Outline

• Road Safety Statistics

• Safe Systems Concept
Road Safety • Elements of road safety
• Road Safety Audits

Prof Neil Hoose

Visiting Professor, Centre for Transport Studies, Imperial College London
[email protected]

CIVE70015 – Traffic Engineering 2023

2

Hierarchy of Road Users Terminology

Current thinking is to use the term “Road Traffic Collision” or RTC.

Previous use to term “accident” implies that the event was

unpredictable, uncontrolled and unpreventable. This is not the case.

Road Traffic Act 198 Section 170 describes a “reportable” incident as a

collision involving a mechanically-propelled vehicle on a road or other
public area which causes:
• injury or damage to anybody - other than the driver of that vehicle
• injury or damage to an animal - other than one being carried on that
vehicle (an animal is classed as a horse, cattle, ass, mule, sheep, pig,
goat or dog)*
European Transport Safety Council
• damage to a vehicle - other than the vehicle which caused the collision
• damage to property built on, attached to, growing in, or otherwise
forming part of the land where the road is
4
3 4
Definitions Killed per 1,000,000 population 2000-2021 (OECD)
Collisions are classified by the impact on those involved

Fatal (or Killed) – one or more individuals dies within X days of the collision
as a result of injuries sustained.
UK, OECD stats – X = 30 days
Serious injury An injury for which a person is detained in hospital as an “in-
patient”, or any of the following injuries whether or not they are detained in
hospital: fractures, concussion, internal injuries, crushings, burns (excluding
friction burns), severe cuts, severe general shock requiring medical treatment
and injuries causing death 30 or more days after the collision.
Slight injury An injury of a minor character such as a sprain (including neck
whiplash injury), bruise or cut which are not judged to be severe, or slight
shock requiring roadside attention. This definition includes injuries not
requiring medical treatment.
Damage Only A collision that results in damage to property and vehicles but
not to persons .
5
5 6

Number of injured persons 2000-2021 (OECD) Statistics

Every year
• About 1.3 million people die on the world's roads
• 20 - 50 million are injured.
• major cause of death among all age groups
• the leading cause of death for children and young adults aged 5–29 years.
• The risk of dying in a road traffic crash is more than 3 times higher in low-income
countries than in high-income countries.
(WHO 2018)
In UK in 2022

• 1,695 fatalities, a decline of 3% compared to 2019

• 29,795 killed or seriously injured (KSI) casualties, a decline of 3% compared to 2019
• 136,002 casualties of all severities, a decline of 11% compared to 2019
(UK Gov)
• Around 0.5% of deaths are from road traffic collisions
• In 2009 for those in the 15-19 age group road accidents accounted for 25% of all
deaths
7 (RAC Foundation) 8
Collecting Accident Statistics Road Safety statistics
UK practice
• The data are collected by police at the scene of a collision or in some cases
reported by a member of the public at a police station or online. Number – absolute value gives some idea of the overall scale

• Some 50 data items are collected for each collision, including the time and location
of the collision, the types of vehicles involved and what they were doing at the time Normalised by population typically per 1,000,000 – gives an idea of the
of the collision, and some information on the drivers and casualties involved. prevalence of death and injury from RTC in the population as a whole and
hence how this compares with other health risks.
• The form used to collect the statistics (STATS19) and instructions containing
definitions to complete the form (STATS20) are published by the DfT, the Scottish
Government and the Welsh Assembly Government. Normalised by number of vehicles per 1,000,000 – gives an idea of the
• Nearly all road deaths are recorded. exposure of drivers and the chances of a vehicle being involved in an RTC
• a considerable proportion of non-fatal casualties are not known to the police, as
hospital, survey and compensation claims data all indicate a higher number of Normalised by distance travelled per billion vehicle kilometres – gives an
casualties than are reported via STATS19. idea of the accident level compared to the amount of traffic. Allows
• Records have to undergo checks before statistics are compiled and published. comparison of road type and locations.
Currently this creates a time lag of up to 2 years.

