learning and practicing social skills such as negotiation, communication,
and problem-solving.Think about the children you remember from your early grades in school.
You may remember some children who were known by many and were well-liked. These
popular-prosocial children are highly visible and seem to have the support and the
encouragement of the school. Some children are popular, but their popularity comes from
altercations with other students and rebelliousness within the school. It may be hard for these
children to change their social behavior as it has become part of their persona and popularity.
Some children are withdrawn and suffer the rejection of other children. They may have some
qualities that make them a safe target for bullying such as being poor, having a physical
challenge, or being shy.

School-aged children are forming a sense of self or self-concept. This begins earlier in life, but
continues to take shape in middle childhood. In societies where media is powerful, children may
develop evaluation themselves based on images or products in television shows, commercials, or
on the internet. Erikson believed that these children struggle with industry, a stage of being busy
and learning about one’s capabilities, versus inferiority.

Understand the tasks performed by families. Family tasks include providing food, clothing, and
shelter for children, encouraging learning, developing self-esteem in children, nurturing their
friendships, and providing a harmonious and stable environment for family life. The
psychological health of the parents, especially the parent with whom the child spends the most
time, is key to helping children adjust.
Here are a few tips for parents going through divorce. One is to take care of your own mental
health. Find others that can offer support and understanding. Allow children to express their grief
over losses. Cultivate a healthy, conflict-free relationship with the other parent for the sake of the
children. And try to establish a home environment that is healthy, positive, and comfortable.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop
morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg’s theory suggests that moral development occurs in a
series of six stages. The theory also suggests that moral logic
Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the
age of 9. At this age, children’s decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and
the consequences for breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience
and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed
and absolute.7 Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was
the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one’s own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding
what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards
they have learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the
group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the “good boy-
good girl” orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is
focused on living up to social expectations and roles.7 There is an emphasis on conformity,
being “nice,” and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules,
doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of
morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and individual
rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people.7 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of
the society should agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal
ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized
principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules

Stressors in Middle Childhood

Family Life

During middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers.
Parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing
independence. Authoritative parenting which uses reason and joint decision-making whenever
possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). A more harsh form of parenting,
authoritarian parenting, uses strict discipline and focuses on obedience. Asian-American,
African-American, and Mexican-American parents are more likely than European-Americans to
use an authoritarian style of parenting. Children raised in authoritative households tend to be
confident, successful, and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002).

Sexual Abuse in Middle Childhood

Researchers estimate that 1 out of 4 girls and 1 out of 10 boys have been sexually abused
(Valente, 2005). The median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years for both boys and girls
(Finkelhor et. Al. 1990). Most boys and girls are sexually abused by a male. Childhood sexual
abuse is defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or a much older child. Incest
refers to sexual contact between a child and family members. In each of these cases, the child is
exploited by an older person without regard for the child’s developmental immaturity and
inability to understand the sexual behavior (Steele, 1986).
Module 05
Development in adolescence and young adulthood
Physical development

Adolescence Defined
Adolescence is often characterized as a period of transformation, primarily, in terms of physical,
cognitive, and social-relational change. Adolescence is a developmental stage that has been
defined as starting with puberty and ending with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages
10–20). Adolescence has evolved historically, with evidence indicating that this stage is
lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood later than in the past.
Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys. This
average age of onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th century by 3–4 months per
decade, which has been attributed to a range of factors including better nutrition, obesity,
increased father absence, and other environmental factors (Steinberg, 2013). Completion of
formal education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood have all been
markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood, and all of these transitions
happen, on average, later now than in the past. In fact, the prolonging of adolescence has
prompted the introduction of a new developmental period called emerging adulthood that
captures these developmental changes out of adolescence and into adulthood, occurring from
approximately ages 18 to 29 (Arnett, 2000).

Puberty

Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is
predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur during
puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands,
respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop and
mature. Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the
uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males. Secondary sexual characteristics are physical
signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of
breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls
experience menarche, the beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and
boys experience spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old.
During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For girls
this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old.
Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old, and reach their
adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition,
medications, and medical conditions) can influence height.

Brain Development: The Amygdala and the Frontal Cortex

The amygdala and the frontal cortex are two key regions of the brain that develop at different
times. The amygdala, which processes stress and other emotions, and is responsible for
instinctual reactions like fear and aggressive behavior, matures early.

On the other hand, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for judgment, self-control,
emotional regulation, rational thought, goal setting, morality, and understanding consequences, is
not yet fully developed in teenagers. In fact, this area of the brain develops quite dramatically
during adolescence and into the mid-20s.

