Chapter 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Believes that individuals will show extensive change from

birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and

Meaning, Concepts and Approaches decline in late old age.

Human Development 2.) Life -span Approach

the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception • Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change
and continues through the life span takes place as it does during childhood. Characteristics of a
Life- Span Perspective
Major Principles of Human Development:
a.) Development is LIFELONG - It does not end in adulthood..
1. Development is relatively orderly
b.) Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL – Development
a.) Proximodistal Pattern consists of biological, cognitive and socio –emotional
dimensions.
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
c.) Development is PLASTIC - Development is possible
throughout the lifespan.
b.) Cephalocaudal Pattern
d.) Development is CONTEXTUAL - Individuals are changing
Development proceeds from the head downward. beings in a changing world . e.) Development involves
GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION - Growth,
2. Development depends on maturation and learning –3. maintenance and regulation are 3 goals of human
Development proceeds from the simple to complex development.

4. Development is a continuous process –4. Development is CHAPTER 2: THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
a continuous process –.
AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
5. Development proceeds from the general to specific
By : Robert J. Havingshurt
Aspects of Human Development.
SIX MAJOR STAGES IN HD
1. • Physical development – refers to changes in the bodily
structures and functions of different body parts.  Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust
2. • Cognitive development – refers to intellectual  Task: Developing a sense of trust when caregivers
development; provide reliability, care, and affection.
 Outcome: Trust and security if needs are consistently
3• Language development – refers to changes in the use of met; mistrust if not.
speech
 Early Childhood (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame and
4• Social development – refers to changes in forming Doubt
relationships/interaction with others.
 Task: Gaining a sense of personal control and
5• Emotional development – refers to changes in feelings; independence.
causes, and expressions of emotions/ feelings.  Outcome: Confidence and autonomy if successful;
feelings of shame and doubt if unsuccessful.
6. Moral development – refers to changes in reasoning about
“Right” or “Wrong”.  Preschool (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt

7. Gender development – refers to changes in understanding  Task: Asserting control and power over the
the roles played by males and females. environment; initiating activities.
 Outcome: Initiative and leadership skills if successful;
Approaches to Human Development guilt and inhibition if unsuccessful.

1.) Traditional Perspective  School Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority
 Task: Developing a sense of competence and 6. Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that
achievement in academic and social skills. occur in early childhood. According to Freud, much of a
 Outcome: Confidence in abilities if successful; child's personality is completely established by the age of
feelings of inferiority if unsuccessful. five.

 Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. Role Confusion CHAPTER 4: PHYSICAL AND MOTORDEVELOPMENT
OF CHILDRENAND ADOLESCENT
 Task: Developing a personal identity and sense of
self. Physical Development in Children and Adolescents
 Outcome: Strong sense of identity if successful;
confusion and instability in self-concept if 1. Infancy (0-2 years)
unsuccessful. o Growth Patterns: Rapid physical growth,
including height and weight. Infants typically
 Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Intimacy vs. Isolation triple their birth weight by their first birthday.
o Motor Milestones:
 Task: Forming meaningful, intimate relationships with  Gross Motor Skills: Lifting head, rolling
others. over, sitting without support, crawling,
 Outcome: Strong relationships and intimacy if standing with support, and walking.
successful; isolation and loneliness if unsuccessful.  Fine Motor Skills: Grasping objects,
transferring objects between hands, and
 Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Generativity vs. pincer grasp (using thumb and forefinger).
Stagnation 2. Early Childhood (2-6 years)
o Growth Patterns: Slower but steady growth.
 Task: Contributing to society and helping to guide the Improved coordination and muscle strength.
next generation. o Motor Milestones:
 Outcome: Feeling of contribution and  Gross Motor Skills: Running, jumping,
accomplishment if successful; stagnation and self- climbing, and riding tricycles.
absorption if unsuccessful.  Fine Motor Skills: Drawing shapes,
using utensils, and building with blocks.
3. Middle Childhood (6-12 years)
 Late Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity vs. Despair
o Growth Patterns: Steady growth in height
and weight. Puberty begins towards the end
 Task: Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of of this period, leading to increased growth
fulfillment and completeness. rates.
 Outcome: Wisdom and a sense of fulfillment if o Motor Milestones:
successful; regret and despair if unsuccessful.  Gross Motor Skills: Improved balance
and coordination. Participation in
CHAPTER 3: ISSUES ON HD organized sports, running long distances.
Fine Motor Skills: Writing neatly, using tools, and
1. Nature vs. Nurture performing complex tasks like tying shoelaces.
4. Adolescence (12-18 years)
 Nature: Refers to genetic and biological influences on o Growth Patterns: Pubertal growth spurt, with significant
development, such as inherited traits, brain structure, increases in height and weight. Differentiation in
and hormonal influences. physical development between genders, with girls
 Nurture: Encompasses environmental factors, typically experiencing growth spurts earlier than boys.
including upbringing, social experiences, education, o Motor Milestones:
and cultural context.  Gross Motor Skills: Increased strength and endurance.
Enhanced skills in sports and complex physical
2. INBORN.- Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes. activities.
TABULA RASA—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at  Fine Motor Skills: Greater dexterity and precision
birth, with experience determining our knowledge. in tasks such as using electronic devices and
engaging in intricate crafts.
3. Early Experience vs. Later Experience
Motor Development
5.A second important consideration in developmental
psychology involves the relative importance of early Motor development is divided into two main categories: gross
experiences versus those that occur later in life. motor skills and fine motor skills.