9 10

Index of reported road fatality rates by road user type in Relative exposure rates for different road users
Great Britain, 2011 to 2021. 2011 = 100. (UK Gov)

Reported road KSI by road user type, Great Britain

2,500

Billion vehicle miles/billion miles walked

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Pedestrians Pedal cyclists Motorcycle riders Car drivers

11 12
Relative exposure rates for different road types Regression to the mean

• Because of random fluctuations in crash numbers periods with high

Reported road KSI rates by , road type and class, Great Britain, 10 years
up to 2022 numbers of collisions at a site may be followed by low numbers, even if
180 no measures are taken
160 • The regression-to-the-mean effect is the statistical phenomenon that
roads with a high number of crashes in a particular period are likely to
140
have fewer during the following period,
120
Billion vehicle miles

•
100
This can give result in an over-estimation of the effectiveness of an
80
intervention intended to improve safety.
60 • RTC statistics need to be looked at over periods of 3-5 years before
40 and after any measures.
20 • Other trends need to be taken into account.
0
• e.g. flow, speed at the site and
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
• wider effects of related measures, e.g. national speed awareness campaigns,
Urban roads A roads Urban roads Other roads Rural roads A roads Rural roads Other roads Motorways
changes in legislation or penalties.

13 14

It's All About Energy! Layers of Protection

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15 16
Crash Causation Principles of the Safe System

Deviation Traditional Approach Safe System

Normal Emerging Critical Crash
from Safe Crash
Road Use Situation Situation Unavoidable What is the problem? Try to prevent all crashes Manage energy in crashes preventing fatal
Driving and serious casualties
c10 – 1 Sec <1 Sec What is the appropriate Reduce the number of fatalities and Zero fatal and severe injuries
8

goal? injuries
Support for Intervention Immediate Preparation What are the major planning Reactive to incidents, incremental Proactively target and treat risk; systematic
Conditions:
Safe Driving in Driving Correction for Crash approaches? approach to reduce the problem approach to build a safe road system
Maintained Road
Speed Limit What causes the problem? Non-compliant road users People make mistakes and are fragile /
Sober & Alert Electronic Autonomous vulnerable in crashes.
Lane Keep
Wearing Seatbelt Advisory ISA Stability Emergency
Assist Who is ultimately Individual road users Shared responsibility by individuals with
Control Braking responsible? system designers
How does the system work? Is composed of isolated interventions Different elements of a Safe System
Road combine so that if one part of the system
Weather
Road Signs restraint fails other parts provide protection
response
systems

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17 18

Road Safety Management System

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19 20
International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP) Pedestrian Facilities
The Road Assessment Programme (RAP) and the New Car Assessment Programme (NCAP) were both
founded by the British, Dutch and Swedish governments working in partnership with leading European
automobile clubs and safety charities. Both the NCAP and RAP programmes have both been rolled out Give pedestrian priority over vehicular traffic
globally.

Improve safety for pedestrians and vehicle occupants

Encourage walking

Zebra crossing – markings and lights to

denote priority
Physical separation – removes conflict Requires peds and drivers to know and
Pedestrians have to make effort – mobility issues follow the rules
Pedestrians may avoid and increase their risk Low cost and effective at low flow on
Expensive infrastructure narrow roads.
Can be visibly intrusive Priority can be ambiguous
21 22

Signal Control of pedestrians “Pelican crossing”

Pedestrian presses button.
• Location should take into account pedestrian “desire lines”, i.e. the This registers a “demand” with
routes they would take if unconstrained. the traffic signal controller’
“wait” message is illuminated

• Green time for pedestrians based on a “design speed” of 1.0m/s or

1.2m/s with a minimum of 4s (nearside ped signal) or 6s (far side
signal) The traffic signal controller uses the detectors
(in this case a continuous wave radar) to find
a gap in the traffic, or waits until max green if
• Clearance period after green has finished but whilst traffic is still red: no gap found.
• either fixed based on time taken for a ped who enters at end of ped green
to complete crossing at design speed,
• or variable using on-crossing detectors.

Pedestrian “red” is illuminated

to tell pedestrian not to cross.