Nutrition and Activity

Adolescents may be ready to make decisions about their body and health. Making healthy
decisions about what to eat and drink, how active they are, and how much sleep to get are
important decisions that can either promote or hinder health. Unfortunately, many teens do not
make healthy decisions, partly due to the frontal cortex still developing and partly due to the
culture in which we live. In the United States, 20% of individuals between the ages of 12 and 19
are obese. If you ever have the opportunity to watch the documentary, “Fed Up.” It powerfully
shows how we are failing our adolescents in terms of healthy eating.

Sleep Needs
Sometimes it’s difficult for teens to get enough sleep, especially if they have jobs, help take care
of younger brothers or sisters, or are busy with other activities after school. Like healthy eating
and getting enough physical activity, getting enough sleep is important for staying healthy.

Everyone needs enough sleep to do well in school, work, drive safely, and fight off infection.
Not getting enough sleep may lead to moodiness and irritability. While more research is needed,
some studies have shown that not getting enough sleep may also contribute to weight gain.
Individuals between 13 and 18 years old should get 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night.

Eating disorders are serious mental illnesses.

Changes in food behaviours, depression or feeling unhappy with body shape and size are
common risk factors for the onset of an eating disorder.
Children learn by imitating, so parents, teachers and other adults can help to prevent eating
disorders through positive role modelling.
The main types of eating disorder include:
Anorexia nervosa – characterised by restricted eating, loss of weight and a fear of putting on
weight
Bulimia nervosa – periods of binge eating (often in secret), followed by attempts to compensate
by excessively exercising, vomiting, or periods of strict dieting. Binge eating is often
accompanied by feelings of shame and being ‘out of control’
Binge eating disorder – characterised by recurrent periods of binge eating (can include eating
much more than normal, feeling uncomfortably full, eating large amounts when not physically
hungry). Feelings of guilt, disgust and depression can follow binge eating episodes. Binge eating
does not involve compensatory behaviours.

Other specified feeding or eating disorder (OSFED) – feeding or eating behaviours that cause
the individual distress and impairment, but do not meet criteria for the first three eating
disorders.

Cognitive Development during Adolescence

Adolescence is a time of rapid cognitive development. Biological changes in brain structure and
connectivity in the brain interact with increased experience, knowledge, and changing social
demands to produce rapid cognitive growth. These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly
thereafter, and some skills continue to develop as an adolescent ages. Development of executive
functions, or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior,
are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The thoughts, ideas, and
concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence one’s future life and play a major role
in character and personality formation.

Perspectives and Advancements in Adolescent Thinking

There are two perspectives on adolescent thinking: constructivist and information-processing.
The constructivist perspective, based on the work of Piaget, takes a quantitative, stage-theory
approach. This view hypothesizes that adolescents’ cognitive improvement is relatively sudden
and drastic. The information-processing perspective derives from the study of artificial
intelligence and explains cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components
of the overall process of thinking.

Hypothetical and abstract thinking

One of the major premises of formal operational thought is the capacity to think of possibility,
not just reality. Adolescents’ thinking is less bound to concrete events than that of children; they
can contemplate possibilities outside the realm of what currently exists. One manifestation of the
adolescent’s increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in
deductive reasoning (also called top-down reasoning), which leads to the development of
hypothetical thinking. This provides the ability to plan ahead, see the future consequences of an
action and to provide alternative explanations of events. It also makes adolescents more skilled
debaters, as they can reason against a friend’s or parent’s assumptions. Adolescents also develop
a more sophisticated understanding of probability.

Metacognition
Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking.” It is relevant in social cognition as it results in
increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization. Adolescents are much better
able to understand that people do not have complete control over their mental activity. Being
able to introspect may lead to forms of egocentrism, or self-focus, in adolescence. Adolescent
egocentrism is a term that David Elkind used to describe the phenomenon of adolescents’
inability to distinguish between their perception of what others think about them and what people
actually think in reality. Elkind’s theory on adolescent egocentrism is drawn from Piaget’s theory
on cognitive developmental stages, which argues that formal operations enable adolescents to
construct imaginary situations and abstract thinking.

Imaginary audience is a term that Elkind used to describe the phenomenon that an adolescent
anticipates the reactions of other people to him/herself in actual or impending social situations.
Elkind argued that this kind of anticipation could be explained by the adolescent’s preoccupation
that others are as admiring or as critical of them as they are of themselves. As a result, an
audience is created, as the adolescent believes that they will be the focus of attention

Personal fable is the term Elkind created to describe this notion, which is the complement of the
construction of imaginary audience. Since an adolescent usually fails to differentiate their own
perceptions and those of others, they tend to believe that they are of importance to so many
people (the imaginary audiences) that they come to regard their feelings as something special and
unique. They may feel that only they have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and
therefore others could never understand how they feel. This uniqueness in one’s emotional
experiences reinforces the adolescent’s belief of invincibility, especially to death.

Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast, and it is more experiential and emotional.