1. Gross Motor Skills

o Definition: Skills involving large muscle groups  Genital Stage (12 years and beyond)
and whole-body movements.
2. Fine Motor Skills  Focus: The genitals are again the primary focus, but
now with a mature approach to sexuality.
 Definition: Skills involving small muscle groups,  Activities: Forming intimate relationships, balancing
particularly those in the hands and fingers. love and work, and seeking fulfillment through
productive work and healthy relationships.
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT  Developmental Task: Achieving a balance between
love and work, and developing mature adult
 Oral Stage (0-1 year) relationships.
 Potential Issues: Difficulty forming meaningful
relationships or maintaining a satisfying sexual life
 Focus: The mouth is the primary source of pleasure can indicate unresolved conflicts from earlier stages.
and interaction.
 Activities: Sucking, biting, and chewing.
 Developmental Task: Satisfying oral needs through Key Concepts and Terms
feeding and other oral activities.
 Potential Issues: If oral needs are not adequately  Erogenous Zones: Areas of the body that are
met, or if there is overindulgence or frustration, associated with sexual pleasure at different stages of
individuals may develop oral fixation traits, such as development.
smoking, overeating, or nail-biting.  Oedipus Complex: In the phallic stage, a child's
unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and
 Anal Stage (1-3 years) jealousy toward the same-sex parent.
 Electra Complex: The female counterpart to the
Oedipus complex, involving a girl's feelings of desire
 Focus: The anus is the primary source of pleasure for her father and rivalry with her mother.
and control.  Fixation: An unresolved conflict at any stage can
 Activities: Toilet training and control over bowel result in fixation, where an individual continues to
movements. focus on issues related to that stage.
 Developmental Task: Learning to control bodily
functions and becoming more aware of social rules.
 Potential Issues: Problems during this stage can ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
lead to anal-retentive traits (overly orderly and DEVELOPMENT
perfectionistic) or anal-expulsive traits (disorganized
and messy). 1. Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust
o Conflict: Whether the infant can trust the
 Phallic Stage (3-6 years) world and their caregivers.
o Positive Resolution: Consistent care leads
to a sense of trust and security.
 Focus: The genitals become the primary focus of
o Negative Resolution: Inconsistent care can
pleasure and exploration.
 Activities: Discovering differences between genders result in fear and suspicion.
and experiencing Oedipus or Electra complexes. 2. Early Childhood (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame
 Developmental Task: Identifying with the same-sex and Doubt
o Conflict: Developing a sense of personal
parent, forming a healthy sense of gender identity,
and developing superego (moral conscience). control and independence.
 Potential Issues: Fixation can lead to problems with o Positive Resolution: Encouragement and
authority figures and difficulties with gender identity or support lead to autonomy and self-
relationships. confidence.
o Negative Resolution: Overcontrol or
criticism can lead to feelings of shame and
 Latency Stage (6-12 years)
doubt about one’s abilities.
3. Preschool (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt
 Focus: Sexual feelings are dormant, and the focus o Conflict: Balancing initiative and leadership
shifts to developing communication skills and with guilt over unintended consequences.
relationships. o Positive Resolution: Initiative is
 Activities: Engaging in hobbies, building friendships, encouraged, leading to confidence in one’s