23 24
Pelican crossing signal sequence PUFFIN Crossings

To Drivers To Pedestrians
Pedestrian wait area detector.
Usually infra-red but can be
computer vision.
Issues Used to check that pedestrians
are still waiting after button has
1. “flashing” signals are ambiguous
been pressed.
2. Pedestrians do not wait
Pedestrian crossing
3. Traffic is stopped when no one crossing zone detector. Usually
microwave radar.
4. Slow moving or late entry pedestrians still
Used to extend green
on crossing when red man shows and signals
to pedestrians if they
to traffic are green
are still crossing (up to
5. Pedestrians are looking across at green/red man maximum)
aspect and not at the traffic
Vehicle approach zone
detector. Usually
microwave radar.
Used to detect gap in
traffic that initiates the
change to red.
25 26

Infrared or computer vision

– pedestrians waiting
Puffin details
Microwave Radar
– Vehicles approaching
Pedestrian signal is near to pedestrians and
positioned so that they are also looking at the
approaching traffic.

Microwave Radar No “flashing” signal aspects so who has

priority is always clear.
– pedestrians crossing

27 28
Phases or Groups –
Pedestrian crossings at junctions Set of compatible streams that have green together

Phase
Always better to provide facilities as otherwise pedestrians will have a Ped W Ped E
great deal of uncertainty about what they should do. A
W1

A dedicated “pedestrian only” phase can be included. W2 B

High level of safety as no conflicts
E2
Leads to longer cycle time so pedestrians may not wait C
E1
If acceptable in terms of traffic delay then you could put a ped stage
between every traffic stage (typically 2 ped stages per cycle) D
Ped S

Alternatively, if turns can be restricted or traffic phases allow, ped D is additional phase for peds
movements can be “walk with traffic”.
S1 S2
Because these run at the same time as other vehicle movements they
can reduce pedestrian delay and ambiguity caused by long red
pedestrian periods. It can also reduce the impact on junction capacity
by making the junction operate more efficiently

29 30

Cyclists: Physical Measures Signing and marking

Direction signs and published maps can be used to point to the safest routes and routes with cycle facilities
Dedicated cycle lanes Minimises conflicts
with physical barrier Sends strong “policy” message
separating them from Expensive
vehicles and Requires adequate space
pedestrians

Road markings can help to Advance stop lines helps Bad in so many ways!
create space for cyclists cyclists get ahead of traffic and
enter the junction first

London Netherlands Birmingham

31 32
Toucan Crossing Speeds

• Speed limits should be evidence-led and self-explaining and seek to reinforce people’s
assessment of what is a safe speed to travel. They should encourage self-compliance.
Speed limits should be seen by drivers as the maximum rather than a target speed.

• Nationally set
• 30 mph speed limit on roads with street lighting (sometimes referred to as Restricted Roads)
• 20mph in Wales introduced in summer 2023
• National speed limit of 60 mph on single carriageway roads (50 for Coaches >12m and HGV >7.5T or
cars/vans towing trailer or caravan)
• National speed limit of 70 mph on dual carriageways and motorways (60 for Coaches >12m and HGV
>7.5T or cars/vans towing trailer or caravan)
Signals and detectors as for a PUFFIN crossing
• Traffic authorities set local speed limits in situations where local needs and conditions
Wait area and crossing enlarged to allow room suggest a speed limit which is lower than the national speed limit.
for pedestrians and cyclists together

• Speed limits are a key source of information to road users, particularly as an indicator of the
Picture of cyclist added to display to show nature and risks posed by that road both to themselves and to all other road users.
cyclists are specifically catered for.

33 34

Selecting speed limits Speed management meaures

• The key factors that should be taken into account in any decisions on local
speed limits are:
• history of collisions
• road geometry and engineering
• road function
• composition of road users (including existing and potential levels of vulnerable road
users)
• existing traffic speeds
• road environment
Visual clues Chicanes
• While these factors need to be considered for all road types, they may be
weighted differently in urban or rural areas. The impact on community and
environmental outcomes should also be considered.
• The minimum length of a speed limit should generally be not less than 600 Technology and
metres to avoid too many changes of speed limit along the route. psychology
• Speed limits should not be used to attempt to solve the problem of isolated
hazards, such as a single road junction or reduced forward visibility, for
example, at a bend.
Speed humps
35
(sleeping policemen) 36
Low Traffic Neighbourhoods Oxford LTN

• A low traffic neighbourhood (LTN) is a scheme where motor vehicle

traffic in residential streets is greatly reduced.

• This is done by minimising the amount of traffic that comes from

vehicles using the streets to get to another destination. This is often
referred to as ‘through-traffic’ or ‘rat-running’.