In contrast, analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational (logical). While these systems
interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier, quicker, and more commonly
used in everyday life. As discussed in the adolescent brain development section earlier in this
module, the discrepancy between the maturation of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex,
may make teens more prone to emotional intuitive thinking than adults. As adolescents develop,
they gain in logic/analytic thinking ability and sometimes regress, with social context, education,
and experiences becoming major influences.

Psychosocial Development

Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the
task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an
adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents
adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that
are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer
relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
In adolescence, teens continue to develop their self-concept. Their ability to think of the
possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation of the self
during adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of self is often full of contradictions.
Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn, happy yet often moody, and
both smart and completely clueless (Harter, 2012). These contradictions, along with the teen’s
growing recognition that their personality and behavior seems to change depending on who they
are with or where they are, can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud. With their parents they
may seem angrier and sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing and goofy, and at work
they are quiet and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the young teenager.
Harter (2012) found that adolescents emphasize traits such as being friendly and considerate
more than do children, highlighting their increasing concern about how others may see them.
Harter also found that older teens add values and moral standards to their self-descriptions.

As self-concept differentiates, so too does self-esteem. In addition to the academic, social,

appearance, and physical/athletic dimensions of self-esteem in middle and late childhood, teens
also add perceptions of their competency in romantic relationships, on the job, and in close
friendships (Harter, 2006). Self-esteem often drops when children transition from one school
setting to another, such as shifting from elementary to middle school, or junior high to high
school .These drops are usually temporary, unless there are additional stressors such as parental
conflict, or other family disruptions.Self-esteem rises from mid to late adolescence for most
teenagers, especially if they feel competent in their peer relationships, their appearance, and
athletic abilities.

Identity Development
Identity development is vital to a person’s understanding of self and participation in their social
systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions:
a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals,
and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one’s history and future; goals and direction; a
sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development emphasizes the social nature of our
development. His theory proposed that our psychosocial development takes place throughout our
lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or
what he called the ego identity. He also believed that we are motivated by a need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives.

During adolescence, we experience psychological moratorium, where teens put on hold

commitment to an identity while exploring the options.

Individual identity development is influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood
psychosocial crises, and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future,
childhood, and adulthood. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s central questions are, “Who
am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator
of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an
indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). This crisis is resolved positively
with identity achievement and the gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue when
adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture. Some
adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop
identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This change is
common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives

Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Expanding on Erikson’s theory, Marcia (1966) described identity formation during adolescence
as involving both exploration and commitment with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g.,
religion, politics, career, relationships, gender roles). Identity development begins when
individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they
can become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and
commit to options within the confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not
provided or are limited, and the individual will fail to commit or will commit without the
opportunity to explore various options (Marcia, 1980).

Identity confusion/diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any
identities. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring
options. A moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have
not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different
options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of identity
achievement.

Identity foreclosure have committed to an identity without having explored the options. Often,
younger adolescence will enter a phase of foreclosure where they may, at least preliminarily,
commit to an identity without an investment in the exploration process. This commitment is
often a response to anxiety about uncertainty or change during adolescence or pressure from
parents, social groups, or cultural expectations. It is expected that most adolescents will progress
beyond the foreclosure phase as they can think independently, and we multiple identity options.
However, sometimes foreclosure will persist into late adolescence or even adulthood.

Identity moratorium is a status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to
establish an identity but have yet to have made any commitment. This time can be an anxious
and emotionally tense period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores
various beliefs. Nothing is guaranteed, and there are many questions, but few answers. This
moratorium phase is the precursor to identity achievement. During the moratorium period, it is
normal for adolescents to be rebellious and uncooperative, avoid dealing with problems,
procrastinate, experience low self-esteem, feel anxious, and uncertain about decisions.

Identity achievement refers to those who, after exploration, have committed. Identity
achievement is a long process and is not often realized by the end of adolescence. Individuals
that do reach identity achievement feel self-acceptance, stable self-definition, and are committed
to their identity.
Parents

Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships
remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of
parent–child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during
this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal
supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from
parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors
such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and
whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’ willingness to disclose information to their parents.

Peers
As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less
time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults.
Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of
friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During
adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a
peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained
as being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend
time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend
time together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes).

Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships

(which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who
interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual
interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009[4]). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities
(such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’
perceptions of their values or behaviors.

Romantic relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first
emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-
sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in
the context of these mixed-sex peer groups.Although romantic relationships during adolescence
are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not
be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and
their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than
to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003[6]). Romantic
relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer
relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral adjustment.

Depression and suicide

The mental and emotional disorder known as teen depression is no different medically from adult
depression. However, symptoms in teens may manifest themselves in different ways than in
adults.