and mastering academic skills. ability to lead and take charge.
 Developmental Task: Developing social and o Negative Resolution: Overly controlling or
intellectual skills, and forming peer relationships.
critical responses can lead to guilt and
 Potential Issues: Fixation at this stage is less likely,
inhibition.
but unresolved conflicts from earlier stages can still
4. School Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority
influence behavior.
o Conflict: Developing a sense of competence  Shelter
and achievement in academic and social  Sleep
settings.  Clothing
o Positive Resolution: Mastery of skills and  Reproduction
recognition leads to a sense of competence
and industry.  Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met,
o Negative Resolution: Failure or lack of individuals seek safety and security. This includes:
recognition can result in feelings of inferiority
and inadequacy.  Physical safety (protection from violence or injury)
5. Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. Role  Financial security (stable income, employment)
Confusion  Health and well-being
o Conflict: Establishing a clear and stable  Safety from accidents and illness
identity and sense of self.
o Positive Resolution: Successfully exploring  Love and Belongingness Needs: After safety needs are
and committing to roles leads to a strong fulfilled, people seek social relationships and a sense of
sense of identity. belonging. This involves:
o Negative Resolution: Uncertainty and
confusion about one’s role can result in  Friendships
identity crisis.  Intimate relationships
6. Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Intimacy vs.  Family
Isolation  Social groups
o Conflict: Forming meaningful and intimate  A sense of community
relationships versus feeling isolated.
o Positive Resolution: Successful
 Esteem Needs: Once social needs are met, individuals
relationships lead to deep connections and
strive for self-esteem and the esteem of others. This includes:
intimacy.
o Negative Resolution: Failure to establish
meaningful connections can result in  Self-respect
isolation and loneliness.  Recognition
7. Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Generativity vs.  Achievement
Stagnation  Confidence
o Conflict: Contributing to society and guiding  Respect from others
the next generation versus self-absorption  Status
and stagnation.
o Positive Resolution: Generativity, through  Self-Actualization Needs: At the top of the hierarchy is self-
work and parenting, leads to a sense of actualization, where individuals seek personal growth and self-
accomplishment and productivity. fulfillment. This encompasses:
o Negative Resolution: Lack of contribution
or involvement can lead to stagnation and  Realizing personal potential
self-absorption.  Creativity
8. Late Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity vs. Despair  Problem-solving
o Conflict: Reflecting on one’s life and  Autonomy
achieving a sense of fulfillment versus regret  Pursuing meaningful goals
and despair.
o Positive Resolution: A sense of integrity PARTENS STAGES OF PLAY-BY Mildred Parten
and satisfaction with one’s life leads to
wisdom and acceptance.  Unoccupied Play (Birth - 2 years)
o Negative Resolution: Regret and
dissatisfaction can result in despair and a  Description: The child is not actively engaged in play
sense of wasted opportunities. but may move around and observe the environment.
Play is not goal-directed or organized.
MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS  Characteristics: The child may appear to be idle or
exploratory, focusing on their own body and
 Physiological Needs: These are the basic, essential needs immediate surroundings rather than interacting with
for human survival. They include: other children or objects in a structured way.