• Private motorised vehicles still have easy access to all homes and
businesses without driving directly through the neighbourhood.

• This opens up networks of streets so people can safely travel through

the area on foot, bicycle, by wheeling or by bus. Emergency vehicles
can also be prioritised to reach their destinations quicker.

• Traffic is reduced by using temporary or permanent barriers called

“modal filters”. 37 38

Exhibition Road Signing and lining

Primary method for highway authority to conveys regulations,
instructions, guidance, restrictions etc. to drivers.

Multi-million pound industry

Major maintenance task

Major contribution to road safety

Standards set out in DfT Circular 01/2016

The Traffic Signs Regulations and General
Directions 2016
Too
TSRGD 2016 prescribes the designs and conditions of use for Many?
traffic signs, (which include road markings, traffic signals,
pedestrian, cycle and equestrian crossings), to be lawfully
Source: CIHT (2018) Creating better streets:Inclusive and placed on or near roads in England, Scotland and Wales
accessible places, Reviewing shared space.
39 40
Vienna Conventions
https://unece.org/DAM/trans/conventn/Conv_road_signs_2006v_EN.pdf Example of Vienna convention (1)
5. Speed limit
(a) Notification of a speed limit shall be given by sign C, 14, "MAXIMUM SPEED
• The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) is one
LIMITED TO THE FIGURE INDICATED". The figure appearing on the sign shall
of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United indicate the maximum speed in the unit of measurement most commonly used to
Nations Economic and Social Council. express the speed of vehicles in the country concerned. After or below the figure
expressing the speed may be added, for instance, "Km" (Kilometres) or "m" (Miles).
• A Conference, which gathered together countries from the entire world,
was held in 1968 in Vienna and adopted,
• the Convention on Road Signs and Signals (E/CONF.56/17/Rev.1) and
• the Convention on Road Traffic (E/CONF.56/16/Rev.1).

• 56 countries signed up to the convention as at 2007.

• Has been added to in 1970s but not all countries have adopted these
supplements.

41 42

Department for Transport sets UK road signs Temporary traffic management design principles
Signs with red circles are mostly prohibitive. Safe and efficient traffic management is founded upon the following simple principles:
Plates below signs qualify their message. • provision of clear and early warning of obstructions in the highway;
• optimisation of road space and the provision of an adequate safety zone and
working space at works locations;
• clear directions relating to decisions/actions required from road users;
• minimisation of potential conflict between road users, and between road users and
road workers and their operations;
Warning signs are mostly triangular • credibility of traffic signs and temporary requirements; and
e.g. Crossroads • speed limits and restrictions appropriate for the temporary highway geometry and
safety features.
Example of non-triangular warning sign The complexity of traffic management arrangements varies from scheme to scheme,
Sharp deviation of route to left. but the primary objective is always:
• to maximise the safety of the workforce and the travelling public.

Information signs are all rectangular

The secondary objective is:
• to keep traffic flowing as freely as possible.

Roadworks signs use yellow background

43 44
Pedestrian road maintenance worker casualties Greater
Traffic Management London Area 2012 - 2021

TRAFFIC DISRUPTION Year Fatal Serious Slight Total

D2.10.1 A key objective of the temporary traffic management arrangements is to
2012 1 11 12
minimise traffic delays and disruption while maintaining a safe site and the safety of
the public. 2013 3 17 20
2014 3 31 34
D2.10.2 Road works schemes involve a compromise between getting the work done
as quickly as possible and keeping the traffic flowing freely and safely. It is therefore 2015 5 32 37
important to plan the activities (including the placing and removal of traffic 2016 6 28 34
management arrangements) to optimise work, and safety and efficiency, to minimise
traffic and road user congestion, delay and inconvenience. 2017 13 38 51
2018 1 12 39 52
D2.10.3 Maintenance works should be undertaken in the minimum time taking up the
minimum of road space, but without compromising safety. Where practicable,
2019 9 33 42
additional resources or time-reducing techniques should be employed. 2020 5 22 27
2021 9 46 55
Working on road side is one of the most dangerous occupations.
Total 1 66 297 364

NCE Magazine Sep 2022 from TfL data

45 46

Temporary traffic management Length and spacing

The project designer and traffic management designer should

consider:
• number and width of temporary traffic lanes, including use of
hard shoulder
• safety zones and the necessary working space
• adequacy of work-space for the proposed work operations and
for storage of materials and equipment, including consideration
of the selection of suitable plant and machinery to do the work
planned
• arrangements for access to and exit from the site;
• option of using static or mobile traffic management;
• option of using convoy working where lateral safety clearance is
restricted (not applicable for use on motorways)
• option of using contra-flow traffic management technique on
dual carriageways;
• lane restrictions and use of temporary speed limits; and
• spacing of temporary road works signs and installation of signals
and barriers.