This may be because teens face different social and developmental challenges, such as peer
pressure, changing hormone levels, and developing bodies.

Depression can be associated with high levels of stress, anxiety, and — in the most serious
scenarios — suicide. It can also affect these aspects of a teen’s life:

Personal life (which refers to how an individual feels, thinks, or behaves when they’re alone and
away from others)
School life
Work life
Social life
Family life

Young adulthood

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

Havighurst (1972) describes some of the developmental tasks of young adults. These include:

• Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent person with a life of

one’s own
• Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes, preferences, and
philosophies
• Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally which is considered a
sign of maturing
• Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least an initial career
direction and pursuing an education
• Finding intimacy: forming first close, long-term relationships
• Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the first time, become
involved with various groups in the community. They may begin voting or volunteering
to be part of civic organizations (scouts, church groups, etc.). This is especially true for
those who participate in organizations as parents.
• Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household: learning how to
budget and keep a home maintained.
• Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a household with
children.
• Making marital or relationship adjustments and learning to parent.

Physical development

People in their twenties and thirties are considered young adults. If you are in your early
twenties, you are probably at the peak of your physiological development. Your body has
completed its growth, though your brain is still developing (as explained in the previous module
on adolescence). Physically, you are in the “prime of your life” as your reproductive system,
motor ability, strength, and lung capacity are operating at their best. However, these systems will
start a slow, gradual decline so that by the time you reach your mid to late 30s, you will begin to
notice signs of aging. This includes a decline in your immune system, your response time, and in
your ability to recover quickly from physical exertion. For example, you may have noticed that it
takes you quite some time to stop panting after running to class or taking the stairs.

Obesity
Although at the peak of physical health, a concern for early adults is the current rate of obesity.
Results from the National Center for Health Statistics indicated that an estimated 70.7% of U.S.
adults aged 20 and over were overweight in 2012 (CDC, 2015b) and by 2016, 39.8% were
considered obese (Hales, Carroll, Fryar, & Ogden, 2017)). Body mass index (BMI), expressed as
weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2), is commonly used to classify
overweight (BMI 25.0–29.9), obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 30.0), and extreme obesity
(BMI greater than or equal to 40.0). The current statistics are an increase from the 2013-2014
statistics that indicated that an estimated 35.1% were obese, and 6.4% extremely obese (Fryar,
Carroll, & Ogden, 2014). The CDC also indicated that one’s 20s are the prime time to gain
weight as the average person gains one to two pounds per year from early adulthood into middle
adulthood. The average man in his 20s weighs around 185 pounds and by his 30s weighs
approximately 200 pounds.
Obesity Health Consequences: Obesity is considered to be one of the leading causes of death in
the United States and worldwide. Additionally, the medical care costs of obesity in the United
States were estimated to be $147 billion in 2008. According to the CDC (2016) compared to
those with a normal or healthy weight, people who are obese are at increased risk for many
serious diseases.

Gender
Gender is the cultural, social and psychological meanings associated with masculinity and
feminity. A person’s sense of self as a member of a particular gender is known as gender
identity. Because gender is considered a social construct, meaning that it does not exist naturally,
but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms, there are cultural variations
on how people express their gender identity. For example, in American culture, it is considered
feminine to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures,
dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) can be considered masculine.
Similarly, the kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture.

For many adults, the drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles, or the societal
expectations associated with being male or female, continues throughout life. In American
culture, masculine roles have traditionally been associated with strength, aggression, and
dominance, while feminine roles have traditionally been associated with passivity, nurturing, and
subordination. Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the
military, and politics, while women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as
childcare, healthcare, and social work.

Sexuality

Human sexuality refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their
capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. Sexuality may be experienced and expressed
in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors,
practices, roles, and relationships. These may manifest themselves in biological, physical,
emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely
concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle and the
basic biological drive that exists in all species. Emotional aspects of sexuality include bonds
between individuals that are expressed through profound feelings or physical manifestations of
love, trust, and care. Social aspects deal with the effects of human society on one’s sexuality,
while spirituality concerns an individual’s spiritual connection with others through sexuality.

The Sexual Response Cycle: Sexual motivation, often referred to as libido, is a person’s overall
sexual drive or desire for sexual activity. This motivation is determined by biological,
psychological, and social factors. In most mammalian species, sex hormones control the ability
to engage in sexual behaviors. However, sex hormones do not directly regulate the ability to
copulate in primates (including humans); rather, they are only one influence on the motivation to
engage in sexual behaviors. Social factors, such as work and family, also have an impact, as do
internal psychological factors like personality and stress. Sex drive may also be affected by
hormones, medical conditions, medications, lifestyle stress, pregnancy, and relationship issues.