 Air  Solitary (Independent) Play (0 - 2 years)

 Water
 Food
 Description: The child plays alone with toys or  Definition: The immediate, direct environment in
activities, showing little interest in or awareness of which an individual lives and interacts.
other children. Play is centered around the child’s  Components: Family, school, peers, neighborhood,
own actions and interests. and other immediate settings.
 Characteristics: The child is absorbed in their own  Influence: The quality and nature of these
play and does not attempt to engage with other interactions directly impact a person's development.
children. This stage is important for developing For example, supportive family relationships or
individual skills and interests. positive peer interactions can foster healthy
development.
 Onlooker Play (2 - 3 years)
2. Mesosystem
 Description: The child observes other children
playing but does not participate. The child may talk or  Definition: The interconnections between different
ask questions about the play but remains a passive microsystems.
observer.  Components: Relationships between home and
 Characteristics: The child is interested in the play of school, interactions between family and peers, etc.
others and may learn by watching, but does not  Influence: How well these different settings interact
actively join in. This stage helps children learn about and support each other can affect an individual’s
social roles and play behaviors. development. For instance, a strong connection
between parents and teachers can enhance a child’s
 Parallel Play (2 - 4 years) academic success.

 Description: The child plays alongside other children 3. Exosystem

with similar toys or activities but does not interact with
them. Each child is engaged in their own play, but  Definition: The broader social systems that do not
there is some parallelism in activity. directly include the individual but still affect their
 Characteristics: The child’s play is independent but development.
in proximity to other children. They may use similar  Components: Parental workplaces, community
materials or engage in similar activities, but there is services, local government, and media.
little direct interaction.  Influence: Even though the individual may not be
directly involved in these systems, changes or issues
 Associative Play (3 - 5 years) in them can impact their development. For example, a
parent's job loss might affect the family’s financial
 Description: The child begins to interact with other stability and, consequently, the child’s well-being.
children, sharing toys and activities, but the play
remains loosely organized. There is more 4. Macrosystem
communication and cooperation than in parallel play.
 Characteristics: Children start to share resources  Definition: The overarching cultural and societal
and collaborate, although the play is still not highly influences.
organized. Interactions may involve taking turns and  Components: Cultural values, economic policies,
discussing play but do not yet involve complex, laws, and social norms.
coordinated group activities.  Influence: These broad systems shape the values
and expectations of the microsystem and other
 Cooperative Play (4 - 6 years) systems. For instance, societal attitudes towards
education or child-rearing practices can influence
 Description: The child engages in organized play family behaviors and expectations.
with other children, including roles and rules. There is
a clear structure to the play, and children work 5. Chronosystem
together towards a common goal.
 Characteristics: Play is more organized and involves  Definition: The dimension of time as it relates to an
role-playing, teamwork, and shared objectives. individual’s development.
Children are actively engaged with each other and  Components: Life transitions (e.g., divorce, moving)
cooperate to achieve a common purpose. and historical events (e.g., economic recessions,
technological advancements).
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY- by Urie  Influence: The timing and duration of significant life
Bronfenbrenner events and societal changes impact development. For
example, growing up during a war or economic
Microsystem downturn can have long-term effects on an
individual’s psychological and emotional functioning of society. There is an emphasis
development. on maintaining order and respecting
authority.
KOHLBERG'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT o Focus: Actions are judged by their
adherence to laws, rules, and duties that
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality support social order and the common good.
o Example: An individual follows traffic laws
because they believe in maintaining societal
 Characteristics: Moral reasoning is based on order and avoiding chaos.
personal consequences and external rewards or
punishments. Morality is determined by the direct
impact on the individual. Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality

1. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation  Characteristics: Moral reasoning is based on