47 48
Closures and diversions Road Safety Audits

A Road Safety Audit is an evaluation of a highway improvement scheme

during design, at the end of construction and post-construction
Road Safety Audits go through four key phases and are as follows:-
Diversions routes need to consider • Stage 1 Road Safety Audit
safety of existing road users, i.e local • Completion of preliminary design, normally prior to the submission for
residents, as well as the diverted planning permission
traffic. • Stage 2 Road Safety Audit
• Completion of detailed design, usually before the tender documents have
There is an issue with Sat Nav been submitted
systems routes differing from diversion
• Stage 3 Road Safety Audit
routes
• Completion of construction prior to opening (or completion if on a ‘live’
highway)
• Stage 4 Road Safety Audit
• Post opening collision monitoring (12 months after opening of the highway
scheme)
https://www.road-safety-audit.co.uk/
49 50

GG 119 Road safety audit Reference material

Global status report on road safety 2018, World Health Organisation
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565684

Mortality statistics and road traffic accidents in the UK (2017) RAC Foundation,
https://www.racfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/road-accident-casualty-
comparisons-box-110511.pdf

Reported road casualties Great Britain, provisional results: 2022 , (2023) Department for
Transport, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/reported-road-casualties-great-britain-
provisional-results-2022/reported-road-casualties-great-britain-provisional-results-2022

International Road Assessment Programme https://irap.org/

Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering, Ed C A O’Flaherty (1997), Chapter 1 Road

Accidents, author C A O’Flaherty, ISBN 0 340 66279 4

GG 119 Road safety audit

https://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/tses/attachments/710d4c33-0032-4dfb-8303-
17aff1ce804b?inline=true

51 52
On-street Parking

Parking

Prof Neil Hoose

Visiting Professor, Centre for Transport Studies, Imperial College London
[email protected]

CIVE70015 – Traffic Engineering 2023

54

55 56
Off-street surface parking Multi-storey Car parks

Either
Public (although may be operated by private company)
Or
Private non-residential (PNR) – parking for business employees and customers
57 58

Muti-storey layouts Underground multi-storey car parks

59 60
Mechanical lift car parks 90 degree layout

Birmingham City Council Car Park Design Guide

61 https://www.birmingham.gov.uk/downloads/download/291/car_park_design_guide 62

Oblique layout Design

Birmingham City Council Car Park Design Guide

https://www.birmingham.gov.uk/downloads/download/291/car_park_design_guide 63 64
Payment When it all goes horribly wrong!
Free

Residents Permits Luton Airport

10 Oct 23

Pay at Barrier on entry/on exit 1200 vehicles

Cash
Destroyed
Pay on Foot Chip and Pin credit/debit card
Airport closed
for 16 hours
Pay and Display Contactlesscredit/debit card
Remains will
Pay in advance via Web/app by App – e.g. Ringgo
have to be
entering vehicle registration demolished
with loss of
1900 spaces.

Use of ANPR for

payment/Failure to pay

65 Daily Telegraph 66

References

Birmingham City Council Car Park Design Guide

https://www.birmingham.gov.uk/downloads/download/291/car_park_design_guide accessed 13 Nov 23

Parking standards to assist Transport Consultants https://parkingstandards.co.uk/ accessed 13 Nov 23

Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering, Ed C A O’Flaherty (1997), Chapter 7 Developing the parking plan
and Chapter 22 Design of Off Street Parking facilities, author C A O’Flaherty, ISBN 0 340 66279 4

Car park design, M Pundsack, C Whapples et al,(2023), The Institution of Structural Engineers, 978-1-906335-
62-5 (print) 978-1-906335-63-2 (pdf) https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/car-park-design/

67