Substance Use Among Teens

The guide highlights the most commonly used substances and the extent of the problem, such as

Alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco are substances most commonly used by adolescents.
By 12th grade, about two-thirds of students have tried alcohol.
About half of 9th through 12th grade students reported ever having used marijuana.
About 4 in 10 9th through 12th grade students reported having tried cigarettes.
Among 12th graders, close to 2 in 10 reported using prescription medicine without a prescription.

Cognitive development

Education and Work

Education in Early Adulthood
According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2017), 90 percent of the American population 25 and
older have completed high school or higher level of education—compare this to just 24 percent
in 1940! Each generation tends to earn (and perhaps need) increased levels of formal education.
As we can see in the graph, approximately one-third of the American adult population has a
bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared with less than 5 percent in 1940. Educational
attainment rates vary by gender and race. All races combined, women are slightly more likely to
have graduated from college than men; that gap widens with graduate and professional degrees.
However, wide racial disparities still exist. For example, 23 percent of African-Americans have a
college degree and only 16.4 percent of Hispanic Americans have a college degree, compared to
37 percent of non-Hispanic white Americans. The college graduation rates of African-Americans
and Hispanic Americans have been growing in recent years, however (the rate has doubled since
1991 for African-Americans and it has increased 60 percent in the last two decades for Hispanic-
Americans).

Career Choices in Early Adulthood

Hopefully, we are each becoming lifelong learners, particularly since we are living longer and
will most likely change jobs multiple times during our lives. However, for many, our job changes
will be within the same general occupational field, so our initial career choice is still significant.
We’ve seen with Erikson that identity largely involves occupation and, as we will learn in the
next section, Levinson found that young adults typically form a dream about work (though
females may have to choose to focus relatively more on work or family initially with “split”
dreams). The American School Counselor Association recommends that school counselors aid
students in their career development beginning as early as kindergarten and continue this
development throughout their education.

Social and personality development during early adulthood

Relationships in Adulthood
Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to contribute to a
state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States identify themselves
through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents (Markus
et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are young, research
suggests that parents reap the rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive
effect on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010). Having stable intimate
relationships has also been found to contribute to well-being throughout adulthood (Vaillant,
2002).

A lack of positive and meaningful relationships during adulthood can result in what Erikson
termed the crisis of intimacy vs. Isolation in his theory of psychosocial development. In young
adulthood (i.e., 20s and early 30s), people tend to be concerned with forming meaningful
relationships; young and middle-aged adults are subject to loneliness if they are unable to form
meaningful relationships with family, friends, or community.

Interpersonal Relationships in Adulthood

Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to contribute to a
state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States identify themselves
through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents. An
interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintanceship between two
or more people that may range from brief to enduring in duration. Like people, relationships
change and grow; they may either improve or dissipate over time. The association between two
people can be based on various factors—love, solidarity, business, or any other context that
requires two (or more) people to interact.

Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their existence.
Like living organisms, relationships have a beginning, a lifespan, and an end. They tend to grow
and improve gradually as people get to know each other and become closer emotionally, or they
gradually deteriorate as people drift apart.

Module 06
Middle and late adulthood
Physical and cognitive development.

Normal Physiological Changes in Middle Adulthood

There are a few primary biological physical changes in midlife. There are changes in vision,
hearing, more joint pain, and weight gain (Lachman, 2004). Vision is affected by age. As we age,
the lens of the eye gets larger but the eye loses some of the flexibility required to adjust to visual
stimuli. This is known as presbyopia. Middle aged adults often have trouble seeing up close as a
result. Night vision is also affected as the pupil loses some of its ability to open and close to
accommodate drastic changes in light.

Presbycusis is the most common cause of hearing loss, afflicting one out of four persons between
ages 65 and 74, and one out of two by age 75. This loss accumulates after years of being exposed
to intense noise levels, and is generally due to the loss or damage of nerve hair cells inside the
cochlea. It is more common in men, but men are also more likely to work in noisy occupations

Weight gain, sometimes referred to as the middle-aged spread, or the accumulation of fat in the
abdomen is one of the common complaints of midlife adults. Men tend to gain fat on their upper
abdomen and back while women tend to gain more fat on their waist and upper arms. Many
adults are surprised at this weight gain because their diets have not changed. However, the
metabolism slows by about one-third during midlife.

Menopause

Menopause refers to a period of transition in which a woman’s ovaries stop releasing eggs and
the level of estrogen and progesterone production decreases. After menopause, a woman’s
menstruation ceases (U. S. National Library of Medicine and National Institute of Health
Changes typically occur between the mid 40s and mid 50s. The median age range for a women to
have her last menstrual period is 50-52, but ages vary. A woman may first begin to notice that
her periods are more or less frequent than before. These changes in menstruation may last from 1
to 3 years. After a year without menstruation, a woman is considered menopausal and no longer
capable of reproduction.The loss of estrogen also affects vaginal lubrication which diminishes
and becomes more watery. The vaginal wall also becomes thinner, and less elastic.