o Description: Moral decisions are based on abstract principles and the recognition of universal
avoiding punishment and obeying authority ethical principles. Individuals make decisions based
figures. on personal moral codes and the greater good.
o Focus: Children obey rules to avoid negative
consequences rather than out of a sense of 5. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
right and wrong. o Description: Moral decisions are made
o Example: A child might not steal a cookie based on the understanding of social
because they fear getting punished by their contracts and individual rights. Laws are
parents. viewed as flexible and open to change if they
do not promote the welfare of the majority.
2. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange o Focus: Actions are evaluated based on their
o Description: Moral reasoning is based on alignment with democratic principles and the
self-interest and reciprocal benefits. protection of individual rights.
Individuals recognize that others have their o Example: A person might support civil
own needs and viewpoints. disobedience to challenge unjust laws and
o Focus: Actions are guided by the desire to promote human rights, even if it means
gain rewards or meet personal needs, and breaking the law.
there is an understanding that others pursue
their own interests. 6. Stage 6: Universal Principles
o Example: A child helps a friend with o Description: Moral reasoning is based on
homework because they expect that their abstract reasoning and universal ethical
friend will help them in return. principles. Individuals adhere to self-chosen
ethical principles that are universal and apply
Level 2: Conventional Morality to all people.
o Focus: Decisions are made based on
principles of justice, equality, and respect for
 Characteristics: Moral reasoning is based on human dignity, regardless of the laws or
conforming to societal norms and maintaining social societal norms.
order. The focus is on the expectations of others and o Example: An individual may act based on
the importance of social roles. principles of universal human rights, even if it
means going against societal norms or laws.
3. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
o Description: Moral decisions are made GILLIGAN'S MORAL DEVELOPMENT
based on gaining approval from others and
maintaining good interpersonal relationships.
1. Critique of Kohlberg
o Focus: Actions are judged by their impact on
others and the desire to be seen as a good
person by conforming to social expectations.  Kohlberg's Model: Kohlberg’s theory focused on
o Example: A teenager may follow rules to be justice and moral reasoning, suggesting a universal,
seen as a good student by teachers and hierarchical progression through stages of moral
peers, rather than out of an internal sense of development. His stages were predominantly based
duty. on studies with male participants.
 Gilligan's Argument: Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s
model reflected a male-oriented perspective,
4. Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order emphasizing justice and individual rights. She
o Description: Moral reasoning focuses on believed it overlooked other important aspects of
upholding laws and contributing to the moral reasoning, such as care and relationships,
which are more emphasized in women's moral  Relational Emphasis: Her work emphasizes the
development. significance of relationships and care in moral
reasoning, offering a more nuanced view of ethical
2. Gilligan’s Approach development.
 Broader Influence: Gilligan’s ideas have influenced
Gilligan proposed that moral development should be fields such as education, psychology, and feminist
understood through a different lens, one that considers care theory, leading to a greater appreciation of diverse
ethics and relational aspects. Her work is often divided into perspectives on morality.
three main perspectives:
CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Ethics of Care vs. Ethics of Justice:
o Ethics of Justice: Focuses on fairness, Classical Conditioning
rights, and rules. This approach is more
aligned with Kohlberg’s stages and is often Classical conditioning was first described by Ivan Pavlov, a
associated with male reasoning. Russian physiologist, through his experiments with dogs. This
o Ethics of Care: Emphasizes relationships, type of learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes
empathy, and the needs of others. This associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a
approach is associated with female conditioned response.
reasoning and stresses the importance of
interconnectedness and caring for others. Key Concepts:

3. Stages of Moral Development (According to Gilligan) 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that
naturally and automatically triggers a response
Gilligan proposed a three-stage model of moral development without prior learning.
based on the ethics of care: o Example: The food in Pavlov's experiments
that naturally causes salivation.
 Stage 1: Orientation to Individual Survival
o Focus: Self-interest and individual needs. In 2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic,
this stage, moral reasoning is centered natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
around personal survival and self-concern. o Example: Salivation in response to the food.
o Characteristics: Decisions are made based
on what is best for oneself, often without 3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral
consideration for the impact on others. stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned
 Stage 2: Goodness as Self-Sacrifice stimulus, begins to trigger a conditioned response.
o Focus: The needs and welfare of others. o Example: The sound of a bell in Pavlov's
Individuals start to prioritize others’ needs experiments that was paired with the food.
over their own, often leading to self-sacrifice.
o Characteristics: Moral reasoning is based 4. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response
on what is perceived as good or right by to the conditioned stimulus.
caring for others, sometimes at the expense o Example: Salivation in response to the bell
of one's own needs. alone, after it has been associated with the
 Stage 3: The Morality of Nonviolence food.
o Focus: Balancing care for oneself and
others. This stage integrates the need for
self-care with the responsibility of caring for Processes:
others, promoting a more balanced
approach.  Acquisition: The initial stage of learning where the
o Characteristics: Moral reasoning involves a CS is paired with the UCS.
deep understanding of relationships and the  Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned
interconnectedness of all individuals, leading response when the CS is presented without the UCS.
to decisions that consider both personal and  Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a
others' needs. conditioned response after a period of rest.
 Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to
4. Implications and Impact the CS to elicit similar responses.
 Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between
the CS and other stimuli that do not signal the UCS.
 Gender Sensitivity: Gilligan’s theory highlights the
importance of considering gender differences in moral
reasoning and challenges the notion of a single,
universal approach to moral development.
Applications:  Example: Checking your email and
receiving a message at
 Phobias: Classical conditioning can explain how unpredictable times.
phobias are developed through associations between
neutral stimuli and fearful responses. Processes:
 Advertising: Marketers use classical conditioning to
associate products with positive feelings or images.  Shaping: Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are
closer to the desired behavior.
Operant Conditioning  Extinction: The decrease of a behavior when
reinforcement is no longer provided.
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner, an  Generalization: The tendency for behaviors to occur
American psychologist. This type of learning occurs through in similar situations.
rewards and punishments, which influence the likelihood of a  Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between
behavior being repeated. situations where reinforcement is available and where
it is not.
Key Concepts:
Applications:
1. Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or
increases the likelihood of a behavior.  Behavior Modification: Used in various settings,
o Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant including schools and therapy, to modify undesirable
stimulus to increase behavior. behaviors and encourage desired ones.
 Example: Giving a child praise for  Animal Training: Operant conditioning principles are
completing homework. used to train animals through rewards and
o Negative Reinforcement: Removing an punishments.
aversive stimulus to increase behavior.
 Example: Turning off a loud alarm LAWS OF LEARNING
when a desired behavior (e.g.,
pressing a button) is performed. 1. Law of Readiness