Andropause
Do males experience a climacteric? Yes. While they do not lose their ability to reproduce as they
age, they do tend to produce lower levels of testosterone and fewer sperm. However, men are
capable of reproduction throughout life after puberty. It is natural for sex drive to diminish
slightly as men age, but a lack of sex drive may be a result of extremely low levels of
testosterone. About 5 million men experience low levels of testosterone that results in symptoms
such as a loss of interest in sex, loss of body hair, difficulty achieving or maintaining erection,
loss of muscle mass, and breast enlargement. This decrease in libido and lower testosterone
(androgen) levels is known as andropause

Health
Unfortunately, fewer than half of midlife adults exercise and only about 20 percent exercise
frequently and strenuously enough to achieve health benefits. Many stop exercising soon after
they begin an exercise program-particularly those who are very overweight.
The most common health problems experienced during middle age are arthritis, asthma,
bronchitis, coronary heart disease, diabetes, genitourinary disorders, hypertension (high blood
pressure), mental disorders, and strokes (cerebrovascular accidents)

Cognitive development.
Fluid and crystallized intelligence were first identified by Cattell in 1971. Fluid intelligence
refers to information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial
ability, and reaction time. Crystallized intelligence encompasses abilities that draw upon
experience and knowledge. Measures of crystallized intelligence include vocabulary tests,
solving number problems, and understanding texts. There is a general acceptance that fluid
intelligence decreases continually from the 20s, but that crystallized intelligence continues to
accumulate. One might expect to complete the NY Times crossword more quickly at 48 than 22,
but the capacity to deal with novel information declines.

With age, systematic declines are observed on cognitive tasks requiring self-initiated, effortful
processing, without the aid of supportive memory cues (Park, 2000). Older adults tend to
perform poorer than young adults on memory tasks that involve recall of information, where
individuals must retrieve information they learned previously without the help of a list of
possible choices. For example, older adults may have more difficulty recalling facts such as
names or contextual details about where or when something happened
Empirical studies of cognitive aging are often difficult, and quite technical, given their nature.
Similarly, experiments focused on one kind of task may tell you very little in terms of general
capacities. Memory and attention as psychological constructs are now divided into very specific
subsets which can be confusing and difficult to compare.

Psychosocial Development

Midlife crisis?
Remember Levinson’s theory from our last lesson? Levinson found that the men he interviewed
sometimes had difficulty reconciling the “dream” they held about the future with the reality they
now experience. “What do I really get from and give to my wife, children, friends, work,
community-and self?” a man might ask (Levinson, 1978, p. 192). Tasks of the midlife transition
include 1) ending early adulthood; 2) reassessing life in the present and making modifications if
needed; and 3) reconciling “polarities” or contradictions in ones sense of self. Perhaps, early
adulthood ends when a person no longer seeks adult status-but feels like a full adult in the eyes
of others. This ‘permission’ may lead to different choices in life; choices that are made for self-
fulfillment instead of social acceptance. While people in their early 20s may emphasize how old
they are (to gain respect, to be viewed as experienced), by the time people reach their 40s, they
tend to emphasize how young they are.

Changes may involve ending a relationship or modifying one’s expectations of a partner. These
modifications are easier than changing the self (Levinson, 1978). Midlife is a period of transition
in which one holds earlier images of the self while forming new ideas about the self of the future.
A greater awareness of aging accompanies feelings of youth. And harm that may have been done
previously in relationships haunts new dreams of contributing to the well-being of others. These
polarities are the quieter struggles that continue after outward signs of “crisis” have gone away.

Levinson characterized midlife as a time of developmental crisis.

Goal-Free Living
One of the reasons the men in Levinson’s study became concerned about their life was because it
had not followed the course they had envisioned. Shapiro (2006) offers an alternative to linear
thinking about the future and career paths. Many plan their futures by using a map. They have a
sense of where they are and where they want to be and form strategies to get from point A to
point B. While this seems perfectly logical, Shapiro suggests that following a map closes one to
opportunities for the future and provides a standard by which all actual events may fall short.
Life, then, is evaluated by how closely actual life events have followed the map. If so, all is well.
If not, a feeling of frustration and failure creeps in.

According to Erikson, midlife adults face the crisis of generativity vs. Stagnation. This involves
looking at one’s life while asking the question, “Am I doing anything worthwhile? Is anyone
going to know that I was here? What am I contributing to others?” If not, a feeling of being stuck
or stagnated may result. This discomfort can motivate a person to redirect energies into more
meaningful activities. It is important to make revisions here so that in later life, one may feel a
sense of pride and accomplishment and feel content with the choices that have been made.

Family relationships
Younger and older adults tend to experience more spouse-related stress than do midlife adults.
Midlife adults often have overload stressors such as having too many demands placed on them
by children or due to financial concerns. Parents adjust to launching their children into lives of
their own during this time. Some parents who feel uncomfortable about their children leaving
home may actually precipitate a crisis to keep it from happening or push their child out too soon
(Anderson and Sabatelli, 2007). But even welcomed and anticipated departure can still require
adjustment on the part of the parents as they get used to their empty nest.

Adult children typically maintain frequent contact with their parents if for no other reason, for
money and advice.
Being a midlife child sometimes involves kinkeeping; organizing events and communication in
order to maintain family ties. Kinkeepers are often midlife daughters (they are the person who
tells you what food to bring to a gathering or makes arrangement for a family reunion), but
kinkeepers can be midlife sons as well.

Late adulthood

Physical and cognitive development

• During late adulthood the skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further,
muscle strength and mobility diminishes, hearing and vision decline, and the immune
system weakens.
• The aging process generally results in changes and lower functioning in the brain, leading
to problems like decreased intellectual function and neurodegenerative diseases such as
Alzheimer’s.
• Many of the changes in the bodies and minds of older adults are due in part to a reduction
in the size of the brain as well as loss of brain plasticity.
• Memory degenerates in old age, so older adults have a harder time remembering and
attending to information. In general, an older person’s procedural memory tends to remain
stable, while working memory declines.
• Cardiovascular and respiratory problems become more common in old age. Seniors also
experience a decrease in physical mobility and a loss of balance, which can result in falls
and injuries.
• During old age, a general decline in memory is very common, due to the decrease in speed
of encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory.
• Neurocognitive disorder, formerly called dementia, is a broad category of brain diseases
that cause a gradual long-term decrease in the ability to think and remember.
• There is no cure for neurocognitive disorder, but there are many strategies to improve
quality of life for people with this disorder, such as daily exercise programs and cognitive
or behavioral therapies.

Changes in the Brain

The aging process generally results in changes and lower functioning in the brain, leading to
problems like memory loss and decreased intellectual function. Age is a major risk factor for
most common neurodegenerative diseases, including mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer’s
disease, cerebrovascular disease
Changes in Memory
Memory also degenerates with age, and older adults tend to have a harder time remembering
and attending to information. In general, an older person’s procedural memory stays the same,
while working memory declines. Procedural memory is memory for the performance of
particular types of action; it guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides
below the level of conscious awareness. In contrast, working memory is the system that
actively holds multiple pieces of transitory information in the mind where they can be
manipulated. The reduced capacity of the working memory becomes evident when tasks are
especially complex. Semantic memory is the memory of understanding things, of the meaning
of things and events, and other concept-based knowledge. This type of memory underlies the
conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world, and
remains relatively stable throughout life.

Dementia: A broad category of brain diseases that cause a long-term decrease in the ability to
think and remember to the extent that a person’s daily functioning is affected.
While the term “dementia” is still often used in lay situations, in the DSM-5 it has been
renamed “neurocognitive disorder,” with various degrees of severity.
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of neurocognitive disorder, accounting for 50%
to 70% of cases. Neurocognitive disorders most commonly affect memory, visual-spatial
ability, language, attention, and executive function (e.g., judgment and problem-solving). Most
of these disorders are slow and progressive; by the time a person shows signs of the disease,
the changes in their brain have already been happening for a long time. About 10% of people
with dementia have what is known as mixed dementia, which is usually a combination of
Alzheimer’s disease and another type of dementia.
Psychosocial Development

As people age, they become more dependent on others. Older adults may struggle with feelings of guilt,
shame, or depression because of their increased dependency, especially in societies where the elderly are
viewed as a burden.
Many older adults contend with feelings of loneliness and isolation as their loved ones pass away, which
can negatively impact their health and well-being. Staying active and involved in life can help to
counteract these challenges.
According to Erikson, the final stage of life is marked by a crisis over integrity vs. Despair. People who
believe they have had a positive impact on the world feel a sense of integrity, while those who feel they
have not measured up to certain standards develop a sense of despair.
According to Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, people go through five distinct stages of grief upon dealing with
death and dying: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance

Increased Dependency
As people age, they become more dependent on others. Many elderly people need assistance in meeting
daily needs as they age, and over time they may become dependent on caregivers such as family
members, relatives, friends, health professionals, or employees of senior housing or nursing care. Many
older adults spend their later years in assisted living facilities or nursing homes, which can have social
and emotional impacts on their well-being. Older adults may struggle with feelings of guilt, shame, or
depression because of their increased dependency, especially in societies where caring for the elderly is
viewed as a burden. If an elderly person has to move away from friends, community, their home, or other
familiar aspects of their life in order to enter a nursing home, they may experience isolation, depression,
or loneliness.
Loneliness and Connection
A central aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and social support. As we get
older, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in
number, but remain as close as, if not closer than, in our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992). Many older
adults contend with feelings of loneliness as their loves ones, partners, or friends pass away or as their
children or other family members move away and live their own lives. Loneliness and isolation can have
detrimental effects on health and psychological well-being. However, many adults counteract loneliness
by having active social lives, living in retirement communities, or participating in positive hobbies.
Staying active and involved in life counteracts loneliness and helps increase feelings of self-esteem and
self-worth.

Confronting Death
People perceive death, whether their own or that of others, based on the values of their culture. People in
the United States tend to have strong resistance to the idea of their own death and strong emotional
reactions of loss to the death of loved ones.

Socio-cultural impact
How people view and perceive the aging process varies greatly from culture to culture.
Ageism is a common form of discrimination in the United States and other societies that includes
negative views and stereotypes about the elderly. This type of discrimination can have a significant
negative impact on the care and well-being of elderly people.
Traditionally, elder care has been the responsibility of family members and was provided within an
extended-family home. However, increasingly in modern societies, elder care is being provided by state
or charitable institutions.
Assisted living facilities allow the elderly to keep a sense of independence while providing them with care
and supervision necessary to stay safe.
While countries like the United States and Japan focus more on independent care, Indian culture places
greater emphasis on respect and family care for the elderly.
People also perceive death based on the values of their culture. In the United States, it is fairly normal to
view death as a loss and something to be feared, as opposed to a natural or tranquil transition.

Refrences-
Late adulthood- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/aging-late-
adulthood/#:~:text=During%20late%20adulthood%20the%20skin,and%20the%20immune%20system%2
0weakens.&text=Memory%20degenerates%20in%20old%20age,remembering%20and%20attending%20t
o%20information.

Middle adulthood - https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/psychosocial-

development-during-midlife/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/physical-development-in-
middle-adulthood/

Early adulthood- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/early-and-middle-

adulthood/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-
early-adulthood-2/
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/features/teen-substance-use.html

Adolescence https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-ss-152-1/chapter/social-development/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/adolescent/chapter/identity-development-theory/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/self-concept-and-self-esteem-in-
adolescence/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-
adolescence/
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/HealthyLiving/eating-disorders-adolescents

Middle childhood- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/emotional-

and-social-development-in-middle-childhood/
https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-
2795071#:~:text=Kohlberg’s%20theory%20of%20moral%20development%20is%20a%20theory%20that
%20focuses,on%20seeking%20and%20maintaining%20justice.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-ss-152-1/chapter/lecture-middle-childhood/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-
middle-childhood/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/educational-issues-during-
middle-childhood/#:~:text=Learning%20Disabilities,-
What%20is%20a&text=However%2C%20a%20child%20with%20a,of%20activity%20related%20to%20
education.&text=For%20example%2C%20the%20child%20may,problems%20associating%20letters%20
with%20sounds.
https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/peer-relations/according-experts/sibling-relations-and-their-impact-
childrens-
development#:~:text=More%20broadly%20speaking%2C%20sibling%20jealousy,sibling%20relationship
s%20later%20in%20childhood.&text=First%2Dborn%20siblings%20engage%20in,and%20elicit%20care
%20and%20help.

Early childhood - https://www.ufrgs.br/psicoeduc/vygotsky/piaget%E2%80%99s-theory-child-language-

and-thought/
https://blog.prepscholar.com/vygotsky-scaffolding-zone-of-proximal-development
https://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/hbook/george.htm#:~:text=The%20classical%20theories%20of%20the,
those%20of%20Piaget%20and%20Vygotsky.&text=Mental%20operations%20are%20regarded%20as,fro
m%20an%20internalization%20of%20language.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/piagets-preoperational-stage-of-
cognitive-
development/#:~:text=Piaget’s%20stage%20that%20coincides%20with,stage%20engage%20in%20prete
nd%20play.
https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739

Infancy and toddler hood- https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-

lifespandevelopment/chapter/introduction-to-emotional-and-social-development-during-infancy/
https://www.verywellmind.com/autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt-
2795733#:~:text=Autonomy%20versus%20shame%20and%20doubt,greater%20sense%20of%20self%2
Dcontrol.
https://www.verywellmind.com/trust-versus-mistrust-2795741
https://www.healthline.com/health/baby/stranger-anxiety#what-to-do
http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/developmental-psychology/language-development/language-
acquisition-device/
https://www.healthline.com/health/parenting/object-permanence#What-is-object-permanence?
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jilu123/sensory-and-perceptual-development-81044128
https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-concern/fine-motor-skills/hand-control/
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-habituation-2795233
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313185#:~:text=Marasmus%20is%20a%20form%20of,grow
%20as%20children%20usually%20do.