2. Punishment: Any event that weakens or decreases  Definition: Learning is most effective when
the likelihood of a behavior. individuals are ready or motivated to learn. This
o Positive Punishment: Adding an readiness is influenced by their developmental stage,
unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. interests, and prior knowledge.
 Example: Scolding a child for not
doing their chores. 2. Law of Exercise
o Negative Punishment: Removing a
pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.  Definition: Repetition and practice strengthen
 Example: Taking away a learning. The more often a behavior or skill is
teenager’s video game privileges practiced, the more likely it is to become ingrained.
for breaking curfew.
3. Law of Effect
3. Reinforcement Schedules: The rules that determine
how and when reinforcement is given.
 Definition: Responses that are followed by satisfying
o Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement after
consequences are more likely to be repeated, while
a set number of responses.
those followed by discomfort or dissatisfaction are
 Example: A reward after every five
less likely to recur.
tasks completed.
o Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement
after an unpredictable number of responses. 4. Law of Primacy
 Example: Gambling, where
rewards are given after an  Definition: The first experiences or information
unpredictable number of plays. learned about a subject are more likely to be retained
o Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement and remembered.
after a fixed amount of time has passed.
 Example: A paycheck received 5. Law of Recency
every two weeks.
o Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement
after varying amounts of time.
 Definition: The most recently learned information is o Pair: Learners might prefer working with one
often remembered better than information learned other person, finding it beneficial to
earlier. collaborate and discuss.
o Small Group: Working in small groups can
6. Law of Intensity be preferred by those who thrive on
interaction and collective problem-solving.
 Definition: More intense or vivid experiences are o Large Group: Some learners benefit from a
more likely to be remembered than less intense ones. classroom setting or group discussions,
enjoying the diversity of perspectives and
7. Law of Transfer interactions.
4. Psychological Factors
o Hemispheric Preference: This involves the
 Definition: Skills or knowledge acquired in one
preference for cognitive processing, such as left-brain
context can be applied to another context. This can
(logical, analytical) or right-brain (creative, holistic)
be positive (facilitating learning) or negative
approaches.
(interfering with learning).
o Perceptual Modality: Learning preferences
are categorized into visual, auditory,
8. Law of Contiguity kinesthetic, and tactile modalities:
 Visual: Learners prefer using images,
 Definition: Learning is more effective when stimuli diagrams, and written instructions.
and responses occur close together in time and  Auditory: Learners benefit from listening to
space. explanations, discussions, and lectures.
 Kinesthetic: Learners engage with
DUNN AND DUNN LEARNING STYLES hands-on activities and physical
movement to understand concepts.
Key Components of Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles  Tactile: Learners prefer touch and
manipulation of objects to learn
1. Environmental Preferences effectively.
o Sound: Learners have preferences for 5. Physiological Factors
o Sensory Preferences: This involves how
different auditory environments. Some may
prefer silence, while others work better with sensory information is processed, such as
background music or white noise. preference for active versus passive
o Light: Preferences for lighting conditions can learning.
o Health: Individual health factors can affect
vary. Some learners might need bright, well-
lit spaces, while others may prefer dim learning, such as needing to take frequent
lighting. breaks or managing sensory sensitivities.
o Temperature: Comfort with temperature
affects learning. Some learners prefer a cool ALBERT BANDURA SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
environment, while others may need warmth
to focus effectively. 1. Observational Learning
o Design: This includes preferences for
physical arrangement, such as working at a  Definition: Learning occurs through observing the
desk versus on the floor, or having a neat behaviors of others and the consequences of those
versus a more cluttered workspace. behaviors.
2. Emotional Factors  Key Components:
o Motivation: Learners vary in what motivates o Attention: To learn through observation, one
them. Some are driven by external rewards, must pay attention to the model.
while others are motivated by internal o Retention: The observed behavior must be
satisfaction or interest in the subject matter. remembered. This involves encoding and
o Persistence: Learners differ in their ability to storing the observed behavior in memory.
stay engaged with a task. Some may be o Reproduction: The ability to reproduce or
persistent and focused, while others may imitate the observed behavior.
need frequent breaks or changes in activity. o Motivation: The learner must have the
3. Sociological Preferences motivation to perform the behavior. This can
o Individual: Some learners prefer working be influenced by rewards, punishments, and
alone and may be more productive when personal expectations.
they can focus without interaction.
2. Modeling (Imitation)
 Definition: The process of learning by imitating more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior
others. Models can be real people (e.g., parents, themselves. This experiment highlighted the role of
teachers) or symbolic (e.g., characters in media). observational learning and modeling.
 Types of Models:
o Live Models: Actual people performing
behaviors.
o Symbolic Models: Characters in books,
movies, or other media demonstrating
behaviors.

3. Reinforcement and Punishment

 Definition: The consequences of observed behaviors

can influence whether the behavior is imitated.
Bandura distinguishes between direct
reinforcement/punishment and vicarious
reinforcement/punishment.
 Direct Reinforcement/Punishment: Receiving
rewards or punishments directly for one’s own
behavior.
 Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Observing
others being rewarded or punished for their behavior,
which influences whether the observer will imitate the
behavior.

4. Self-Efficacy

 Definition: The belief in one’s own ability to succeed

in specific situations or accomplish tasks. Bandura
introduced this concept as crucial for motivating and
guiding behavior.
 Influences:
o Past Experiences: Previous successes or
failures.
o Vicarious Experiences: Observing others’
successes or failures.
o Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement or
discouragement from others.
o Physiological States: Emotional and
physical reactions.

5. Reciprocal Determinism

 Definition: The idea that behavior, cognitive factors,

and environmental influences all interact and
influence each other.
 Components:
o Behavior: Actions and responses of an
individual.
o Personal Factors: Cognitive, emotional, and
motivational aspects.
o Environmental Factors: Social and physical
surroundings.

6. Key Experiments

 Bobo Doll Experiment: Bandura’s famous

experiment demonstrated that children who observed
an adult acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll were