Basics of Electronics

* Practical understanding of all major electronic Components.

Objective

Electronic components are the parts used in devices that construct

electronic circuits. They change the electric current so it can carry information
and help in the functions of that circuit. Generally, these components can be
classified into two types – active components and passive components.

7 Basic Components

Electronic components can be found in nearly every device that touches our
fingertips. They are vital to a multitude of gadgets throughout the world; from
the military jet engine, to smart home devices and automobiles, to simply
switching on a light. With the evolution of electronic devices in the past
century, electronics have become increasingly complex and yet must be
increasingly reliable. But what exactly is an electronic component?

Electronic components are the parts used in devices that construct electronic
circuits. They change the electric current so it can carry information and help in
the functions of that circuit. Generally, these components can be classified into
two types – active components and passive components. Let’s take a look at
what each are and some of the most common electronic components that work
hard to power our world.

Active Components are found in Every Electronic Device:

Active components supply the energy to the circuit and are capable of
electrically controlling and amplifying the flow of electrical current. While most
devices contain both active and passive components, all electronic circuits must
contain at least one active component. Active components require a source of
energy, typically in the form of a direct current. Most active components consist
of semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits.

1. Transistor: An electronic component that is mostly used for amplifying

electrical signals or as switching devices. These can be easily identified by their
three terminals and can be thought of as a relay without moving parts, as they
can turn something ‘on’ and ‘off’ without any movement.

2. Diode: A component that allows electric current to flow in one direction

only. It has two terminals, the anode and cathode. When the anode is charged
with a positive voltage and the cathode with a negative one, electric current can
flow. Reversing these voltages will prevent the current from flowing, thus it is
the electronic equivalent of a check valve. It is commonly used to convert an
alternating current (AC) into a direct current (DC) and is made either of a
semiconductor material or vacuum tube.

3. Integrated Circuit (IC) (AKA Microchip): Multiple complex circuits on a

circuit board compose an IC which is used to perform all kinds of tasks yet it is
still considered a component despite consisting of many other components.
They’re made up of tiny, flat pieces of silicon that consist of layers of many
electronic components such as transistors.

Passive Components Dissipate, Resist, or Store Energy:

Passive components can only receive energy, which it then either dissipates,
resists, absorbs, or stores in an electric or magnetic field, yet they cannot control
or amplify electricity themselves. Some of the most common examples include
resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

1. Resistor: Aptly named, a resistor is a two-terminal electrical device that

resists the flow of current. It is one of the simplest elements in an electronic
circuit as well as one of the most common, as resistance is an inherent element
of nearly all electronic circuits. Resistors are graded based on their power
ratings (amount of power they can handle without exploding) and resistance
values (capacity to resist current). The measurement is done in units known as
ohms.

2. Capacitor: (No not the flux capacitor Marty!) these electronic components
have two terminals that can store the electric charge temporarily in an electric
field and release it later, when needed. They allow AC to flow through them
while resisting DC and in doing so stabilize almost any circuit. Capacitors come
in different varieties, with the most common ones being electrolytic and ceramic
disk.

3. Inductor (AKA reactor): A two-terminal component that stores energy in a

magnetic field and returns energy to the circuit when required. It allows DC to
flow through it but not AC. It is composed of a coil wire that is wound around a
core which can be either a magnet or even air.

4. Transformers: An electronic component that is often used to raise voltage

levels. Transformers can step up or step down voltage, yet power and energy
remain the same on the primary and secondary side. As energy is not actually
being amplified, a transformer then is classified as a passive element.

Putting It All Together

Electronic components are put together to power all the electronic devices
throughout our lives – from the computers in our homes and cars to the complex
machinery in industrial operations, medical facilities, military vehicles and
beyond.

As the need for reliable electronic devices continues to grow, especially during
the massive semiconductor chip shortage, so does the need for reliable
electronic components. Area51 Electronics is your trusted global distributor of
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Understanding more about these basic electronic components that power so

many aspects of modern life will inspire greater appreciation for these tiny
parts. After all, without them, you would not be reading this today!

* Working with Resistance, Diode, capacitor, LED, ZENER, Basic ICs

What is resistance? Learn about the fundamentals of resistance,

calculation methods, and resistors
Overview
If you’re like many people, you might have heard of resistance but don’t
really understand it. That said, you may be hesitant to ask people about it
now. Put simply, resistance is a force that counteracts the flow of
electricity.
Resistance influences the flow of electricity. This page offers basic
knowledge about resistance, along with a detailed explanation of topics
such as calculation methods and resistors.
What is resistance?
Resistance to electricity–that is, electrical resistance–is a force that
counteracts the flow of current. In this way, it serves as an indicator of
how difficult it is for current to flow. Resistance values are expressed in
ohms (Ω).
When an electron differential exists between two terminals, electricity
will flow from high to low. Resistance counteracts that flow. The greater
the resistance, the lower the current. Conversely, the lower the resistance,
the greater the current.

Calculating resistance
Resistance can be calculated as a value using the voltage and current in
the circuit.
Resistance = Voltage / current
This formula is known as Ohm’s Law. If voltage is held constant, the
resistance value will decrease as the current–the denominator–increases.
Conversely, the resistance value will increase as the current decreases. In
other words, resistance is low in circuits carrying large currents, and high
in circuits carrying small currents.

In principle, resistance is determined by the type and temperature of the

substance through which the electricity is flowing, as well as its length.
Generally speaking, electricity flows more readily through metals due to
their low electrical resistance, which varies with the type of metal,
increasing in the following order: silver → copper → gold → aluminum
→ iron. Additionally, resistance decreases with temperature, while
increasing temperature means increased resistance.
Furthermore, resistance increases with the length over which a current
must travel. Conductors with a large cross-sectional area have low
resistance since electricity flows more readily through them, while
conductors with a small cross-sectional area have higher resistance.

The relationship between the cross-sectional area of a substance and the

amount of current flowing
What are resistors?
Resistors are electronic components that resist the flow of electricity in a
circuit. Resistors are used in electric circuits to adjust current and
voltage, in much the same way as faucets are used to adjust the flow of
tap water. They can be used not only to control the flow of current, but
also to distribute voltage in a circuit.
Electronic circuits need resistors in order to operate under appropriate
conditions. Resistors are made of materials that resist the flow of
electricity as it passes through them. In this way, they can control the
flow of current throughout a circuit. When current is reduced by a
resistor, the surplus electrical energy is converted into heat.
Resistors
Resistors are available in a variety of types, including the following
principal varieties:
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors
 Potentiometers
Major types of fixed resistors include carbon-film resistors and metal-
film resistors, which incorporate a carbon or metal coating, respectively.
These resistors have fixed resistance values. Variable resistors have
resistance values that can be changed. Potentiometers are a type of
variable resistor that is used to fine-tune voltage and current.

Variable resistor

Methods for measuring resistance

Resistance in a circuit can be measured using a digital multimeter. These
instruments can measure not only resistance, but also voltage, current,
and other parameters, making them a useful tool in a variety of situations.
To use a digital multimeter, turn on the instrument and set it to resistance
(Ω) mode.
Select the range as necessary based on the measurement target’s
resistance value. Insert the red test lead’s plug into the “Ω” terminal and
the black test lead’s plug into the COM terminal. Then place the test
leads in contact with both ends of the resistor. Check the measurement
result as displayed on the instrument’s LCD screen. Once measurement is
complete, remove the test leads from the resistor.

Resistance is affected by a variety of factors, including temperature.

Some digital multimeters provide functionality for applying correction to
account for external influences, for example in the form of a resistance
meter temperature conversion function. Consequently, it’s a good idea to
check available models’ functionality when purchasing a digital
multimeter.
Resistors are essential in order to facilitate the appropriate flow
of current.
Resistance serves as an indicator that quantifies how readily current will
flow in a circuit using ohms (Ω) as the unit. Current increases when
resistance decreases, and it decreases when resistance increases. Resistors
are essential in order to ensure that current flows at the appropriate level
in circuits. A variety of resistors are used to measure resistance in
specific applications.

Diodes

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity

primarily in one direction. It has high resistance on one end and low resistance

on the other end. In this article, let us understand in detail about what is diode

and diode symbol.

Table of Contents:

 What Is a Diode?

 Diode Symbol

 Diode Construction

 Types of Diodes

 Characteristics Of Diode

 Forward-biased Diode

 Reverse-biased Diode

 Zero-biased Diode
 Diode Applications

What Is a Diode?

Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform

AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to make the

most of the diodes. Even though they transmit current in a single direction, the

way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of diodes and

each type has its own applications.

Diode Symbol

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can

see that there are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The

arrowhead is the anode that represents the direction of the conventional current

flow in the forward biased condition. The other end is the cathode.
Diode Construction

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and

germanium. When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage,

the diode is said to be forward-biased, and it conducts readily with a relatively

low-voltage drop. Likewise, when the cathode voltage is more positive than the

anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. The arrow in the diode symbol

represents the direction of conventional current flow when the diode conducts.

This article lets you understand in detail about various types of diodes.

Types of Diodes

1. Light Emitting Diode

2. Laser diode
3. Avalanche diode
4. Zener diode
5. Schottky diode
6. Photodiode
7. PN junction diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light

is produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of

forwarding current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not

visible as there are frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are

available in different colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three

colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor

used.

Laser Diode

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in

CD drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs
and are cheaper when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the

only drawback of these diodes.

Avalanche Diode

This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche

effect. When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current,

the breakdown of avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity

and hence are used for photo detection.

Zener Diode

It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage.

These are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain

voltage. If current passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage is

generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to provide a

reference voltage.

Schottky Diode

It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop

will be seen where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between

0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are constructed differently in order to obtain that

performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in rectifier applications.

Photodiode

A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from

the light. These are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse

bias diode and used in solar cells and photometers. They are even used to

generate electricity.

P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used

for the rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-

N junction diode includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the

semiconductor material is doped with P-type material and the other layer with

N-type material. The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a

junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N junction diode.

P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and

blocks the flow of current in the reverse direction.

Characteristics of Diode

The following are the characteristics of the diode:

 Forward-biased diode
 Reverse-biased diode
 Zero biased diode
Forward-biased Diode

There is a small drop of voltage across the diode when the diode is forward-

biased and the current is conducting. For silicon diodes, the forward voltage is

690mV and for germanium, 300mV is the forward voltage. The potential energy

across the p-type material is positive and across the n-type material, the

potential energy is negative.

Reverse-biased Diode
A diode is said to be reverse-biased when the battery’s voltage is dropped

completely. For silicon diodes, the reverse current is -20μA and for germanium,

-50μA is the reverse current. The potential energy across the p-type material is

negative and across the n-type material, the potential energy is positive.

Zero-biased Diode

When the diode is zero-biased, the voltage potential across the diode is zero.

Diode Applications

Following are the applications and uses of the diode:

 Diodes as a rectifier
 Diodes in the clipping circuit
 Diodes in clamping circuits
 Diodes in logical gates
 Diodes in reverse current protection

How Capacitors Work – A Tutorial For Hobbyists

July 25, 2023 by Øyvind Nydal Dahl

A capacitor is a basic electronic component that works like a tiny rechargeable

battery with very low capacity. Capacitors are used to create oscillators, time
delays, add a power boost, and much more.
Like most components, the easiest way to understand how a capacitor works is
to see with your own eyes what it does in a circuit.

When I started learning electronics as a teenager, this was the first component I
learned about. The way my father explained it to me made it easy to understand
even though I had no understanding of the basics of electronics.

In this guide, I’ll show you how a capacitor works so that you’ll be able to
understand what it does in circuits, and how you can use it in your own projects.

Covered in this guide:

 What Is a Capacitor?
 How Capacitors Work
 Charging a Capacitor
 Types of Capacitors
 What Are Capacitors Used For?
 Typical Capacitor Values
What Is a Capacitor?

A capacitor is made up of two metallic plates with a dielectric material (a

material that does not conduct electricity) in between the plates. And there’s
actually no more magic to it. It’s that simple and you can even make your own
capacitor by using two sheets of aluminum foil with a piece of paper in
between.

When you apply a voltage across the two plates, a current flows as the voltage
tries to push electrons through the capacitor. But electrons can’t flow through
the dielectric between the plates, so instead the electrons will build up on one
plate and leave the other plate.

Eventually, the side where the electrons gather won’t have room for more
electrons, so the current stops flowing. When that happens, the capacitor is fully
charged. The amount of electric charge the capacitor can hold is called
its capacitance.
Electrons don’t like being crowded together on one plate. They want to go over
to the side with fewer electrons. So if you provide a path for the electrons to
flow (for example by connecting a resistor between its legs) the electrons will
flow back to the other side until there’s an equilibrium of electrons on both
sides of the capacitor again.

How Capacitors Work

I like to answer the question of “How does a capacitor work?” by saying that a
capacitor works like a tiny rechargeable battery with very low capacity.

But a capacitor is usually charged and discharged in a fraction of a second. So

it’s not used for the same purpose as a battery. Instead, it’s used for things like
adding a time delay, creating oscillators, and as tiny backup generators
for microcontrollers.

Check out the video below to see how the capacitor works:

A Simple Capacitor Circuit

If you want to understand how the capacitor works without reading theory and
formulas – then build this circuit:
You can use a 9V battery, a standard Light-Emitting Diode (LED), and a 1000
µF capacitor. The resistor value can be around 500-1000 ohms.

Connect the battery, and you should see the LED turn on. Nothing special yet.

But when you disconnect the battery, something interesting happens… The
LED stays lit for a few more seconds without being connected to the battery!

This happens because the capacitor is first charged by the battery. When you
disconnect the battery, the stored charge in the capacitor flows through the
resistor and LED and thereby keeping the LED on for a few more seconds, until
the capacitor is discharged.

So the capacitor works similarly to a battery – it can be charged and discharged.

Charging a Capacitor

If you want to get a really good understanding of capacitors and how to use
them in your circuits, there are two important things you need to know:

 What happens to the voltage across the capacitor when you charge it?
 What happens to the current through the capacitor when you charge it?
The Voltage Across a Capacitor

If you charge a capacitor from a 9V voltage source, the voltage across the
capacitor will eventually become 9V – but not immediately. At the moment
when you start charging it, the voltage will start at 0V.

But the voltage increases quickly, so if you try to measure it with a multimeter,
you won’t be able to read 0V.

After some time, when it is fully charged, the voltage across it becomes 9V (or
whatever voltage you used to charge it):
The voltage increases quickly in the beginning, then slowly at the end. The time
it takes to charge the capacitor depends on how much current is flowing. In the
example above, it would be determined by the resistor R1.

The Current Through a Capacitor

When you start charging a capacitor, the current flows freely without any
resistance in the very beginning.
As the capacitor charges, the resistance increases so that less and less current
can flow. When the capacitor is fully charged no more current flows through it:

Here’s a simplified graph that shows how the current slows down with charging
time:
Types of Capacitors

There are many different capacitor types. But when you start out, the main thing
to remember is the difference between a polarized and a non-
polarized capacitor.

A polarized capacitor needs to have its positive side connected toward plus, and
the other side toward minus. Otherwise, you might destroy it. This is a side-
effect of how large-value capacitors are made.

A non-polarized capacitor can be connected either way, it doesn’t matter.

Non-polarized
Polarized

You can recognize one or the other in a schematic diagram by looking at the
capacitor symbol. The polarized capacitor will have a plus marking.

Polarized vs Non-Polarized Capacitors

A non-polarized capacitor can be used, even if the schematic for the project
you’re building calls for a polarized capacitor. But not necessarily the other way
around.

If you need a polarized capacitor, you need something called

an electrolytic capacitor. The most common types are Aluminium and Tantalum.
Aluminum is the cheapest of the two. But if you need a smaller and more
durable capacitor, you should choose the Tantalum type.

If you need a non-polarized capacitor, the most common types

are Ceramic and Film.

Ceramic capacitors are small and cheap. It’s the most common choice for non-
polarized capacitors. But if you have any special requirements like low
tolerance, high reliability, or a capacitor that is able to operate under high
temperatures, then choose a Film capacitor.

In the photo below you can see a ceramic capacitor on the left and an aluminum
electrolytic capacitor on the right:

What Are Capacitors Used For?

Capacitors are used for a lot of things, such as:

 Adding a time delay in a circuit

 Making oscillators (for example to make a light blink)
 Creating audio filters (such as low-pass and high-pass filters)
 Remove ripple in a power supply
 Adding short bursts of energy (for example to power the flash of a
camera)
 Stabilizing the voltage supply of a microcontroller
…and much more. I’ll go through a few specific circuit examples below that
you can use to improve your understanding of the capacitor.
Example 1: Add a Time Delay

In this example, when the input signal goes low, the output from the 555
timer goes HIGH for a certain period of time before going back to LOW. You
could for example use it to turn on the lights on your porch for 2 minutes every
time an IR sensor detects that there is someone present.

In this circuit, it’s the capacitor C1 that adds the time delay. All the 555 timer
does is provide the logic to check the voltage level across the capacitor against a
threshold level, then turn the output on or off accordingly.

Example 2: Create an Oscillator (Blinking an LED)

In this blinking LED example circuit, the voltage across the capacitor is
interpreted as either a 1 (HIGH) or a 0 (LOW) by the NOT gate.
The output becomes the opposite of the input. So if the input is LOW, the
output is HIGH. When the output is HIGH, the output voltage will start
charging the capacitor so that it eventually also ends up HIGH. But when it
does, the output will switch to being LOW. When the output is LOW, it will
make the capacitor start discharging so that it eventually also ends up being
LOW.

And the process repeats.

Example 3: Design Audio Filters

You can combine capacitors and resistors to form filters. A filter removes
specific frequencies from an audio signal and lets others pass through. For
example, if you want to remove high frequencies and let the lower frequencies
pass through (e.g. in a sub-woofer), you can build a low-pass filter:

Example 4: Decoupling Capacitors for Microcontrollers

Imagine a typical alarm clock, powered by the electrical outlet on the wall in a
house. If the power goes down, most alarm clocks have a backup battery that
will take over and power the alarm clock until the power comes back on so that
the time is not reset.

Well, in electronic circuits capacitors are used in a similar way:

If you have a circuit with a microcontroller running some code and the supply
voltage to the microcontroller drops for only a split second, the microcontroller
stops what it is doing and restarts. That can cause all sorts of problems, so you
don’t want this.
By using a capacitor, the capacitor can supply power for the microcontroller for
a short period so that the microcontroller doesn’t restart. This way it will filter
out noise on the power line.

A capacitor used for this purpose is called a decoupling capacitor.

Typical Capacitor Values

You have two important values for capacitors; capacitance and voltage rating.

The capacitance value of a capacitor is its “capacity” to store energy. A higher

capacitance value means it can store more energy than a lower value. It is given
in Farads (F).

The voltage rating is the maximum voltage a capacitor can handle. So if you
have a circuit where the voltage across the capacitor can reach 12V, you need a
capacitor with a voltage rating of 12V or more. It is recommended to use a
capacitor rated for more than 12V so that you have some safety margin.
The capacitance value is given in Farad (F). But 1 F is a very high value.
Usually, capacitor values are given as microfarad (µF), nanofarad (nF), or
picofarad (pF). In the table below, you can see these values written out:

Prefixes Compact Value

1F 100 F

1 µF 10-6 F

1 nF 10-9 F

1 pF 10-12 F

If you look closely, you’ll see that for example, 100 nF is the same as 0.1 µF.
This is good to remember. Because it’s very common to use both 0.1 µF and
100 nF to describe the same value.

Identifying A Capacitor Value

On big aluminum capacitors, the values are usually written out in cleartext. For
example, if it says 2200 µF 16V, that’s the capacitance value and the voltage
rating.
But often on smaller capacitors, you instead have cryptic numbers. Like 102,
223, or 474. In these cases, the first two numbers make up the base pF value,
and the last is the number of zeroes you add after:

102: 10 pF with 2 zeroes after is 1000 pF. Which is the same as 1 nF.
104: 10 pF with 4 zeroes after is 100000 pF. Which is the same as 100 nF. Or
0.1 µF.
223: 22 pF with 3 zeros after is 22000 pF. Which is the same as 22 nF.
474: 47 pF with 4 zeroes after is 470000 pF. Which is the same as 470 nF. Or
0.47 µF.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Light-emitting diode (LED) is a widely used standard source of light in
electrical equipment. It has a wide range of applications ranging from your
mobile phone to large advertising billboards. They mostly find applications in
devices that show the time and display different types of data.

What is LED?

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when

an electric current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the
electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the
current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction.

Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the

semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit
coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased. As
shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that
emitted light can come out.

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two
small arrows denoting the emission of light.

Simple LED Circuit

The figure below shows a simple LED circuit.

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the
current and voltage.

How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n
while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the
junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.
The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard
diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes,
the energy is released in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon
electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and
electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric
current passed through it. As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the
light increases and reaches a maximum.

What determines the colour of an LED?

The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting

element. The two primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium
indium phosphide alloys and indium gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys
are used to obtain red, orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are used to
get green, blue and white light. Slight changes in the composition of these
alloys change the colour of the emitted light.

Properties of Laser Light

Laser light is monochromatic, directional and coherent.

Laser Light is Monochromatic

Unlike white light, which is made of seven colours, laser light is made of a
single colour.

Laser Light is Directional

Laser light is highly directional.

Laser Light is Coherent

Laser light is coherent because the wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in
space and time.

Uses of LED

LEDs find applications in various fields, including optical communication,

alarm and security systems, remote-controlled operations, robotics, etc. It finds
usage in many areas because of its long-lasting capability, low power
requirements, swift response time, and fast switching capabilities. Below are a
few standards LED uses:

 Used for TV back-lighting

 Used in displays

 Used in Automotives

 LEDs used in the dimming of lights

Types of LED
Below is the list of different types of LED that are designed using
semiconductors:

 Miniature LEDs

 High-Power LEDs

 Flash LED

 Bi and Tri-Colour

 Red Green Blue LEDs

 Alphanumeric LED

 Lighting LED

Advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps

Some advantages of LEDs over Incandescent Power Lamps are:

 LEDs consume less power, and they require low operational voltage.

 No warm-up time is needed for LEDs.

 The emitted light is monochromatic.

 They exhibit long life and ruggedness.

Zener Diode

Discover the versatile functionality of Zener diodes, which enable the flow
of current in both forward and reverse directions. As one of the most
widely used semiconductor diodes, Zener diodes play a crucial role in
electronic circuits. This article provides an in-depth exploration of Zener
diodes, covering their explanation, definition, operation in reverse bias,
breakdown mechanisms (avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown),
circuit symbol, V-I characteristics, and specifications. Additionally, we delve
into the applications of Zener diodes and address frequently asked
questions for a comprehensive understanding of this essential electronic
component.

Zener Diode Explanation

A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped

semiconductor device engineered to function in the reverse direction.
When the voltage across a Zener diode’s terminals is reversed and reaches
the Zener Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite
direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener Effect, is a key
characteristic of Zener diodes.

Zener Diode Definition

A Zener diode is a highly doped semiconductor device specifically designed

to function in the reverse direction. It is engineered with a wide range of
Zener voltages (Vz), and certain types are even adjustable to achieve
variable voltage regulation.

History of Zener Diodes

Clarence Melvin Zener (1905- 1993)

Clarence Melvin Zener, a distinguished theoretical physicist at Bell Labs, made

significant contributions to the understanding of Zener Diode’s electrical
properties. In 1934, he published a groundbreaking paper postulating the
phenomenon of breakdown effect, which was subsequently named after him.
Zener’s pioneering work led to the development and recognition of the Zener
diode as an essential electronic component.

For better understanding

 Semiconductor Devices

 What is a Diode?

How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?

A Zener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased.

However, in reverse-biased mode, a small leakage current flows through
the diode. As the reverse voltage increases and reaches the predetermined
breakdown voltage (Vz), current begins to flow through the diode. This
current reaches a maximum level determined by the series resistor, after
which it stabilizes and remains constant across a wide range of applied
voltages.

There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener Diode: Avalanche

Breakdown and Zener Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode

Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes

when subjected to high reverse voltage. When a significant reverse voltage
is applied to the PN junction, the free electrons gain enough energy to
accelerate at high velocities. These high-velocity electrons collide with
other atoms, causing the ejection of additional electrons. This continuous
collision process generates a large number of free electrons, resulting in a
rapid increase in electric current through the diode. In the case of a normal
diode, this sudden surge in current could permanently damage it. However,
a Zener diode is specifically designed to withstand avalanche breakdown
and can handle the sudden current spike. Avalanche breakdown typically
occurs in Zener diodes with a Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its
Zener voltage, the electric field within the depletion region becomes strong
enough to attract and remove electrons from their valence band. These
valence electrons, energized by the intense electric field, break free from
their parent atoms. This phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown
region, where even a slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in
electric current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs. Zener Breakdown

The Zener effect is predominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts, while the

avalanche effect becomes more prominent beyond that threshold. Although
both effects are similar, the distinction lies in the fact that the Zener effect
is a quantum phenomenon, whereas the avalanche effect involves the
movement of electrons in the valence band, similar to an electric current.
The avalanche effect allows a larger current through the diode compared to
what a Zener breakdown would permit.

Read More: Difference Between Zener Breakdown and Avalanche

Breakdown

Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener diodes come in various packaging options, depending on their power

dissipation requirements. Some are designed for high-power applications,
while others are available in surface mount formats. The most commonly
used Zener diode is packaged in a small glass enclosure, with a distinctive
band indicating the cathode side of the diode.
Zener diode symbol and package outlines

The symbol used to represent a Zener diode in circuit diagrams is similar to

that of a regular diode, but with a unique addition. It consists of a triangle
or arrowhead pointing towards the cathode side (the side with the band) of
the diode. This triangle is accompanied by two perpendicular lines at the
cathode end, one extending upwards and the other extending downwards.
These lines indicate the specific behaviour of the Zener diode and help
distinguish it from other types of diodes in circuit diagrams. The symbol
provides a visual representation that allows engineers and technicians to
easily identify and understand the presence of a Zener diode in a circuit.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than Zener voltage.

The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as
follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics

(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a

Zener diode. From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to
the forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse

saturation current Io flows across the diode. This current is due to
thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse voltage increases, at
a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically
and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We call
this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.

Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown

voltage ranges from 2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV
while the maximum for the surface-mounted device is 47 V.

 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener

Voltage (Vz – 200μA to 200 A)

 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for

the diode to break down.

 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can
dissipate. It is given by the product of the voltage of the diode and the
current flowing through it.

 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability

 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%

 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode
exhibits.

Application of Zener Diode

Following are the applications of Zener diode:

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

The zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage
across small loads. The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to
make it reverse bias, and once the Zener diode exceeds knee voltage, the
voltage across the load will become constant. The breakdown voltage of
Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.

Read More: Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the
voltage across the resistor drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be
avoided by using the Zener diode.

Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting

the parts of either one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
The conventional method of making circuits was to select components like R,
C, L, diode and semiconductors. There are so many factors stopping to build off
big circuits like:
1. Bulky in size.
2. Not entirely shockproof
3. Reliability
4. More power consumption
5. Less durability
The concept of fabricating an entire circuit on a single small block (or chip) of a
semiconductor has revolutionised electronics technology. Such a circuit is
known as Integrated Circuit (IC). In this article, let’s study IC.

What is an Integrated Circuit (IC)?

Before the discovery of ICs, the basic method of making circuits was to select
the components like diodes, transistors, resistors, inductors and capacitors and
connect them by shouldering. But due to size and power consumption issues, it
was necessary to develop a small size circuit with less power consumption,
reliability and shockproof.

After the invention of the semiconductors and transistors, things were quite
simplified to a particular extent, but the development of integrated circuits
changed electronics technology’s face. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments and
Bob Noyce from Intel are the official creators of integrated circuits, and they
did it independently.

The integrated circuit is a fundamental concept of electronics that builds on

other basic concepts previously discussed in our syllabus. Therefore, for a quick
reference, go through the articles listed below:

 Electric Circuits

 Resistors

 Transistors

 Diodes

 Capacitors

Definition of Integrated Chip

Integrated circuits are made up of several components such as R, C, L, diodes

and transistors. They are built on a small single block or chip of a
semiconductor known as an integrated circuit (IC). All of them work together to
perform a particular task. The IC is easily breakable, so to be attached to a
circuit board, it is often housed in a plastic package with metal pins.
Integrated circuits can function as an oscillator, amplifiers, microprocessors or
even as computer memory.

Integrated Circuit Design

An integrated circuit is created using certain logic methods and circuit layouts.
The two categories of IC design are as follows:

 Analog Design
 Digital Design
 Mixed Design

Digital Design

The digital design approach is used to create integrated circuits (ICs), which are
utilised as computer memories (such as RAM and ROM) and microprocessors.
With this approach to design, the circuit density and overall efficiency are both
maximised. The ICs created with this technique operate with binary input data
like 0 and 1. The process for designing digital integrated circuits is depicted in
the diagram below.

Analog Design

IC chip is created by using the analogue design process when:

 ICs are utilised as regulators, filters and oscillators.

 Optimal power dissipation, gain and resistance are required.

Mixed Design

The analog and digital design ideas are used in mixed designs. The mixed ICs
perform either Analog to Digital or Digital to Analog conversions.

Integrated Circuit Construction

A complicated stacking of semiconductors, copper, and other related elements

to create resistors, transistors, and other components is an integrated circuit. A
die is a combination of these wafers that have been sliced and moulded.

The ICs’ semiconductor wafers are delicate, and the connections between the
layers are extremely complex. The ICs are packaged because an IC die is too
small to solder and connect to. The delicate and tiny die is transformed into the
familiar black chip by the IC packaging.

The connections between the layers are exceedingly complicated, and the
semiconductor wafers used to make the ICs are delicate. Because an IC die is
too small to solder, the ICs are packed.

All integrated circuits (ICs) are polarised, and each pin has a specific location
and functionality. As seen in the illustration below, integrated chips employ a
notch or a dot to denote the first pin.

The subsequent PINs rise consecutively in a counterclockwise way around the

chip after the first pin is identified.
Integrated Circuit Features

Construction & Packaging

ICs are built with semiconducting components such as silicon. Because of the
small size and delicate nature of IC, a series of tiny gold and aluminium wires
are joined together and moulded into a flat block of plastic or ceramic. Metal
pins on the block’s exterior link to cables inside. The solid block stops the chip
from overheating and keeps it cool.

Size of an IC

The size of the integrated chip varies between 1 square mm to more than 200
mm.

Integration of an IC

Because they combine various devices on one chip, integrated chips get their
name. A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) that combines a
microprocessor, memory, and interface into a single unit.

Commonly Used ICs

Logic Gate ICs

The combinational circuit generates logical outputs based on a variety of input

signals. It may only have two to three inputs but one output.
Timer ICs

A Timer IC is produced with accurate timing cycles with a 100 % or 50 % duty

cycle.

Operational Amplifiers

An OpAmp or an Operational Amplifier is a high gain voltage amplifier with a

differential input and a single-ended output.

Voltage Regulators

A voltage regulator IC provides a constant DC output irrespective of the

changes in DC input.
Embedded System design

Microcontroller and its Types

Introduction :
A microcontroller (MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit that
is designed to control specific tasks within electronic systems. It combines the
functions of a central processing unit (CPU), memory, and input/output
interfaces, all on a single chip.

Microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems, such as home

appliances, automotive systems, medical devices, and industrial control
systems. They are also used in consumer electronics products, such as gaming
systems, digital cameras, and audio players.

A typical microcontroller consists of a processor core, volatile and non-volatile

memory, input/output peripherals, and various communication interfaces. The
processor core is responsible for executing instructions and controlling the other
components of the microcontroller. The memory is used to store data and
program code, while the input/output peripherals are used to interact with the
external environment.

Microcontrollers are programmable, which means that they can be customized

to perform specific tasks. The programming languages used to write code for
microcontrollers vary depending on the manufacturer and the type of
microcontroller. Some of the commonly used programming languages include
C, C++, and assembly language.

A microcontroller is a self-contained desktop that can be utilized in an

embedded system. A few microcontrollers may run at clock rate rates and use
four-bit expressions. Because many of the devices they control are battery-
operated, microcontrollers must often be low-power. Microcontrollers are found
in a wide range of products, including consumer electronics, automobile
engines, computer peripherals, and test and measurement equipment. These are
also well-suited to long-term battery usage. The vast majority of
microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other devices.

The microcontroller used in Embedded System. for example:

• Security Systems
• Laser Printers
• Automation System
• Robotics

Working of Microcontroller:
The microcontroller chip is a high-speed device, yet it is slow when compared
to a computer. As a result, each command will be executed quickly within the
microcontroller. The quartz oscillator is enabled and through control logic
register once the supply is powered on. Parasite capacitors will be recharged for
a few seconds while the early preparation is taking place. Once the voltage level
reaches its maximum value and the oscillator’s frequency stabilizes, the
operation of writing bits through special function registers becomes stable.
Everything is controlled by the oscillator’s CLK, and the whole electronics will
begin to function. All of this happens in a matter of nanoseconds.

A microcontroller’s major role is that it can be thought of as a self-contained

system with a processor memory. Its peripherals can be used in the same way
that an 8051 microcontroller can. The bulk of microcontrollers in use today are
embedded in other types of machinery such as telephones, appliances, vehicles,
and computer system peripherals.

Types of Microcontroller:
Here are some of the most common types of microcontrollers:
 8-bit Microcontrollers: These are the most basic type of microcontrollers,
typically used in simple applications such as toys, small appliances, and
remote controls. They have a limited processing power and memory
capacity, but they are easy to use and cost-effective.
 16-bit Microcontrollers: These are more advanced than 8-bit
microcontrollers and are capable of performing more complex tasks. They
are commonly used in applications such as medical devices, automotive
systems, and industrial control systems.
 32-bit Microcontrollers: These are the most powerful and feature-rich
microcontrollers, capable of handling large amounts of data and performing
high-speed processing. They are used in applications such as gaming
systems, multimedia devices, and high-end industrial automation.
 ARM Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers are based on the ARM
architecture and are widely used in a variety of applications, including
mobile devices, automotive systems, and industrial control systems.
 PIC Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers are manufactured by
Microchip Technology and are commonly used in a wide range of
applications, including home appliances, automotive systems, and medical
devices.
 AVR Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers are manufactured by
Atmel Corporation and are commonly used in applications such as robotics,
industrial control systems, and consumer electronics.
 FPGA-based Microcontrollers: These microcontrollers use field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) to provide highly customizable and
flexible processing capabilities. They are commonly used in applications
such as digital signal processing, video processing, and high-speed
networking.
 CPU: The microcontroller is referred to as a CPU device since it is utilized
to carry and decode data before effectively completing the assigned duty.
All microcontroller components are connected to a specific system utilizing
a central processing unit. The CPU can decode instructions retrieved from
the programmable memory.
 Memory: The memory chip of a microcontroller functions similarly to a
microprocessor in that it stores all of the data as well as programming.
Microcontrollers have a limited quantity of RAM/ROM/flash memory for
storing program source code.
 Input and Output ports: In general, these ports are used to interface or
otherwise drive various appliances like LEDs, LCDs, printers, and so on.
 Serial Ports: Serial ports are used to offer serial interfaces between the
microcontroller and a range of additional peripherals, such as the parallel
port.
 Timers: Timers and counters are included in a microcontroller. In a
microcontroller, they are used to manage all timing and counting activities.
The fundamental function of a counter is to count external pulses, whereas
timers conduct clock tasks, pulse production, modulations, frequency
measurement, and oscillations, among other things.
 ADC (Analog to Digital Converter): ADC is an acronym for Automated
Data Collection (Analog to Digital Converter). Analog to digital converter
is abbreviated as ADC. The primary function of an ADC is to convert
analog signals to digital signals. The required input signals for ADC are
analog, and the resulting digital signal is employed in a variety of digital
applications such as measurement equipment.
 Control Interpretation: This controller is used to provide delayed control
to a running application, with internal or external interpretation.
 Block with Special Functions: A specific function block is included in
some special microcontrollers built for particular devices such as robots and
space systems. This block has additional ports for doing specific tasks.
Microcontroller Applications :
In contrast to microprocessors, which are used in personal computers and other
devices, microcontrollers are mostly employed in embedded devices. These are
mostly utilized in a variety of products such as implantable medical devices,
machine tools, automotive engine control systems, office equipment, remote-
controlled appliances, and so on. The following are some of the most common
uses for microcontrollers.

Microcontroller Properties :
 Microcontroller devices are capable of having words longer than 64 bits.
 Microcontroller consist of RAM , ROM , Timer , I/O Ports.
 Microcontroller ROM is used for program storage and RAM is used for
data storage.
 It is designed by using CISC architecture.
 The power consumption of modern microcontrollers is significantly lower
and have operating voltage range from 1.8V to 5.5V
 The latest feature of microcontroller is flash memory like EPROM and
EEPROM.
 The most recent feature of a microcontroller is flash memory, such as
EPROM and EEPROM.
For more about microcontrollers, please refer Advantages and Disadvantages of
the microcontroller article.
Uses of Microcontroller :
Microcontrollers are used in a wide range of electronic devices and systems,
including:

1. Home Appliances: Many home appliances, such as washing machines,

refrigerators, and air conditioners, use microcontrollers to perform various
functions, such as temperature control, timing, and monitoring.
2. Automotive Systems: Microcontrollers are used in automotive systems,
such as engine control units, anti-lock braking systems, and airbag systems,
to control various functions and ensure safe and efficient operation.
3. Medical Devices: Medical devices, such as insulin pumps, heart monitors,
and blood glucose meters, use microcontrollers to perform various functions
and provide accurate and reliable results.
4. Industrial Control Systems: Microcontrollers are used in industrial control
systems, such as robotics, process control systems, and manufacturing
equipment, to control and monitor various processes and operations.
5. Consumer Electronics: Many consumer electronics devices, such as digital
cameras, gaming systems, and audio players, use microcontrollers to
perform various functions and provide advanced features and capabilities.
6. IoT Devices: Internet of Things (IoT) devices, such as smart home systems,
wearables, and environmental sensors, use microcontrollers to connect to
the internet and perform various functions.
7. Aerospace and Defense Systems: Microcontrollers are used in aerospace
and defense systems, such as satellites, avionics, and missiles, to control
and monitor various functions and ensure safe and efficient operation.
Issues in Microcontroller :
some of the most common issues that can arise with microcontrollers:

1. Timing Issues: Microcontrollers rely on precise timing to execute

instructions and perform tasks. Any issues with timing can cause errors and
malfunctions, which can be difficult to diagnose and fix.
2. Power Issues: Microcontrollers require a stable and consistent power supply
to operate correctly. Any fluctuations or disruptions in the power supply can
cause the microcontroller to malfunction or fail.
3. Heat Issues: Microcontrollers generate heat during operation, and excessive
heat can damage the device or cause it to malfunction. Heat issues can be
caused by poor design, inadequate cooling, or high ambient temperatures.
4. Noise Issues: Microcontrollers can be affected by electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI) from other
electronic devices, which can cause errors and malfunctions.
5. Code Issues: The programming code used to control the microcontroller can
contain errors and bugs, which can cause the device to malfunction or fail.
6. Security Issues: Microcontrollers can be vulnerable to security breaches,
including unauthorized access, data theft, and malware attacks.
7. Compatibility Issues: Microcontrollers may not be compatible with other
electronic components or devices, which can cause errors and malfunctions.

* What makes it an embedded system?

System

A system is an arrangement in which all its unit assemble work together

according to a set of rules. It can also be defined as a way of working,
organizing or doing one or many tasks according to a fixed plan. For example, a
watch is a time displaying system. Its components follow a set of rules to show
time. If one of its parts fails, the watch will stop working. So we can say, in a
system, all its subcomponents depend on each other.

Embedded System

As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is attached to another

thing. An embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware system
having software embedded in it. An embedded system can be an independent
system or it can be a part of a large system. An embedded system is a
microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to perform a
specific task. For example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense
only smoke.

An embedded system has three components −

 It has hardware.
 It has application software.
 It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the
application software and provide mechanism to let the processor run a
process as per scheduling by following a plan to control the latencies.
RTOS defines the way the system works. It sets the rules during the
execution of application program. A small scale embedded system may
not have RTOS.

So we can define an embedded system as a Microcontroller based, software

driven, and reliable, real-time control system.

Characteristics of an Embedded System

 Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs a specialized

operation and does the same repeatedly. For example: A pager always
functions as a pager.
 Tightly constrained − All computing systems have constraints on design
metrics, but those on an embedded system can be especially tight. Design
metrics is a measure of an implementation's features such as its cost, size,
power, and performance. It must be of a size to fit on a single chip, must
perform fast enough to process data in real time and consume minimum
power to extend battery life.
 Reactive and Real time − Many embedded systems must continually
react to changes in the system's environment and must compute certain
results in real time without any delay. Consider an example of a car cruise
controller; it continually monitors and reacts to speed and brake sensors.
It must compute acceleration or de-accelerations repeatedly within a
limited time; a delayed computation can result in failure to control of the
car.
 Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or microcontroller
based.
 Memory − It must have a memory, as its software usually embeds in
ROM. It does not need any secondary memories in the computer.
 Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect input and
output devices.
 HW-SW systems − Software is used for more features and flexibility.
Hardware is used for performance and security.

Advantages

 Easily Customizable
 Low power consumption
 Low cost
 Enhanced performance
Disadvantages

 High development effort

 Larger time to market

* What are the different families of microcontroller, its derivatives and its
applications in industrial projects?

The microcontrollers are characterized regarding bus-width, instruction set, and

memory structure. For the same family, there may be different forms with
different sources. This article is going to describe some of the basic types of
Microcontroller that newer users may not know about.

The types of the microcontroller are shown in the figure, they are characterized
by their bits, memory architecture, memory/devices, and instruction set. Let’s
discuss briefly it.

Types of Microcontrollers

Microcontrollers Types According to the Number of Bits

The bits in the microcontroller are 8-bits, 16-bits, and 32-bits microcontroller.
In an 8-bit microcontroller, the point when the internal bus is 8-bit then the
ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations. The examples of 8-bit
microcontrollers are Intel 8031/8051, PIC1x, and Motorola MC68HC11
families.

The 16-bit microcontroller performs greater precision and performance as

compared to the 8-bit. For example, 8-bit microcontrollers can only use 8 bits,
resulting in a final range of 0×00 – 0xFF (0-255) for every cycle. In contrast,
16-bit microcontrollers with their bit data width have a range of 0×0000 –
0xFFFF (0-65535) for every cycle.

A longer timer’s most extreme worth can likely prove to be useful in certain
applications and circuits. It can automatically operate on two 16 bit numbers.
Some examples of the 16-bit microcontrollers are 16-bit MCUs are extended
8051XA, PIC2x, Intel 8096, and Motorola MC68HC12 families.

The 32-bit microcontroller uses the 32-bit instructions to perform the arithmetic
and logic operations. These are used in automatically controlled devices
including implantable medical devices, engine control systems, office machines,
appliances, and other types of embedded systems. Some examples are
Intel/Atmel 251 family, PIC3x.

Microcontrollers Types According to Memory Devices

The memory devices are divided into two types, they are

 Embedded memory microcontroller

 External memory microcontroller
Embedded Memory Microcontroller: When an embedded system has a
microcontroller unit that has all the functional blocks available on a chip is
called an embedded microcontroller. For example, 8051 having program & data
memory, I/O ports, serial communication, counters and timers and interrupts on
the chip is an embedded microcontroller.

External Memory Microcontroller: When an embedded system has a

microcontroller unit that has not all the functional blocks available on a chip is
called an external memory microcontroller. For example, 8031 has no program
memory on the chip is an external memory microcontroller.

Microcontrollers Types According to Instruction Set

CISC: CISC is a Complex Instruction Set Computer. It allows the programmer

to use one instruction in place of many simpler instructions.

RISC: The RISC stands for Reduced Instruction set Computer, this type of
instruction sets reduces the design of microprocessor for industry standards. It
allows each instruction to operate on any register or use any addressing mode
and simultaneous access of program and data.

Example for CISC and RISC

CISC: Mov AX, 4 RISC: Mov AX, 0

Mov BX, 2 Mov BX, 4

ADD BX, AX Mov CX, 2

Begin ADD AX,

BX

Loop Begin

From the above example, RISC systems shorten execution time by reducing the
clock cycles per instruction, and CISC systems shorten execution time by
reducing the number of instructions per program. The RISC gives a better
execution than the CISC.

Microcontrollers Types According to Memory Architecture

The memory architecture of microcontroller are two types, they are namely:

 Harvard memory architecture microcontroller

 Princeton memory architecture microcontroller
Harvard Memory Architecture Microcontroller: The point when a
microcontroller unit has a dissimilar memory address space for the program and
data memory, the microcontroller has Harvard memory architecture in the
processor.

Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontroller: The point when a

microcontroller has a common memory address for the program memory and
data memory, the microcontroller has Princeton memory architecture in the
processor.

Microcontrollers Types

There are different microcontroller types like 8051, PIC, AVR, ARM,

Microcontroller 8051
It is a 40pin microcontroller with Vcc of 5V connected to pin 40 and Vss at pin
20 which is kept 0V. And there are input and output ports from P1.0 – P1.7 and
which having an open-drain feature. Port3 has got extra features. Pin36 has the
open-drain condition and pin17 has internally pulled up transistor inside the
microcontroller.

When we apply logic 1 at port1 then we get logic 1 at port21 and vice versa.
The programming of the microcontroller is dead complicated. Basically, we
write a program in C-language which is next converted to machine language
understood by the microcontroller.

A RESET pin is connected to pin9, connected with a capacitor. When the

switch is ON, the capacitor starts charging and RST is high. Applying a high to
the reset pin resets the microcontroller. If we apply logic zero to this pin, the
program starts execution from the beginning.

Memory Architecture of 8051

The memory of 8051 is divided into two parts. They are Program Memory and
Data Memory. Program Memory stores the program being executed whereas
Data Memory temporarily stores the data and the results. The 8051 has been in
use in a wide number of devices, mainly because it is easy to integrate into a
device. Microcontrollers are mainly used in energy management, touch screen,
automobiles, and medical devices.
Program Memory of 8051

And

Data Memory of 8051

Pin Description of 8051 Microcontroller

Pin-40: Vcc is the main power source of +5V DC.

Pin 20: Vss – it represents the ground (0 V) connection.
Pins 32-39: Known as Port 0 (P0.0 to P0.7) to serving as I/O ports.
Pin-31: Address Latch Enable (ALE) is used to demultiplex the address-data
signal of port 0.
Pin-30: (EA) External Access input is used to enable or disable external
memory interfacing. If there is no external memory requirement, this pin is
always held high.
Pin- 29: Program Store Enable (PSEN) is used to read signals from external
program memory.
Pins- 21-28: Known as Port 2 (P 2.0 to P 2.7) – in addition to serving as I/O
port, higher order address bus signals are multiplexed with this quasi bi
directional port.
Pins 18 and 19: Used to interfacing an external crystal to provide a system
clock.
Pins 10 – 17: This port also serves some other functions like interrupts, timer
input, control signals for external memory interfacing Read and Write. This is a
quasi bidirectional port with internal pull-up.
Pin 9: It is a RESET pin, used to set the 8051 microcontrollers to its initial
values, while the microcontroller is working or at the initial start of the
application. The RESET pin must be set high for 2 machine cycles.
Pins 1 – 8: This port does not serve any other functions. Port 1 is a quasi bi-
directional I/O port.
Renesas Microcontroller
Renesas is the latest automotive microcontroller family that offers high-
performance features with an exceptionally low power consumption over a wide
and versatile extend of items. This microcontroller offers rich functional
security and embedded safety characteristics required for new and advanced
automotive applications. The core structure of the microcontroller CPU supports
high reliability and high-performance requirements.

The full form of the RENESAS microcontroller is “Renaissance Semiconductor

for Advanced Solutions”. These microcontrollers offer the best performance to
microprocessors as well as microcontrollers to have good performance features
along with its very-low power utilization as well as solid packaging.

This microcontroller has huge memory capacity as well as pinout, so these are
utilized in different automotive control applications. The most popular
microcontroller families are the RX as well as RL78 due to their high
performance. The main features of RENESAS RL78, as well as RX family-
based microcontrollers, include the following.

 The architecture used in this microcontroller is CISC Harvard architecture

which gives high performance.
 The family of RL78 is accessible in 8-bit as well as 16bit microcontrollers
whereas the RX family is a 32-bit microcontroller.
 The RL78 family microcontroller is a low-power microcontroller whereas
the RX family provides high efficiency as well as performance.
 The RL78 Family microcontroller is available from 20 pins to 128 pins
whereas the RX family is obtainable in a 48-pins microcontroller to a 176-
pin package.
 For the RL78 microcontroller, the flash memory ranges from 16KB to
512KB whereas, for the RX family, it is 2MB.
 The RAM of the RX family microcontroller ranges from 2KB to 128KB.
 The Renesas microcontroller offering low power, high performance, modest
packages, and the largest range of memory sizes combined together with
characteristics rich peripherals.

Renesas Microcontrollers

 Renesas offers the most versatile microcontroller families in the world for
example our RX family offers many types of devices with memory variants
from 32K flash/4K RAM to an incredible 8M flash/512K RAM.
 The RX Family of 32-bit microcontrollers is a feature-rich, general-purpose
MCU covering a wide range of embedded control applications with high-
speed connectivity, digital signal processing, and inverter control.
 The RX microcontroller family uses a 32-bit enhanced Harvard CISC
architecture to achieve very high performance.
Pin Description

Pin arrangement of Renesas microcontroller is shown in the figure:

Renesas Microcontrollers Pin Diagram

It is a 20 pin microcontroller. Pin 9 is Vss, ground pin, and Vdd, power supply
pin. It has three different kinds of interrupt, which are normal interrupt, fast
interrupt, high-speed interrupt.

Normal interrupts store the significant registers on the stack by using push and
pop instructions. The fast interrupts are automatically stored program counter
and processor status word in special backup registers, so response time is faster.
And high speed interrupts allocate up to four of the general registers for
dedicated use by the interrupt to expand speed even further.

The internal bus structure gives 5 internal busses to ensure data handling is not
slowed down. Instruction fetches occur via a wide 64-bit bus, so that due to the
variable-length instructions used in CISC architectures.

Features and Benefits of the RX Microcontrollers

 Low power consumption is realized using multi-core technology

 Support for 5V operation for industrial and appliance designs
 Scalability from 48 to 145 pins and from 32KB to 1MB flash memory, with
8KB of data flash memory included
 Integrated safety feature
 An integrated rich function set of 7 UART, I2C, 8 SPI, comparators, 12-bit
ADC, 10-bit DAC and 24-bit ADC (RX21A), which will reduce system cost
by integrating most functions
Application of Renesas Microcontroller

 Industrial automation
 Communication applications
 Motor control applications
 Test and measurement
 Medical applications
AVR Microcontrollers

AVR microcontroller is developed by Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan from

Atmel Corporation. The AVR microcontrollers are modified Harvard RISC
architecture with separate memories for data and program and the speed of
AVR is high when compared to 8051 and PIC. The AVR stands for Alf-Egil
Bogen and Vegard Wollan’s RISC processor.

Atmel AVR Microcontroller

Difference between 8051 and AVR Controllers

 8051s are 8-bit controllers based on CISC architecture, AVRs are 8-bit
controllers based on RISC architecture
 8051 consumes more power than an AVR microcontroller
 In 8051, we can program easily than the AVR microcontroller
 The speed of AVR is more than the 8051 microcontroller
Classification of AVR Controllers

AVR Microcontrollers are classified into three types:

 TinyAVR – Less memory, small size, suitable only for simpler applications
 MegaAVR – These are the most popular ones having a good amount of
memory (up to 256 KB), the higher number of inbuilt peripherals, and
suitable for moderate to complex applications
 XmegaAVR – Used commercially for complex applications, which require
large program memory and high speed
Features of AVR Microcontroller

 16KB of In-System Programmable Flash

 512B of In-System Programmable EEPROM
 16-bit Timer with extra features
 Multiple internal oscillators
 Internal, self-programmable instruction flash memory up to 256K
 In-system programmable using ISP, JTAG or high voltage methods
 Optional boot code section with independent lock bits for protection
 Synchronous/asynchronous serial peripherals (UART/USART)
 Serial peripheral interface bus (SPI)
 Universal serial interface (USI) for two/three-wire synchronous data transfer
 Watchdog timer (WDT)
 Multiple power-saving sleep modes
 10-bit A/D Converters, with a multiplex of up to 16 channels
 CAN and USB controller support
 Low-voltage devices operating down to 1.8v
There are many AVR family microcontrollers, such as ATmega8, ATmega16,
and so on. In this article, we discussing the ATmega328 microcontroller. The
ATmega328 and ATmega8 are pin-compatible ICs but functionally they are
different. The ATmega328 has a flash memory of 32kB, where the ATmega8
has 8kB. Other differences are extra SRAM and EEPROM, the addition of pin
change interrupts, and timers. Some of the features of ATmega328 are:

Features of ATmega328

 28-pin AVR microcontroller

 Flash program memory of 32kbytes
 EEPROM data memory of 1kbytes
 SRAM data memory of 2kbytes
 I/O pins are 23
 Two 8-bit timers
 A/D converter
 Six-channel PWM
 Inbuilt USART
 External Oscillator: up to 20MHz
Pin Description of ATmega328

It comes in 28 pin DIP, shown in the figure below:

AVR Microcontrollers Pin
Diagram

Vcc: Digital supply voltage.

GND: Ground.

Port B: Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. The Port B pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active or one, even if the clock is not running.

Port C: Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors.

PC6/RESET

Port D: It is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors. The
output buffers of Port D consist of symmetrical drive characteristics.

AVcc: AVcc is the supply voltage pin for the ADC.

AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the ADC.

Applications of AVR Microcontroller

There are many applications of AVR microcontrollers; they are used in home
automation, touch screen, automobiles, medical devices, and defense.

PIC Microcontroller

PIC is a peripheral interface controller, developed by the general instrument’s

microelectronics, in the year 1993. It is controlled by the software. They could
be programmed to complete many tasks and control a generation line and many
more. PIC microcontrollers are finding their way into new applications like
smartphones, audio accessories, video gaming peripherals, and advanced
medical devices.

There are many PICs, started with PIC16F84 and PIC16C84. But these were the
only affordable flash PICs. Microchip has recently introduced flash chips with
types that are much more attractive, such as 16F628, 16F877, and 18F452. The
16F877 is around twice the price of the old 16F84 but has eight times the code
size, much more RAM, much more I/O pins, a UART, A/D converter, and a lot
more.

PIC Microcontroller
Features of PIC16F877

The features of pic16f877 include the following.

 High-performance RISC CPU

 Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH program memory
 35 Instructions (fixed-length encoding-14-bit)
 368×8 static RAM-based data memory
 Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory
 Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
 Three addressing modes (direct, indirect, relative)
 Power-on reset (POR)
 Harvard architecture memory
 Power saving SLEEP mode
 Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
 High sink / source current: 25mA
 Accumulator based machine
Peripheral Features

3 timer/counters (programmable pre-scalars)

 Timer0, Timer2 is 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit pre-scalar

 Timer1 is 16-bit, can be incremented during sleep via external crystal/clock
Two capture, compare, PWM modules

 Input capture function records the Timer1 count on a pin transition

 A PWM function output is a square wave with a programmable period and
duty cycle.
10-bit 8 channel analog-to-digital converter
USART with 9-bit address detection

Synchronous serial port with master mode and I2C Master/Slave

The 8-bit parallel slave port

Analog Features

 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)

 Brown-out Reset (BOR)
 Analog Comparator module (Programmable input multiplexing from device
inputs and comparator outputs are externally accessible)
Pin Description of PIC16F877A

The pin description of PIC16F877A is discussed below.

Advantages of PIC
 It is a RISC design
 Its code is extremely efficient, allowing the PIC to run with typically less
program memory than its larger competitors
 It is a low cost, high clock speed
A Typical Application Circuit of PIC16F877A

The circuit below consists of a lamp whose switching is controlled using a PIC
microcontroller. The Microcontroller is interfaced with an external crystal
which provides clock input.

PIC16F877A
Microcontrollers Application

The PIC is also interfaced with a push-button and on pressing the push button,
the Microcontroller accordingly sends a high signal to the base of the transistor,
so as to switch on the transistor and thus give proper connection to the relay to
switch it on and allow passage of AC current to the lamp and thus the lamp
glows. The status of the operation is displayed on the LCD interfaced to the PIC
microcontroller.
MSP Microcontroller

A microcontroller like MSP430 is a 16-bit microcontroller. The term MSP is the

acronym of “Mixed Signal Processor”. This microcontroller family is taken
from Texas Instruments and designed for low cost as well as low power
dissipation systems. This controller includes a 16-bit data bus, addressing
modes-7 with reduced instructions set, which permits a denser, shorter,
programming code used for quick performance.

This Microcontroller is one kind of integrated circuit, used to execute the

programs to control other machines or devices. It is one kind of a micro-device,
used to control other machines. The features of this microcontroller are
normally obtainable with other kinds of the microcontroller.

 Complete SoC like ADC, LCD, I/O ports, RAM, ROM, UART, watchdog
timer, basic timer, etc.
 It uses one external crystal and an FLL (frequency-locked loop) oscillator
mainly derives all inner CLKs
 Power utilization is low like 4.2 nW only for each instruction
 Stable generator for the most frequently used constants like –1, 0, 1, 2, 4, 8
 Typical high speed is 300 ns for each instruction like 3.3 MHz CLK
 Addressing modes are 11 where the seven addressing modes are used for
source operands & four addressing modes are used for destination operand.
 RISC architecture with 27 core instructions
Real-time capacity is full, stable, and nominal system CLK frequency is
obtainable after 6-clocks only once the MSP430 is restored from low-power
mode. For the main crystal, no waiting to start stabilize & oscillation.
The core instructions were combined using special features to make the
program easy within the MSP430 microcontroller using assembler otherwise in
C to provide outstanding functionality as well as flexibility. For instance, even
by using a low instruction count, the microcontroller is capable of following
approximately the whole instruction set.

Hitachi Microcontroller

Hitachi microcontroller belongs to the H8 family. A name like H8 is used

within a large 8-bit, 16-bit & 32-bit family of microcontrollers. These
microcontrollers were developed through Renesas Technology. This technology
was founded in Hitachi semiconductors, in the year 1990.

Motorola Microcontroller

Motorola microcontroller is an extremely incorporated microcontroller, used for

data handling process with high-performance. The unit of this microcontroller
uses a SIM (System Integration Module), TPU (Time Processing Unit) & QSM
(Queued Serial Module).

Advantages of Microcontrollers Types

The advantages of microcontrollers types include the following.

 Dependable
 Reusable
 Energy-efficient
 Cost-effective
 Reusable
 It requires less time to operate
 These are flexible & very small
 Because of their high integration, its size & cost of the system can be
decreased.
 Interfacing of the microcontroller is easy with additional ROM, RAM & I/O
ports.
 Many tasks can be performed, so the human effect can be reduced.
 It is simple to use, troubleshooting & maintaining the system is simple.
 It works like a microcomputer without any digital parts
Disadvantages of Microcontrollers Types

The disadvantages of the microcontrollers types include the following.

 Programming Complexity
 Electrostatic Sensitivity
 Interfacing with high-power devices cannot possible.
 Its structure is more complex as compared with microprocessors.
 Generally, it is used in microdevices
 It simply performs incomplete no. of executions simultaneously.
 It is generally used in micro equipment
 It has a more complex structure as compared to a microprocessor
 The microcontroller cannot interface a higher power device directly
 It only performed a limited number of executions simultaneously
Applications of Microcontrollers Types

Microcontrollers are mainly used for embedded devices, in contrast to the

microprocessors which are utilized in personal computers otherwise other
devices. These are mainly used in different appliances like implantable medical
devices, power tools, engine control systems in automobiles, machines used in
offices, appliances controlled through remote, toys, etc. The main applications
of microcontrollers types include the following.

 Automobiles
 Hand-held metering systems
 Mobile Phones
 Computer Systems
 Security Alarms
 Appliances
 Current meter
 Cameras
 Micro Oven
 Measurement Instruments
 Devices for process control
 Used in metering & measurement devices, voltmeter, measuring rotating
objects
 Controlling Devices
 Industrial instrumentation devices
 Instrumentation devices in Industries
 Light Sensing
 Safety devices
 Process control devices
 Controlling devices
 Fire detection
 Temperature sensing
 Mobile Phones
 Auto Mobiles
 Washing Machines
 Cameras
 Security Alarms

* Why AVR is the most widely used micro controller family?

AVR microcontrollers find many applications as embedded systems. They are

especially common in hobbyist and educational embedded applications,
popularized by their inclusion in many of the Arduino line of open hardware
development boards.
Introduction about Arduino

Arduino - Overview
Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use
hardware and software. It consists of a circuit board, which can be programed
(referred to as a microcontroller) and a ready-made software called Arduino
IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is used to write and upload
the computer code to the physical board.

The key features are −

 Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from
different sensors and turn it into an output such as activating a motor,
turning LED on/off, connect to the cloud and many other actions.
 You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to
the microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as
uploading software).
 Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not
need an extra piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a
new code onto the board. You can simply use a USB cable.
 Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making
it easier to learn to program.
 Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions
of the micro-controller into a more accessible package.
Board Types

Various kinds of Arduino boards are available depending on different

microcontrollers used. However, all Arduino boards have one thing in common:
they are programed through the Arduino IDE.

The differences are based on the number of inputs and outputs (the number of
sensors, LEDs, and buttons you can use on a single board), speed, operating
voltage, form factor etc. Some boards are designed to be embedded and have no
programming interface (hardware), which you would need to buy separately.
Some can run directly from a 3.7V battery, others need at least 5V.

Here is a list of different Arduino boards available.

Arduino boards based on ATMEGA328 microcontroller

Operating Clock Digital An

Board Name
Volt Speed i/o In
Arduino Uno R3 5V 16MHz 14 6

Arduino Uno R3 SMD 5V 16MHz 14 6

Red Board 5V 16MHz 14 6

Arduino Pro 3.3v/8 MHz 3.3V 8MHz 14 6

Arduino Pro 5V/16MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6

Arduino mini 05 5V 16MHz 14 8

Arduino Pro mini 3.3v/8mhz 3.3V 8MHz 14 8

Arduino Pro mini 5v/16mhz 5V 16MHz 14 8

Arduino Ethernet 5V 16MHz 14 6

Arduino Fio 3.3V 8MHz 14 8

LilyPad Arduino 328 main
3.3V 8MHz 14 6
board

LilyPad Arduino simple board 3.3V 8MHz 9 4

Arduino boards based on ATMEGA32u4 microcontroller

Board Name Operating Volt Clock Speed Digital i/o Analo

Arduino Leonardo 5V 16MHz 20 12

Pro micro 5V/16MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6

Pro micro 3.3V/8MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6

LilyPad Arduino USB 3.3V 8MHz 14 6

Arduino boards based on ATMEGA2560 microcontroller

Board Name Operating Volt Clock Speed Digital i/o Analog I

Arduino Mega 2560 R3 5V 16MHz 54 16

Mega Pro 3.3V 3.3V 8MHz 54 16

Mega Pro 5V 5V 16MHz 54 16

Mega Pro Mini 3.3V 3.3V 8MHz 54 16

Arduino boards based on AT91SAM3X8E microcontroller

Board Name Operating Volt Clock Speed Digital i/o Analog I

Arduino Mega 2560 R3 3.3V 84MHz 54 12

Arduino - Board Description

In this chapter, we will learn about the different components on the Arduino
board. We will study the Arduino UNO board because it is the most popular
board in the Arduino board family. In addition, it is the best board to get started
with electronics and coding. Some boards look a bit different from the one
given below, but most Arduinos have majority of these components in common.
Power USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your
computer. All you need to do is connect the USB cable to the USB
connection (1).

Power (Barrel Jack)

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power
supply by connecting it to the Barrel Jack (2).
Voltage Regulator
The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given
to the Arduino board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the
processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues.
How does Arduino calculate time? The answer is, by using the
crystal oscillator. The number printed on top of the Arduino crystal
is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or
16 MHz.

Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from
the beginning. You can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by
using the reset button (17) on the board. Second, you can connect
an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled RESET (5).

Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)

 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine
with 3.3 volt and 5 volt.
 GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the
Arduino, any of which can be used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino
board from an external power source, like AC mains power
supply.
Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5.
These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor like the
humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a digital
value that can be read by the microprocessor.

Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can
assume it as the brain of your board. The main IC (integrated
circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from board to board.
The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You
must know what IC your board has before loading up a new
program from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on
the top of the IC. For more details about the IC construction and
functions, you can refer to the data sheet.

ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the
Arduino consisting of MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and
GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface),
which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output.
Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI
bus.

Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a
power source to indicate that your board is powered up correctly. If
this light does not turn on, then there is something wrong with the
connection.

TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX
(receive). They appear in two places on the Arduino UNO board.
First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins responsible for
serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX
led flashes with different speed while sending the serial data. The
speed of flashing depends on the baud rate used by the board. RX
flashes during the receiving process.

Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6
provide PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) output. These pins can be
configured to work as input digital pins to read logic values (0 or
1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs,
relays, etc. The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an
external reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper
limit for the analog input pins.

Arduino - Installation
After learning about the main parts of the Arduino UNO board, we are ready to
learn how to set up the Arduino IDE. Once we learn this, we will be ready to
upload our program on the Arduino board.
In this section, we will learn in easy steps, how to set up the Arduino IDE on
our computer and prepare the board to receive the program via USB cable.

Step 1 − First you must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite
board) and a USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove,
Nano, Arduino Mega 2560, or Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable
(A plug to B plug), the kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in
the following image.

In case you use Arduino Nano, you will need an A to Mini-B cable instead as
shown in the following image.

Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.

You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download page on the
Arduino Official website. You must select your software, which is compatible
with your operating system (Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download
is complete, unzip the file.
Step 3 − Power up your board.
The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw
power from either, the USB connection to the computer or an external power
supply. If you are using an Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the
board is configured to draw power from the USB connection. The power source
is selected with a jumper, a small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the three
pins between the USB and power jacks. Check that it is on the two pins closest
to the USB port.

Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable. The green
power LED (labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4 − Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder.
Inside the folder, you can find the application icon with an infinity label
(application.exe). Double-click the icon to start the IDE.
Step 5 − Open your first project.
Once the software starts, you have two options −

 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example.
To create a new project, select File → New.
To open an existing project example, select File → Example → Basics →
Blink.
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink. It turns the
LED on and off with some time delay. You can select any other example from
the list.
Step 6 − Select your Arduino board.
To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select
the correct Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to
your computer.

Go to Tools → Board and select your board.

Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our tutorial, but you
must select the name matching the board that you are using.

Step 7 − Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools → Serial Port menu.
This is likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for
hardware serial ports). To find out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and
re-open the menu, the entry that disappears should be of the Arduino board.
Reconnect the board and select that serial port.

Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must
demonstrate the function of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar.

A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.
C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.
D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.
E − Used to save your sketch.
F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the serial
data to the board.
Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds;
you will see the RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is
successful, the message "Done uploading" will appear in the status bar.

Note − If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need to press the
reset button physically on the board, immediately before clicking the upload
button on the Arduino Software.
Arduino - Program Structure
In this chapter, we will study in depth, the Arduino program structure and we
will learn more new terminologies used in the Arduino world. The Arduino
software is open-source. The source code for the Java environment is released
under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are under the LGPL.

Sketch − The first new terminology is the Arduino program called “sketch”.
Structure

Arduino programs can be divided in three main parts: Structure,

Values (variables and constants), and Functions. In this tutorial, we will learn
about the Arduino software program, step by step, and how we can write the
program without any syntax or compilation error.
Let us start with the Structure. Software structure consist of two main
functions −
 Setup( ) function
 Loop( ) function
Void setup ( ) {

}
 PURPOSE − The setup() function is called when a sketch starts. Use it
to initialize the variables, pin modes, start using libraries, etc. The setup
function will only run once, after each power up or reset of the Arduino
board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -
Void Loop ( ) {
}
 PURPOSE − After creating a setup() function, which initializes and sets
the initial values, the loop() function does precisely what its name
suggests, and loops consecutively, allowing your program to change and
respond. Use it to actively control the Arduino board.
 INPUT − -
 OUTPUT − -
 RETURN − -
Arduino - Data Types
Data types in C refers to an extensive system used for declaring variables or
functions of different types. The type of a variable determines how much space
it occupies in the storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

The following table provides all the data types that you will use during Arduino
programming.

void Boolean char Unsigned char byte

long Unsigned long short float double

void

The void keyword is used only in function declarations. It indicates that the
function is expected to return no information to the function from which it was
called.

Example

Void Loop ( ) {
// rest of the code
}
Boolean

A Boolean holds one of two values, true or false. Each Boolean variable
occupies one byte of memory.

Example

boolean val = false ; // declaration of variable with type boolean and initialize it
with false
boolean state = true ; // declaration of variable with type boolean and initialize it
with true
Char

A data type that takes up one byte of memory that stores a character value.
Character literals are written in single quotes like this: 'A' and for multiple
characters, strings use double quotes: "ABC".

However, characters are stored as numbers. You can see the specific encoding
in the ASCII chart. This means that it is possible to do arithmetic operations on
characters, in which the ASCII value of the character is used. For example, 'A' +
1 has the value 66, since the ASCII value of the capital letter A is 65.
Example

Char chr_a = ‘a’ ;//declaration of variable with type char and initialize it with
character a
Char chr_c = 97 ;//declaration of variable with type char and initialize it with
character 97
unsigned char

Unsigned char is an unsigned data type that occupies one byte of memory. The
unsigned char data type encodes numbers from 0 to 255.
Example

Unsigned Char chr_y = 121 ; // declaration of variable with type Unsigned char
and initialize it with character y
byte
A byte stores an 8-bit unsigned number, from 0 to 255.

Example

byte m = 25 ;//declaration of variable with type byte and initialize it with 25

int

Integers are the primary data-type for number storage. int stores a 16-bit (2-
byte) value. This yields a range of -32,768 to 32,767 (minimum value of -2^15
and a maximum value of (2^15) - 1).

The int size varies from board to board. On the Arduino Due, for example,
an int stores a 32-bit (4-byte) value. This yields a range of -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647 (minimum value of -2^31 and a maximum value of (2^31) - 1).
Example

int counter = 32 ;// declaration of variable with type int and initialize it with 32
Unsigned int

Unsigned ints (unsigned integers) are the same as int in the way that they store a
2 byte value. Instead of storing negative numbers, however, they only store
positive values, yielding a useful range of 0 to 65,535 (2^16) - 1). The Due
stores a 4 byte (32-bit) value, ranging from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1).

Example

Unsigned int counter = 60 ; // declaration of variable with

type unsigned int and initialize it with 60
Word

On the Uno and other ATMEGA based boards, a word stores a 16-bit unsigned
number. On the Due and Zero, it stores a 32-bit unsigned number.
Example

word w = 1000 ;//declaration of variable with type word and initialize it with
1000
Long

Long variables are extended size variables for number storage, and store 32 bits
(4 bytes), from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

Example

Long velocity = 102346 ;//declaration of variable with type Long and initialize
it with 102346
unsigned long

Unsigned long variables are extended size variables for number storage and
store 32 bits (4 bytes). Unlike standard longs, unsigned longs will not store
negative numbers, making their range from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1).

Example

Unsigned Long velocity = 101006 ;// declaration of variable with

type Unsigned Long and initialize it with 101006
short

A short is a 16-bit data-type. On all Arduinos (ATMega and ARM based), a

short stores a 16-bit (2-byte) value. This yields a range of -32,768 to 32,767
(minimum value of -2^15 and a maximum value of (2^15) - 1).

Example

short val = 13 ;//declaration of variable with type short and initialize it with 13
float
Data type for floating-point number is a number that has a decimal point.
Floating-point numbers are often used to approximate the analog and
continuous values because they have greater resolution than integers.

Floating-point numbers can be as large as 3.4028235E+38 and as low as -

3.4028235E+38. They are stored as 32 bits (4 bytes) of information.

Example

float num = 1.352;//declaration of variable with type float and initialize it with
1.352
double

On the Uno and other ATMEGA based boards, Double precision floating-point
number occupies four bytes. That is, the double implementation is exactly the
same as the float, with no gain in precision. On the Arduino Due, doubles have
8-byte (64 bit) precision.

Example

double num = 45.352 ;// declaration of variable with type double and initialize it
with 45.352
Arduino - Variables & Constants
Before we start explaining the variable types, a very important subject we need
to make sure, you fully understand is called the variable scope.
What is Variable Scope?

Variables in C programming language, which Arduino uses, have a property

called scope. A scope is a region of the program and there are three places
where variables can be declared. They are −

 Inside a function or a block, which is called local variables.

 In the definition of function parameters, which is called formal
parameters.
 Outside of all functions, which is called global variables.
Local Variables

Variables that are declared inside a function or block are local variables. They
can be used only by the statements that are inside that function or block of code.
Local variables are not known to function outside their own. Following is the
example using local variables −

Void setup () {

Void loop () {
int x , y ;
int z ; Local variable declaration
x = 0;
y = 0; actual initialization
z = 10;
}
Global Variables

Global variables are defined outside of all the functions, usually at the top of the
program. The global variables will hold their value throughout the life-time of
your program.

A global variable can be accessed by any function. That is, a global variable is
available for use throughout your entire program after its declaration.

The following example uses global and local variables −

Int T , S ;
float c = 0 ; Global variable declaration

Void setup () {

Void loop () {
int x , y ;
int z ; Local variable declaration
x = 0;
y = 0; actual initialization
z = 10;
}
Arduino - Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical
or logical functions. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides the
following types of operators −

 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison Operators
 Boolean Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Compound Operators
Arithmetic Operators

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Show Example
Operator
Operator name Description Example
simple

Stores the value to the

assignment right of the equal sign in
= A=B
operator the variable to the left of
the equal sign.

addition + Adds two operands A + B will give 30

Subtracts second
subtraction - A - B will give -10
operand from the first

A * B will give
multiplication * Multiply both operands
200

Divide numerator by
division / B / A will give 2
denominator

Modulus Operator and

modulo % remainder of after an B % A will give 0
integer division

Comparison Operators

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Show Example

Operator
Operator name Description Example
simple

Checks if the value of

two operands is equal
(A == B) is not
equal to == or not, if yes then
true
condition becomes
true.

Checks if the value of

two operands is equal
not equal to != or not, if values are not (A != B) is true
equal then condition
becomes true.

Checks if the value of

left operand is less
than the value of right
less than < (A < B) is true
operand, if yes then
condition becomes
true.

greater than > Checks if the value of (A > B) is not

left operand is greater true
than the value of right
operand, if yes then
condition becomes
true.

Checks if the value of

left operand is less
less than or equal than or equal to the
<= (A <= B) is true
to value of right operand,
if yes then condition
becomes true.

Checks if the value of

left operand is greater
greater than or than or equal to the (A >= B) is not
>=
equal to value of right operand, true
if yes then condition
becomes true.

Boolean Operators

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Show Example

Operator Operator
Description
name simple

and && Called Logical AND operator. If both the operan

becomes true.

Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two ope

or ||
becomes true.

Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to reverses the log

not !
is true then Logical NOT operator will make false.

Bitwise Operators

Assume variable A holds 60 and variable B holds 13 then −

Show Example

Operator Operator
Description
name simple

and & Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exi

or | Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either op

xor ^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one o

not ~ Binary Ones Complement Operator is unary and has th

Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands valu
shift left <<
number of bits specified by the right operand.

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands valu

shift right >>
number of bits specified by the right operand.

Compound Operators

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −

Show Example

Operator
Operator name Description
simple

increment ++ Increment operator, increases integer value by o

decrement -- Decrement operator, decreases integer value by

Add AND assignment operator. It adds right op

compound addition +=
assign the result to left operand

compound Subtract AND assignment operator. It subtracts

-=
subtraction operand and assign the result to left operand
compound Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplie
*=
multiplication operand and assign the result to left operand

Divide AND assignment operator. It divides

compound division /=
operand and assign the result to left operand

Modulus AND assignment operator. It takes m

compound modulo %=
and assign the result to left operand

compound bitwise
|= bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator
or

compound bitwise
&= Bitwise AND assignment operator
and

Arduino - Control Statements

Decision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more
conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program. It should be along with a
statement or statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be true,
and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to
be false.

Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in

most of the programming languages −
Control Statements are elements in Source Code that control the flow of
program execution. They are −

S.NO. Control Statement & Description

If statement
1 It takes an expression in parenthesis and a statement or block of statements.
statements gets executed otherwise these statements are skipped.

If …else statement
2
An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes wh

If…else if …else statement

3 The if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is
if statement.
switch case statement
4 Similar to the if statements, switch...case controls the flow of programs by allow
be executed in various conditions.

Conditional Operator ? :
5
The conditional operator ? : is the only ternary operator in C.

Arduino - Loops
Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements

multiple times and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of
the programming languages −

C programming language provides the following types of loops to handle

looping requirements.
S.NO. Loop & Description

while loop
1 while loops will loop continuously, and infinitely, until the expression inside the
tested variable, or the while loop will never exit.

do…while loop
2 The do…while loop is similar to the while loop. In the while loop, the loop-co
before performed the body of the loop.

for loop
3 A for loop executes statements a predetermined number of times. The control ex
entirely within the for loop parentheses.

Nested Loop
4
C language allows you to use one loop inside another loop. The following examp

Infinite loop
5
It is the loop having no terminating condition, so the loop becomes infinite.

Arduino - Functions
Functions allow structuring the programs in segments of code to perform
individual tasks. The typical case for creating a function is when one needs to
perform the same action multiple times in a program.

Standardizing code fragments into functions has several advantages −

 Functions help the programmer stay organized. Often this helps to

conceptualize the program.
 Functions codify one action in one place so that the function only has to
be thought about and debugged once.
 This also reduces chances for errors in modification, if the code needs to
be changed.
 Functions make the whole sketch smaller and more compact because
sections of code are reused many times.
 They make it easier to reuse code in other programs by making it
modular, and using functions often makes the code more readable.
There are two required functions in an Arduino sketch or a program i.e. setup ()
and loop(). Other functions must be created outside the brackets of these two
functions.

The most common syntax to define a function is −

Function Declaration
A function is declared outside any other functions, above or below the loop
function.

We can declare the function in two different ways −

The first way is just writing the part of the function called a function
prototype above the loop function, which consists of −
 Function return type
 Function name
 Function argument type, no need to write the argument name
Function prototype must be followed by a semicolon ( ; ).

The following example shows the demonstration of the function declaration

using the first method.

Example

int sum_func (int x, int y) // function declaration {

int z = 0;
z = x+y ;
return z; // return the value
}

void setup () {
Statements // group of statements
}

Void loop () {
int result = 0 ;
result = Sum_func (5,6) ; // function call
}
The second part, which is called the function definition or declaration, must be
declared below the loop function, which consists of −

 Function return type

 Function name
 Function argument type, here you must add the argument name
 The function body (statements inside the function executing when the
function is called)
The following example demonstrates the declaration of function using the
second method.

Example

int sum_func (int , int ) ; // function prototype

void setup () {
Statements // group of statements
}

Void loop () {
int result = 0 ;
result = Sum_func (5,6) ; // function call
}

int sum_func (int x, int y) // function declaration {

int z = 0;
z = x+y ;
return z; // return the value
}
The second method just declares the function above the loop function.
Arduino - Strings
Strings are used to store text. They can be used to display text on an LCD or in
the Arduino IDE Serial Monitor window. Strings are also useful for storing the
user input. For example, the characters that a user types on a keypad connected
to the Arduino.

There are two types of strings in Arduino programming −

 Arrays of characters, which are the same as the strings used in C

programming.
 The Arduino String, which lets us use a string object in a sketch.
In this chapter, we will learn Strings, objects and the use of strings in Arduino
sketches. By the end of the chapter, you will learn which type of string to use in
a sketch.

String Character Arrays

The first type of string that we will learn is the string that is a series of
characters of the type char. In the previous chapter, we learned what an array is;
a consecutive series of the same type of variable stored in memory. A string is
an array of char variables.
A string is a special array that has one extra element at the end of the string,
which always has the value of 0 (zero). This is known as a "null terminated
string".

String Character Array Example

This example will show how to make a string and print it to the serial monitor
window.

Example
void setup() {
char my_str[6]; // an array big enough for a 5 character string
Serial.begin(9600);
my_str[0] = 'H'; // the string consists of 5 characters
my_str[1] = 'e';
my_str[2] = 'l';
my_str[3] = 'l';
my_str[4] = 'o';
my_str[5] = 0; // 6th array element is a null terminator
Serial.println(my_str);
}

void loop() {

}
The following example shows what a string is made up of; a character array
with printable characters and 0 as the last element of the array to show that this
is where the string ends. The string can be printed out to the Arduino IDE Serial
Monitor window by using Serial.println() and passing the name of the string.
This same example can be written in a more convenient way as shown below −

Example
void setup() {
char my_str[] = "Hello";
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println(my_str);
}

void loop() {
}
In this sketch, the compiler calculates the size of the string array and also
automatically null terminates the string with a zero. An array that is six
elements long and consists of five characters followed by a zero is created
exactly the same way as in the previous sketch.

Manipulating String Arrays

We can alter a string array within a sketch as shown in the following sketch.

Example

void setup() {
char like[] = "I like coffee and cake"; // create a string
Serial.begin(9600);
// (1) print the string
Serial.println(like);
// (2) delete part of the string
like[13] = 0;
Serial.println(like);
// (3) substitute a word into the string
like[13] = ' '; // replace the null terminator with a space
like[18] = 't'; // insert the new word
like[19] = 'e';
like[20] = 'a';
like[21] = 0; // terminate the string
Serial.println(like);
}

void loop() {
}
Result

I like coffee and cake

I like coffee
I like coffee and tea
The sketch works in the following way.

Creating and Printing the String

In the sketch given above, a new string is created and then printed for display in
the Serial Monitor window.

Shortening the String

The string is shortened by replacing the 14th character in the string with a null
terminating zero (2). This is element number 13 in the string array counting
from 0.

When the string is printed, all the characters are printed up to the new null
terminating zero. The other characters do not disappear; they still exist in the
memory and the string array is still the same size. The only difference is that
any function that works with strings will only see the string up to the first null
terminator.

Changing a Word in the String

Finally, the sketch replaces the word "cake" with "tea" (3). It first has to replace
the null terminator at like[13] with a space so that the string is restored to the
originally created format.
New characters overwrite "cak" of the word "cake" with the word "tea". This is
done by overwriting individual characters. The 'e' of "cake" is replaced with a
new null terminating character. The result is that the string is actually
terminated with two null characters, the original one at the end of the string and
the new one that replaces the 'e' in "cake". This makes no difference when the
new string is printed because the function that prints the string stops printing the
string characters when it encounters the first null terminator.

Functions to Manipulate String Arrays

The previous sketch manipulated the string in a manual way by accessing

individual characters in the string. To make it easier to manipulate string arrays,
you can write your own functions to do so, or use some of the string functions
from the C language library.
Given below is the list Functions to Manipulate String Arrays

The next sketch uses some C string functions.

Example

void setup() {
char str[] = "This is my string"; // create a string
char out_str[40]; // output from string functions placed here
int num; // general purpose integer
Serial.begin(9600);

// (1) print the string

Serial.println(str);

// (2) get the length of the string (excludes null terminator)

num = strlen(str);
Serial.print("String length is: ");
Serial.println(num);

// (3) get the length of the array (includes null terminator)

num = sizeof(str); // sizeof() is not a C string function
Serial.print("Size of the array: ");
Serial.println(num);

// (4) copy a string

strcpy(out_str, str);
Serial.println(out_str);

// (5) add a string to the end of a string (append)

strcat(out_str, " sketch.");
Serial.println(out_str);
num = strlen(out_str);
Serial.print("String length is: ");
Serial.println(num);
num = sizeof(out_str);
Serial.print("Size of the array out_str[]: ");
Serial.println(num);
}

void loop() {

}
Result

This is my string
String length is: 17
Size of the array: 18
This is my string
This is my string sketch.
String length is: 25
Size of the array out_str[]: 40
The sketch works in the following way.

Print the String

The newly created string is printed to the Serial Monitor window as done in
previous sketches.

Get the Length of the String

The strlen() function is used to get the length of the string. The length of the
string is for the printable characters only and does not include the null
terminator.

The string contains 17 characters, so we see 17 printed in the Serial Monitor

window.

Get the Length of the Array

The operator sizeof() is used to get the length of the array that contains the
string. The length includes the null terminator, so the length is one more than
the length of the string.

sizeof() looks like a function, but technically is an operator. It is not a part of the
C string library, but was used in the sketch to show the difference between the
size of the array and the size of the string (or string length).

Copy a String
The strcpy() function is used to copy the str[] string to the out_num[] array. The
strcpy() function copies the second string passed to it into the first string. A
copy of the string now exists in the out_num[] array, but only takes up 18
elements of the array, so we still have 22 free char elements in the array. These
free elements are found after the string in memory.

The string was copied to the array so that we would have some extra space in
the array to use in the next part of the sketch, which is adding a string to the end
of a string.

Append a String to a String (Concatenate)

The sketch joins one string to another, which is known as concatenation. This is
done using the strcat() function. The strcat() function puts the second string
passed to it onto the end of the first string passed to it.

After concatenation, the length of the string is printed to show the new string
length. The length of the array is then printed to show that we have a 25-
character long string in a 40 element long array.

Remember that the 25-character long string actually takes up 26 characters of

the array because of the null terminating zero.

Array Bounds

When working with strings and arrays, it is very important to work within the
bounds of strings or arrays. In the example sketch, an array was created, which
was 40 characters long, in order to allocate the memory that could be used to
manipulate strings.

If the array was made too small and we tried to copy a string that is bigger than
the array to it, the string would be copied over the end of the array. The memory
beyond the end of the array could contain other important data used in the
sketch, which would then be overwritten by our string. If the memory beyond
the end of the string is overrun, it could crash the sketch or cause unexpected
behavior.

Arduino - String Object

The second type of string used in Arduino programming is the String Object.

What is an Object?

An object is a construct that contains both data and functions. A String object
can be created just like a variable and assigned a value or string. The String
object contains functions (which are called "methods" in object oriented
programming (OOP)) which operate on the string data contained in the String
object.

The following sketch and explanation will make it clear what an object is and
how the String object is used.

Example

void setup() {
String my_str = "This is my string.";
Serial.begin(9600);

// (1) print the string

Serial.println(my_str);

// (2) change the string to upper-case

my_str.toUpperCase();
Serial.println(my_str);
// (3) overwrite the string
my_str = "My new string.";
Serial.println(my_str);

// (4) replace a word in the string

my_str.replace("string", "Arduino sketch");
Serial.println(my_str);

// (5) get the length of the string

Serial.print("String length is: ");
Serial.println(my_str.length());
}

void loop() {

}
Result

This is my string.
THIS IS MY STRING.
My new string.
My new Arduino sketch.
String length is: 22
A string object is created and assigned a value (or string) at the top of the
sketch.

String my_str = "This is my string." ;

This creates a String object with the name my_str and gives it a value of "This
is my string.".
This can be compared to creating a variable and assigning a value to it such as
an integer −

int my_var = 102;

The sketch works in the following way.

Printing the String

The string can be printed to the Serial Monitor window just like a character
array string.

Convert the String to Upper-case

The string object my_str that was created, has a number of functions or methods
that can be operated on it. These methods are invoked by using the objects name
followed by the dot operator (.) and then the name of the function to use.

my_str.toUpperCase();
The toUpperCase() function operates on the string contained in
the my_str object which is of type String and converts the string data (or text)
that the object contains to upper-case characters. A list of the functions that the
String class contains can be found in the Arduino String reference. Technically,
String is called a class and is used to create String objects.
Overwrite a String

The assignment operator is used to assign a new string to the my_str object that
replaces the old string
my_str = "My new string." ;
The assignment operator cannot be used on character array strings, but works on
String objects only.

Replacing a Word in the String

The replace() function is used to replace the first string passed to it by the
second string passed to it. replace() is another function that is built into the
String class and so is available to use on the String object my_str.

Getting the Length of the String

Getting the length of the string is easily done by using length(). In the example
sketch, the result returned by length() is passed directly to Serial.println()
without using an intermediate variable.

When to Use a String Object

A String object is much easier to use than a string character array. The object
has built-in functions that can perform a number of operations on strings.

The main disadvantage of using the String object is that it uses a lot of memory
and can quickly use up the Arduinos RAM memory, which may cause Arduino
to hang, crash or behave unexpectedly. If a sketch on an Arduino is small and
limits the use of objects, then there should be no problems.

Character array strings are more difficult to use and you may need to write your
own functions to operate on these types of strings. The advantage is that you
have control on the size of the string arrays that you make, so you can keep the
arrays small to save memory.

You need to make sure that you do not write beyond the end of the array bounds
with string arrays. The String object does not have this problem and will take
care of the string bounds for you, provided there is enough memory for it to
operate on. The String object can try to write to memory that does not exist
when it runs out of memory, but will never write over the end of the string that
it is operating on.
Where Strings are Used

In this chapter we studied about the strings, how they behave in memory and
their operations.

The practical uses of strings will be covered in the next part of this course when
we study how to get user input from the Serial Monitor window and save the
input in a string.

Arduino - Time
Arduino provides four different time manipulation functions. They are −

S.No. Function & Description

delay () function
1 The way the delay() function works is pretty simple. It accepts a single integer
(measured in milliseconds).

delayMicroseconds () function
2 The delayMicroseconds() function accepts a single integer (or number) argumen
a million microseconds in a second.

millis () function
3
This function is used to return the number of milliseconds at the time, the Arduino

micros () function
4 The micros() function returns the number of microseconds from the time, the
number overflows i.e. goes back to zero after approximately 70 minutes.
Arduino - Arrays
An array is a consecutive group of memory locations that are of the same type.
To refer to a particular location or element in the array, we specify the name of
the array and the position number of the particular element in the array.

The illustration given below shows an integer array called C that contains 11
elements. You refer to any one of these elements by giving the array name
followed by the particular element’s position number in square brackets ([]).
The position number is more formally called a subscript or index (this number
specifies the number of elements from the beginning of the array). The first
element has subscript 0 (zero) and is sometimes called the zeros element.

Thus, the elements of array C are C[0] (pronounced “C sub zero”), C[1], C[2]
and so on. The highest subscript in array C is 10, which is 1 less than the
number of elements in the array (11). Array names follow the same conventions
as other variable names.

A subscript must be an integer or integer expression (using any integral type). If

a program uses an expression as a subscript, then the program evaluates the
expression to determine the subscript. For example, if we assume that variable a
is equal to 5 and that variable b is equal to 6, then the statement adds 2 to array
element C[11].

A subscripted array name is an lvalue, it can be used on the left side of an

assignment, just as non-array variable names can.

Let us examine array C in the given figure, more closely. The name of the entire
array is C. Its 11 elements are referred to as C[0] to C[10]. The value of C[0] is
-45, the value of C[1] is 6, the value of C[2] is 0, the value of C[7] is 62, and the
value of C[10] is 78.

To print the sum of the values contained in the first three elements of array C,
we would write −

Serial.print (C[ 0 ] + C[ 1 ] + C[ 2 ] );
To divide the value of C[6] by 2 and assign the result to the variable x, we
would write −

x = C[ 6 ] / 2;
Declaring Arrays

Arrays occupy space in memory. To specify the type of the elements and the
number of elements required by an array, use a declaration of the form −

type arrayName [ arraySize ] ;

The compiler reserves the appropriate amount of memory. (Recall that a
declaration, which reserves memory is more properly known as a definition).
The arraySize must be an integer constant greater than zero. For example, to tell
the compiler to reserve 11 elements for integer array C, use the declaration −

int C[ 12 ]; // C is an array of 12 integers

Arrays can be declared to contain values of any non-reference data type. For
example, an array of type string can be used to store character strings.

Examples Using Arrays

This section gives many examples that demonstrate how to declare, initialize
and manipulate arrays.

Example 1: Declaring an Array and using a Loop to Initialize the Array’s

Elements

The program declares a 10-element integer array n. Lines a–b use

a For statement to initialize the array elements to zeros. Like other automatic
variables, automatic arrays are not implicitly initialized to zero. The first output
statement (line c) displays the column headings for the columns printed in the
subsequent for statement (lines d–e), which prints the array in tabular format.
Example
int n[ 10 ] ; // n is an array of 10 integers

void setup () {

void loop () {
for ( int i = 0; i < 10; ++i ) // initialize elements of array n to 0 {
n[ i ] = 0; // set element at location i to 0
Serial.print (i) ;
Serial.print (‘\r’) ;
}
for ( int j = 0; j < 10; ++j ) // output each array element's value {
Serial.print (n[j]) ;
Serial.print (‘\r’) ;
}
}
Result − It will produce the following result −

Element Value

0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
8 0
9 0

Example 2: Initializing an Array in a Declaration with an Initializer List

The elements of an array can also be initialized in the array declaration by

following the array name with an equal-to sign and a brace-delimited comma-
separated list of initializers. The program uses an initializer list to initialize an
integer array with 10 values (line a) and prints the array in tabular format (lines
b–c).

Example
// n is an array of 10 integers
int n[ 10 ] = { 32, 27, 64, 18, 95, 14, 90, 70, 60, 37 } ;

void setup () {

void loop () {
for ( int i = 0; i < 10; ++i ) {
Serial.print (i) ;
Serial.print (‘\r’) ;
}
for ( int j = 0; j < 10; ++j ) // output each array element's value {
Serial.print (n[j]) ;
Serial.print (‘\r’) ;
}
}
Result − It will produce the following result −

Element Value

0 32
1 27
2 64
3 18
4 95
5 14
6 90
7 70
8 60
9 37

Example 3: Summing the Elements of an Array

Often, the elements of an array represent a series of values to be used in a

calculation. For example, if the elements of an array represent exam grades, a
professor may wish to total the elements of the array and use that sum to
calculate the class average for the exam. The program sums the values
contained in the 10-element integer array a.
Example
const int arraySize = 10; // constant variable indicating size of array
int a[ arraySize ] = { 87, 68, 94, 100, 83, 78, 85, 91, 76, 87 };
int total = 0;

void setup () {

}
void loop () {
// sum contents of array a
for ( int i = 0; i < arraySize; ++i )
total += a[ i ];
Serial.print (“Total of array elements : ”) ;
Serial.print(total) ;
}
Result − It will produce the following result −
Total of array elements: 849
Arrays are important to Arduino and should need a lot more attention. The
following important concepts related to array should be clear to a Arduino −

S.NO. Concept & Description

Passing Arrays to Functions

1
To pass an array argument to a function, specify the name of the array without an

Multi-Dimensional Arrays
2
Arrays with two dimensions (i.e., subscripts) often represent tables of values con

Arduino - I/O Functions

The pins on the Arduino board can be configured as either inputs or outputs. We
will explain the functioning of the pins in those modes. It is important to note
that a majority of Arduino analog pins, may be configured, and used, in exactly
the same manner as digital pins.

Pins Configured as INPUT

Arduino pins are by default configured as inputs, so they do not need to be

explicitly declared as inputs with pinMode() when you are using them as
inputs. Pins configured this way are said to be in a high-impedance state. Input
pins make extremely small demands on the circuit that they are sampling,
equivalent to a series resistor of 100 megaohm in front of the pin.
This means that it takes very little current to switch the input pin from one state
to another. This makes the pins useful for such tasks as implementing a
capacitive touch sensor or reading an LED as a photodiode.
Pins configured as pinMode(pin, INPUT) with nothing connected to them, or
with wires connected to them that are not connected to other circuits, report
seemingly random changes in pin state, picking up electrical noise from the
environment, or capacitively coupling the state of a nearby pin.

Pull-up Resistors

Pull-up resistors are often useful to steer an input pin to a known state if no
input is present. This can be done by adding a pull-up resistor (to +5V), or a
pull-down resistor (resistor to ground) on the input. A 10K resistor is a good
value for a pull-up or pull-down resistor.

Using Built-in Pull-up Resistor with Pins Configured as Input

There are 20,000 pull-up resistors built into the Atmega chip that can be
accessed from software. These built-in pull-up resistors are accessed by setting
the pinMode() as INPUT_PULLUP. This effectively inverts the behavior of the
INPUT mode, where HIGH means the sensor is OFF and LOW means the
sensor is ON. The value of this pull-up depends on the microcontroller used. On
most AVR-based boards, the value is guaranteed to be between 20kΩ and
50kΩ. On the Arduino Due, it is between 50kΩ and 150kΩ. For the exact value,
consult the datasheet of the microcontroller on your board.
When connecting a sensor to a pin configured with INPUT_PULLUP, the other
end should be connected to the ground. In case of a simple switch, this causes
the pin to read HIGH when the switch is open and LOW when the switch is
pressed. The pull-up resistors provide enough current to light an LED dimly
connected to a pin configured as an input. If LEDs in a project seem to be
working, but very dimly, this is likely what is going on.

Same registers (internal chip memory locations) that control whether a pin is
HIGH or LOW control the pull-up resistors. Consequently, a pin that is
configured to have pull-up resistors turned on when the pin is in INPUTmode,
will have the pin configured as HIGH if the pin is then switched to an OUTPUT
mode with pinMode(). This works in the other direction as well, and an output
pin that is left in a HIGH state will have the pull-up resistor set if switched to an
input with pinMode().

Example
pinMode(3,INPUT) ; // set pin to input without using built in pull up resistor
pinMode(5,INPUT_PULLUP) ; // set pin to input using built in pull up resistor
Pins Configured as OUTPUT

Pins configured as OUTPUT with pinMode() are said to be in a low-impedance

state. This means that they can provide a substantial amount of current to other
circuits. Atmega pins can source (provide positive current) or sink (provide
negative current) up to 40 mA (milliamps) of current to other devices/circuits.
This is enough current to brightly light up an LED (do not forget the series
resistor), or run many sensors but not enough current to run relays, solenoids, or
motors.

Attempting to run high current devices from the output pins, can damage or
destroy the output transistors in the pin, or damage the entire Atmega chip.
Often, this results in a "dead" pin in the microcontroller but the remaining chips
still function adequately. For this reason, it is a good idea to connect the
OUTPUT pins to other devices through 470Ω or 1k resistors, unless maximum
current drawn from the pins is required for a particular application.

pinMode() Function

The pinMode() function is used to configure a specific pin to behave either as

an input or an output. It is possible to enable the internal pull-up resistors with
the mode INPUT_PULLUP. Additionally, the INPUT mode explicitly disables
the internal pull-ups.

pinMode() Function Syntax

Void setup () {
pinMode (pin , mode);
}
 pin − the number of the pin whose mode you wish to set
 mode − INPUT, OUTPUT, or INPUT_PULLUP.
Example
int button = 5 ; // button connected to pin 5
int LED = 6; // LED connected to pin 6

void setup () {
pinMode(button , INPUT_PULLUP);
// set the digital pin as input with pull-up resistor
pinMode(button , OUTPUT); // set the digital pin as output
}

void setup () {
If (digitalRead(button ) == LOW) // if button pressed {
digitalWrite(LED,HIGH); // turn on led
delay(500); // delay for 500 ms
digitalWrite(LED,LOW); // turn off led
delay(500); // delay for 500 ms
}
}
digitalWrite() Function
The digitalWrite() function is used to write a HIGH or a LOW value to a
digital pin. If the pin has been configured as an OUTPUT with pinMode(), its
voltage will be set to the corresponding value: 5V (or 3.3V on 3.3V boards) for
HIGH, 0V (ground) for LOW. If the pin is configured as an INPUT,
digitalWrite() will enable (HIGH) or disable (LOW) the internal pullup on the
input pin. It is recommended to set the pinMode() to INPUT_PULLUP to
enable the internal pull-up resistor.
If you do not set the pinMode() to OUTPUT, and connect an LED to a pin,
when calling digitalWrite(HIGH), the LED may appear dim. Without explicitly
setting pinMode(), digitalWrite() will have enabled the internal pull-up resistor,
which acts like a large current-limiting resistor.

digitalWrite() Function Syntax

Void loop() {
digitalWrite (pin ,value);
}
 pin − the number of the pin whose mode you wish to set
 value − HIGH, or LOW.
Example
int LED = 6; // LED connected to pin 6

void setup () {
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // set the digital pin as output
}

void setup () {
digitalWrite(LED,HIGH); // turn on led
delay(500); // delay for 500 ms
digitalWrite(LED,LOW); // turn off led
delay(500); // delay for 500 ms
}
analogRead( ) function

Arduino is able to detect whether there is a voltage applied to one of its pins and
report it through the digitalRead() function. There is a difference between an
on/off sensor (which detects the presence of an object) and an analog sensor,
whose value continuously changes. In order to read this type of sensor, we need
a different type of pin.

In the lower-right part of the Arduino board, you will see six pins marked
“Analog In”. These special pins not only tell whether there is a voltage applied
to them, but also its value. By using the analogRead() function, we can read the
voltage applied to one of the pins.
This function returns a number between 0 and 1023, which represents voltages
between 0 and 5 volts. For example, if there is a voltage of 2.5 V applied to pin
number 0, analogRead(0) returns 512.

analogRead() function Syntax

analogRead(pin);
 pin − the number of the analog input pin to read from (0 to 5 on most
boards, 0 to 7 on the Mini and Nano, 0 to 15 on the Mega)
Example
int analogPin = 3;//potentiometer wiper (middle terminal)
// connected to analog pin 3
int val = 0; // variable to store the value read

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // setup serial
}

void loop() {
val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin
Serial.println(val); // debug value
}
Arduino - Advanced I/O Function
In this chapter, we will learn some advanced Input and Output Functions.

analogReference() Function

Configures the reference voltage used for analog input (i.e. the value used as the
top of the input range). The options are −

 DEFAULT − The default analog reference of 5 volts (on 5V Arduino

boards) or 3.3 volts (on 3.3V Arduino boards)
 INTERNAL − An built-in reference, equal to 1.1 volts on the
ATmega168 or ATmega328 and 2.56 volts on the ATmega8 (not
available on the Arduino Mega)
 INTERNAL1V1 − A built-in 1.1V reference (Arduino Mega only)
 INTERNAL2V56 − A built-in 2.56V reference (Arduino Mega only)
 EXTERNAL − The voltage applied to the AREF pin (0 to 5V only) is
used as the reference
analogReference() Function Syntax

analogReference (type);
type − can use any type of the follow (DEFAULT, INTERNAL,
INTERNAL1V1, INTERNAL2V56, EXTERNAL)
Do not use anything less than 0V or more than 5V for external reference voltage
on the AREF pin. If you are using an external reference on the AREF pin, you
must set the analog reference to EXTERNAL before calling
the analogRead() function. Otherwise, you will short the active reference
voltage (internally generated) and the AREF pin, possibly damaging the
microcontroller on your Arduino board.

Alternatively, you can connect the external reference voltage to the AREF pin
through a 5K resistor, allowing you to switch between external and internal
reference voltages.

Note that the resistor will alter the voltage that is used as the reference because
there is an internal 32K resistor on the AREF pin. The two act as a voltage
divider. For example, 2.5V applied through the resistor will yield 2.5 * 32 / (32
+ 5) = ~2.2V at the AREF pin.

Example
int analogPin = 3;// potentiometer wiper (middle terminal) connected to analog
pin 3
int val = 0; // variable to store the read value

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // setup serial
analogReference(EXTERNAL); // the voltage applied to the AREF pin (0 to
5V only)
// is used as the reference.
}

void loop() {
val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin
Serial.println(val); // debug value
}
Arduino - Character Functions
All data is entered into computers as characters, which includes letters, digits
and various special symbols. In this section, we discuss the capabilities of C++
for examining and manipulating individual characters.

The character-handling library includes several functions that perform useful

tests and manipulations of character data. Each function receives a character,
represented as an int, or EOF as an argument. Characters are often manipulated
as integers.

Remember that EOF normally has the value –1 and that some hardware
architectures do not allow negative values to be stored in char variables.
Therefore, the character-handling functions manipulate characters as integers.

The following table summarizes the functions of the character-handling library.

When using functions from the character-handling library, include
the <cctype> header.

S.No. Prototype & Description

1 int isdigit( int c )

Returns 1 if c is a digit and 0 otherwise.

int isalpha( int c )

2
Returns 1 if c is a letter and 0 otherwise.

int isalnum( int c )

3
Returns 1 if c is a digit or a letter and 0 otherwise.

int isxdigit( int c )

4 Returns 1 if c is a hexadecimal digit character and 0 otherwise.
(See Appendix D, Number Systems, for a detailed explanation of binary, octal, de

int islower( int c )

5
Returns 1 if c is a lowercase letter and 0 otherwise.

int isupper( int c )

6
Returns 1 if c is an uppercase letter; 0 otherwise.

int isspace( int c )

7 Returns 1 if c is a white-space character—newline ('\n'), space
(' '), form feed ('\f'), carriage return ('\r'), horizontal tab ('\t'), or vertical tab ('\v')—

int iscntrl( int c )

8 Returns 1 if c is a control character, such as newline ('\n'), form feed ('\f'), carriag
a'), or backspace ('\b')—and 0 otherwise.

9 int ispunct( int c )

Returns 1 if c is a printing character other than a space, a digit, or a letter and 0 ot

int isprint( int c )

10
Returns 1 if c is a printing character including space (' ') and 0 otherwise.

int isgraph( int c )

11
Returns 1 if c is a printing character other than space (' ') and 0 otherwise.

Examples

The following example demonstrates the use of the functions isdigit, isalpha,
isalnum and isxdigit. Function isdigit determines whether its argument is a
digit (0–9). The function isalpha determines whether its argument is an
uppercase letter (A-Z) or a lowercase letter (a–z). The
function isalnum determines whether its argument is an uppercase, lowercase
letter or a digit. Function isxdigit determines whether its argument is a
hexadecimal digit (A–F, a–f, 0–9).
Example 1

void setup () {
Serial.begin (9600);
Serial.print ("According to isdigit:\r");
Serial.print (isdigit( '8' ) ? "8 is a": "8 is not a");
Serial.print (" digit\r" );
Serial.print (isdigit( '8' ) ?"# is a": "# is not a") ;
Serial.print (" digit\r");
Serial.print ("\rAccording to isalpha:\r" );
Serial.print (isalpha('A' ) ?"A is a": "A is not a");
Serial.print (" letter\r");
Serial.print (isalpha('A' ) ?"b is a": "b is not a");
Serial.print (" letter\r");
Serial.print (isalpha('A') ?"& is a": "& is not a");
Serial.print (" letter\r");
Serial.print (isalpha( 'A' ) ?"4 is a":"4 is not a");
Serial.print (" letter\r");
Serial.print ("\rAccording to isalnum:\r");
Serial.print (isalnum( 'A' ) ?"A is a" : "A is not a" );

Serial.print (" digit or a letter\r" );

Serial.print (isalnum( '8' ) ?"8 is a" : "8 is not a" ) ;
Serial.print (" digit or a letter\r");
Serial.print (isalnum( '#' ) ?"# is a" : "# is not a" );
Serial.print (" digit or a letter\r");
Serial.print ("\rAccording to isxdigit:\r");
Serial.print (isxdigit( 'F' ) ?"F is a" : "F is not a" );
Serial.print (" hexadecimal digit\r" );
Serial.print (isxdigit( 'J' ) ?"J is a" : "J is not a" ) ;
Serial.print (" hexadecimal digit\r" );
Serial.print (isxdigit( '7' ) ?"7 is a" : "7 is not a" ) ;

Serial.print (" hexadecimal digit\r" );

Serial.print (isxdigit( '$' ) ? "$ is a" : "$ is not a" );
Serial.print (" hexadecimal digit\r" );
Serial.print (isxdigit( 'f' ) ? “f is a" : "f is not a");

void loop () {
}
Result

According to isdigit:
8 is a digit
# is not a digit
According to isalpha:
A is a letter
b is a letter
& is not a letter
4 is not a letter
According to isalnum:
A is a digit or a letter

8 is a digit or a letter
# is not a digit or a letter
According to isxdigit:
F is a hexadecimal digit
J is not a hexadecimal digit
7 is a hexadecimal digit

$ is not a hexadecimal digit

f is a hexadecimal digit
We use the conditional operator (?:) with each function to determine whether
the string " is a " or the string " is not a " should be printed in the output for each
character tested. For example, line a indicates that if '8' is a digit—i.e.,
if isdigit returns a true (nonzero) value—the string "8 is a " is printed. If '8' is
not a digit (i.e., if isdigit returns 0), the string " 8 is not a " is printed.
Example 2
The following example demonstrates the use of the
functions islower and isupper. The function islower determines whether its
argument is a lowercase letter (a–z). Function isupper determines whether its
argument is an uppercase letter (A–Z).
int thisChar = 0xA0;

void setup () {
Serial.begin (9600);
Serial.print ("According to islower:\r") ;
Serial.print (islower( 'p' ) ? "p is a" : "p is not a" );
Serial.print ( " lowercase letter\r" );
Serial.print ( islower( 'P') ? "P is a" : "P is not a") ;
Serial.print ("lowercase letter\r");
Serial.print (islower( '5' ) ? "5 is a" : "5 is not a" );
Serial.print ( " lowercase letter\r" );
Serial.print ( islower( '!' )? "! is a" : "! is not a") ;
Serial.print ("lowercase letter\r");

Serial.print ("\rAccording to isupper:\r") ;

Serial.print (isupper ( 'D' ) ? "D is a" : "D is not an" );
Serial.print ( " uppercase letter\r" );
Serial.print ( isupper ( 'd' )? "d is a" : "d is not an") ;
Serial.print ( " uppercase letter\r" );
Serial.print (isupper ( '8' ) ? "8 is a" : "8 is not an" );
Serial.print ( " uppercase letter\r" );
Serial.print ( islower( '$' )? "$ is a" : "$ is not an") ;
Serial.print ("uppercase letter\r ");
}
void setup () {

}
Result

According to islower:
p is a lowercase letter
P is not a lowercase letter
5 is not a lowercase letter
! is not a lowercase letter

According to isupper:
D is an uppercase letter
d is not an uppercase letter
8 is not an uppercase letter
$ is not an uppercase letter
Example 3

The following example demonstrates the use of functions isspace, iscntrl,

ispunct, isprint and isgraph.
 The function isspace determines whether its argument is a white-space
character, such as space (' '), form feed ('\f'), newline ('\n'), carriage return
('\r'), horizontal tab ('\t') or vertical tab ('\v').
 The function iscntrl determines whether its argument is a control
character such as horizontal tab ('\t'), vertical tab ('\v'), form feed ('\f'),
alert ('\a'), backspace ('\b'), carriage return ('\r') or newline ('\n').
 The function ispunct determines whether its argument is a printing
character other than a space, digit or letter, such as $, #, (, ), [, ], {, }, ;, :
or %.
 The function isprint determines whether its argument is a character that
can be displayed on the screen (including the space character).
 The function isgraph tests for the same characters as isprint, but the
space character is not included.
void setup () {
Serial.begin (9600);
Serial.print ( " According to isspace:\rNewline ") ;
Serial.print (isspace( '\n' )? " is a" : " is not a" );
Serial.print ( " whitespace character\rHorizontal tab") ;
Serial.print (isspace( '\t' )? " is a" : " is not a" );
Serial.print ( " whitespace character\n") ;
Serial.print (isspace('%')? " % is a" : " % is not a" );

Serial.print ( " \rAccording to iscntrl:\rNewline") ;

Serial.print ( iscntrl( '\n' )?"is a" : " is not a" ) ;
Serial.print (" control character\r");
Serial.print (iscntrl( '$' ) ? " $ is a" : " $ is not a" );
Serial.print (" control character\r");
Serial.print ("\rAccording to ispunct:\r");
Serial.print (ispunct(';' ) ?"; is a" : "; is not a" ) ;
Serial.print (" punctuation character\r");
Serial.print (ispunct('Y' ) ?"Y is a" : "Y is not a" ) ;
Serial.print ("punctuation character\r");
Serial.print (ispunct('#' ) ?"# is a" : "# is not a" ) ;
Serial.print ("punctuation character\r");

Serial.print ( "\r According to isprint:\r");

Serial.print (isprint('$' ) ?"$ is a" : "$ is not a" );
Serial.print (" printing character\rAlert ");
Serial.print (isprint('\a' ) ?" is a" : " is not a" );
Serial.print (" printing character\rSpace ");
Serial.print (isprint(' ' ) ?" is a" : " is not a" );
Serial.print (" printing character\r");

Serial.print ("\r According to isgraph:\r");

Serial.print (isgraph ('Q' ) ?"Q is a" : "Q is not a" );
Serial.print ("printing character other than a space\rSpace ");
Serial.print (isgraph (' ') ?" is a" : " is not a" );
Serial.print ("printing character other than a space ");
}

void loop () {

}
Result

According to isspace:
Newline is a whitespace character
Horizontal tab is a whitespace character
% is not a whitespace character
According to iscntrl:
Newline is a control character
$ is not a control character
According to ispunct:
; is a punctuation character
Y is not a punctuation character
# is a punctuation character
According to isprint:
$ is a printing character
Alert is not a printing character
Space is a printing character
According to isgraph:
Q is a printing character other than a space
Space is not a printing character other than a space
Arduino - Math Library
The Arduino Math library (math.h) includes a number of useful mathematical
functions for manipulating floating-point numbers.

Library Macros

Following are the macros defined in the header math.h −

Given below is the list of macros defined in the header math.h

Library Functions

The following functions are defined in the header math.h −

Given below is the list of functions are defined in the header math.h

Example

The following example shows how to use the most common math.h library
functions −

double double__x = 45.45 ;

double double__y = 30.20 ;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.print("cos num = ");
Serial.println (cos (double__x) ); // returns cosine of x
Serial.print("absolute value of num = ");
Serial.println (fabs (double__x) ); // absolute value of a float
Serial.print("floating point modulo = ");
Serial.println (fmod (double__x, double__y)); // floating point modulo
Serial.print("sine of num = ");
Serial.println (sin (double__x) ) ;// returns sine of x
Serial.print("square root of num : ");
Serial.println ( sqrt (double__x) );// returns square root of x
Serial.print("tangent of num : ");
Serial.println ( tan (double__x) ); // returns tangent of x
Serial.print("exponential value of num : ");
Serial.println ( exp (double__x) ); // function returns the exponential value of
x.
Serial.print("cos num : ");

Serial.println (atan (double__x) ); // arc tangent of x

Serial.print("tangent of num : ");
Serial.println (atan2 (double__y, double__x) );// arc tangent of y/x
Serial.print("arc tangent of num : ");
Serial.println (log (double__x) ) ; // natural logarithm of x
Serial.print("cos num : ");
Serial.println ( log10 (double__x)); // logarithm of x to base 10.
Serial.print("logarithm of num to base 10 : ");
Serial.println (pow (double__x, double__y) );// x to power of y
Serial.print("power of num : ");
Serial.println (square (double__x)); // square of x
}
void loop() {

}
Result

cos num = 0.10

absolute value of num = 45.45
floating point modulo =15.25
sine of num = 0.99
square root of num : 6.74
tangent of num : 9.67
exponential value of num : ovf
cos num : 1.55
tangent of num : 0.59
arc tangent of num : 3.82
cos num : 1.66
logarithm of num to base 10 : inf
power of num : 2065.70
Arduino - Trigonometric Functions
You need to use Trigonometry practically like calculating the distance for
moving object or angular speed. Arduino provides traditional trigonometric
functions (sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan) that can be summarized by writing their
prototypes. Math.h contains the trigonometry function's prototype.

Trigonometric Exact Syntax

double sin(double x); //returns sine of x radians

double cos(double y); //returns cosine of y radians
double tan(double x); //returns the tangent of x radians
double acos(double x); //returns A, the angle corresponding to cos (A) = x
double asin(double x); //returns A, the angle corresponding to sin (A) = x
double atan(double x); //returns A, the angle corresponding to tan (A) = x
Example

double sine = sin(2); // approximately 0.90929737091

double cosine = cos(2); // approximately -0.41614685058
double tangent = tan(2); // approximately -2.18503975868
Arduino - Due & Zero
The Arduino Due is a microcontroller board based on the Atmel SAM3X8E
ARM Cortex-M3 CPU. It is the first Arduino board based on a 32-bit ARM
core microcontroller.

Important features −

 It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 12 can be used as PWM

outputs)
 12 analog inputs
 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports)
 84 MHz clock, an USB OTG capable connection
 2 DAC (digital to analog), 2 TWI, a power jack, an SPI header, a JTAG
header
 Reset button and an erase button
Characteristics of the Arduino Due Board

Operating CPU Analog Digital IO/ EEPROM

volt speed in/out PWM [KB]

3.3 Volt 84 Mhz 12/2 54/12 -

Communication

 4 Hardware UARTs
 2 I2C
 1 CAN Interface (Automotive communication protocol)
 1 SPI
 1 Interface JTAG (10 pin)
 1 USB Host (like as Leonardo)
 1 Programming Port
Unlike most Arduino boards, the Arduino Due board runs at 3.3V. The
maximum voltage that the I/O pins can tolerate is 3.3V. Applying voltages
higher than 3.3V to any I/O pin could damage the board.

The board contains everything needed to support the microcontroller. You can
simply connect it to a computer with a micro-USB cable or power it with an
AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Due is compatible with all
Arduino shields that work at 3.3V.

Arduino Zero

The Zero is a simple and powerful 32-bit extension of the platform established
by the UNO. The Zero board expands the family by providing increased
performance, enabling a variety of project opportunities for devices, and acts as
a great educational tool for learning about 32-bit application development.

Important features are −

 The Zero applications span from smart IoT devices, wearable technology,
high-tech automation, to crazy robotics.
 The board is powered by Atmel’s SAMD21 MCU, which features a 32-
bit ARM Cortex® M0+ core.
 One of its most important features is Atmel’s Embedded Debugger
(EDBG), which provides a full debug interface without the need for
additional hardware, significantly increasing the ease-of-use for software
debugging.
 EDBG also supports a virtual COM port that can be used for device and
bootloader programming.
Characteristics of the Arduino Zero board

Operating CPU Analog Digital IO/ EEPROM

volt speed in/out PWM [KB]

3.3 Volt 48 Mhz 6/1 14/10 -

Unlike most Arduino and Genuino boards, the Zero runs at 3.3V. The maximum
voltage that the I/O pins can tolerate is 3.3V. Applying voltages higher than
3.3V to any I/O pin could damage the board.

The board contains everything needed to support the microcontroller. You can
simply connect it to a computer with a micro-USB cable or power it with an
AC-to-DC adapter or a battery to get started. The Zero is compatible with all the
shields that work at 3.3V.

Arduino - Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation or PWM is a common technique used to vary the width
of the pulses in a pulse-train. PWM has many applications such as controlling
servos and speed controllers, limiting the effective power of motors and LEDs.

Basic Principle of PWM

Pulse width modulation is basically, a square wave with a varying high and low
time. A basic PWM signal is shown in the following figure.

There are various terms associated with PWM −

 On-Time − Duration of time signal is high.

 Off-Time − Duration of time signal is low.
 Period − It is represented as the sum of on-time and off-time of PWM
signal.
 Duty Cycle − It is represented as the percentage of time signal that
remains on during the period of the PWM signal.
Period

As shown in the figure, Ton denotes the on-time and Toff denotes the off-time of
signal. Period is the sum of both on and off times and is calculated as shown in
the following equation −
$$T_{total} = T_{on}+T_{off}$$

Duty Cycle

Duty cycle is calculated as the on-time of the period of time. Using the period
calculated above, duty cycle is calculated as −

$$D = \frac{T_{on}}{T_{on}+T_{off}} = \frac{T_{on}}{T_{total}}$$

analogWrite() Function

The analogWrite() function writes an analog value (PWM wave) to a pin. It

can be used to light a LED at varying brightness or drive a motor at various
speeds. After a call of the analogWrite() function, the pin will generate a steady
square wave of the specified duty cycle until the next call to analogWrite() or a
call to digitalRead() or digitalWrite() on the same pin. The frequency of the
PWM signal on most pins is approximately 490 Hz. On the Uno and similar
boards, pins 5 and 6 have a frequency of approximately 980 Hz. Pins 3 and 11
on the Leonardo also run at 980 Hz.
On most Arduino boards (those with the ATmega168 or ATmega328), this
function works on pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. On the Arduino Mega, it works on
pins 2 - 13 and 44 - 46. Older Arduino boards with an ATmega8 only
support analogWrite() on pins 9, 10, and 11.

The Arduino Due supports analogWrite() on pins 2 through 13, and pins DAC0
and DAC1. Unlike the PWM pins, DAC0 and DAC1 are Digital to Analog
converters, and act as true analog outputs.
You do not need to call pinMode() to set the pin as an output before calling
analogWrite().

analogWrite() Function Syntax

analogWrite ( pin , value ) ;
value − the duty cycle: between 0 (always off) and 255 (always on).
Example
int ledPin = 9; // LED connected to digital pin 9
int analogPin = 3; // potentiometer connected to analog pin 3
int val = 0; // variable to store the read value

void setup() {
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT); // sets the pin as output
}

void loop() {
val = analogRead(analogPin); // read the input pin
analogWrite(ledPin, (val / 4)); // analogRead values go from 0 to 1023,
// analogWrite values from 0 to 255
}
Arduino - Random Numbers
To generate random numbers, you can use Arduino random number functions.
We have two functions −

 randomSeed(seed)
 random()
randomSeed (seed)

The function randomSeed(seed) resets Arduino’s pseudorandom number

generator. Although the distribution of the numbers returned by random() is
essentially random, the sequence is predictable. You should reset the generator
to some random value. If you have an unconnected analog pin, it might pick up
random noise from the surrounding environment. These may be radio waves,
cosmic rays, electromagnetic interference from cell phones, fluorescent lights
and so on.

Example

randomSeed(analogRead(5)); // randomize using noise from analog pin 5

random( )

The random function generates pseudo-random numbers. Following is the

syntax.

random( ) Statements Syntax

long random(max) // it generate random numbers from 0 to max

long random(min, max) // it generate random numbers from min to max
Example

long randNumber;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
// if analog input pin 0 is unconnected, random analog
// noise will cause the call to randomSeed() to generate
// different seed numbers each time the sketch runs.
// randomSeed() will then shuffle the random function.
randomSeed(analogRead(0));
}

void loop() {
// print a random number from 0 to 299
Serial.print("random1=");
randNumber = random(300);
Serial.println(randNumber); // print a random number from 0to 299
Serial.print("random2=");
randNumber = random(10, 20);// print a random number from 10 to 19
Serial.println (randNumber);
delay(50);
}
Let us now refresh our knowledge on some of the basic concepts such as bits
and bytes.

Bits

A bit is just a binary digit.

 The binary system uses two digits, 0 and 1.

 Similar to the decimal number system, in which digits of a number do not
have the same value, the ‘significance’ of a bit depends on its position in
the binary number. For example, digits in the decimal number 666 are the
same, but have different values.

Bytes

A byte consists of eight bits.

 If a bit is a digit, it is logical that bytes represent numbers.

 All mathematical operations can be performed upon them.
 The digits in a byte do not have the same significance either.
 The leftmost bit has the greatest value called the Most Significant Bit
(MSB).
 The rightmost bit has the least value and is therefore, called the Least
Significant Bit (LSB).
 Since eight zeros and ones of one byte can be combined in 256 different
ways, the largest decimal number that can be represented by one byte is
255 (one combination represents a zero).
Arduino - Interrupts
Interrupts stop the current work of Arduino such that some other work can be
done.

Suppose you are sitting at home, chatting with someone. Suddenly the
telephone rings. You stop chatting, and pick up the telephone to speak to the
caller. When you have finished your telephonic conversation, you go back to
chatting with the person before the telephone rang.

Similarly, you can think of the main routine as chatting to someone, the
telephone ringing causes you to stop chatting. The interrupt service routine is
the process of talking on the telephone. When the telephone conversation ends,
you then go back to your main routine of chatting. This example explains
exactly how an interrupt causes a processor to act.

The main program is running and performing some function in a circuit.

However, when an interrupt occurs the main program halts while another
routine is carried out. When this routine finishes, the processor goes back to the
main routine again.
Important features

Here are some important features about interrupts −

 Interrupts can come from various sources. In this case, we are using a
hardware interrupt that is triggered by a state change on one of the digital
pins.
 Most Arduino designs have two hardware interrupts (referred to as
"interrupt0" and "interrupt1") hard-wired to digital I/O pins 2 and 3,
respectively.
 The Arduino Mega has six hardware interrupts including the additional
interrupts ("interrupt2" through "interrupt5") on pins 21, 20, 19, and 18.
 You can define a routine using a special function called as “Interrupt
Service Routine” (usually known as ISR).
 You can define the routine and specify conditions at the rising edge,
falling edge or both. At these specific conditions, the interrupt would be
serviced.
 It is possible to have that function executed automatically, each time an
event happens on an input pin.
Types of Interrupts

There are two types of interrupts −

 Hardware Interrupts − They occur in response to an external event,

such as an external interrupt pin going high or low.
 Software Interrupts − They occur in response to an instruction sent in
software. The only type of interrupt that the “Arduino language” supports
is the attachInterrupt() function.
Using Interrupts in Arduino

Interrupts are very useful in Arduino programs as it helps in solving timing

problems. A good application of an interrupt is reading a rotary encoder or
observing a user input. Generally, an ISR should be as short and fast as
possible. If your sketch uses multiple ISRs, only one can run at a time. Other
interrupts will be executed after the current one finishes in an order that depends
on the priority they have.

Typically, global variables are used to pass data between an ISR and the main
program. To make sure variables shared between an ISR and the main program
are updated correctly, declare them as volatile.

attachInterrupt Statement Syntax

attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(pin),ISR,mode);//recommended for
arduino board
attachInterrupt(pin, ISR, mode) ; //recommended Arduino Due, Zero only
//argument pin: the pin number
//argument ISR: the ISR to call when the interrupt occurs;
//this function must take no parameters and return nothing.
//This function is sometimes referred to as an interrupt service routine.
//argument mode: defines when the interrupt should be triggered.
The following three constants are predefined as valid values −

 LOW to trigger the interrupt whenever the pin is low.

 CHANGE to trigger the interrupt whenever the pin changes value.
 FALLING whenever the pin goes from high to low.
Example
int pin = 2; //define interrupt pin to 2
volatile int state = LOW; // To make sure variables shared between an ISR
//the main program are updated correctly,declare them as volatile.

void setup() {
pinMode(13, OUTPUT); //set pin 13 as output
attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(pin), blink, CHANGE);
//interrupt at pin 2 blink ISR when pin to change the value
}
void loop() {
digitalWrite(13, state); //pin 13 equal the state value
}

void blink() {
//ISR function
state = !state; //toggle the state when the interrupt occurs
}
Arduino - Communication
Hundreds of communication protocols have been defined to achieve this data
exchange. Each protocol can be categorized into one of the two categories:
parallel or serial.

Parallel Communication

Parallel connection between the Arduino and peripherals via input/output ports
is the ideal solution for shorter distances up to several meters. However, in other
cases when it is necessary to establish communication between two devices for
longer distances it is not possible to use parallel connection. Parallel interfaces
transfer multiple bits at the same time. They usually require buses of data -
transmitting across eight, sixteen, or more wires. Data is transferred in huge,
crashing waves of 1’s and 0’s.

Advantages and Drawbacks of Parallel Communication

Parallel communication certainly has its advantages. It is faster than serial,

straightforward, and relatively easy to implement. However, it requires many
input/output (I/O) ports and lines. If you have ever had to move a project from a
basic Arduino Uno to a Mega, you know that the I/O lines on a microprocessor
can be precious and few. Therefore, we prefer serial communication, sacrificing
potential speed for pin real estate.
Serial Communication Modules

Today, most Arduino boards are built with several different systems for serial
communication as standard equipment.

Which of these systems are used depends on the following factors −

 How many devices the microcontroller has to exchange data with?

 How fast the data exchange has to be?
 What is the distance between these devices?
 Is it necessary to send and receive data simultaneously?
One of the most important things concerning serial communication is
the Protocol, which should be strictly observed. It is a set of rules, which must
be applied such that the devices can correctly interpret data they mutually
exchange. Fortunately, Arduino automatically takes care of this, so that the
work of the programmer/user is reduced to simple write (data to be sent) and
read (received data).
Types of Serial Communications

Serial communication can be further classified as −

 Synchronous − Devices that are synchronized use the same clock and
their timing is in synchronization with each other.
 Asynchronous − Devices that are asynchronous have their own clocks
and are triggered by the output of the previous state.
It is easy to find out if a device is synchronous or not. If the same clock is given
to all the connected devices, then they are synchronous. If there is no clock line,
it is asynchronous.

For example, UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) module is

asynchronous.
The asynchronous serial protocol has a number of built-in rules. These rules are
nothing but mechanisms that help ensure robust and error-free data transfers.
These mechanisms, which we get for eschewing the external clock signal, are −

 Synchronization bits
 Data bits
 Parity bits
 Baud rate
Synchronization Bits

The synchronization bits are two or three special bits transferred with each
packet of data. They are the start bit and the stop bit(s). True to their name,
these bits mark the beginning and the end of a packet respectively.

There is always only one start bit, but the number of stop bits is configurable to
either one or two (though it is normally left at one).

The start bit is always indicated by an idle data line going from 1 to 0, while the
stop bit(s) will transition back to the idle state by holding the line at 1.

Data Bits

The amount of data in each packet can be set to any size from 5 to 9 bits.
Certainly, the standard data size is your basic 8-bit byte, but other sizes have
their uses. A 7-bit data packet can be more efficient than 8, especially if you are
just transferring 7-bit ASCII characters.

Parity Bits
The user can select whether there should be a parity bit or not, and if yes,
whether the parity should be odd or even. The parity bit is 0 if the number of 1’s
among the data bits is even. Odd parity is just the opposite.

Baud Rate

The term baud rate is used to denote the number of bits transferred per second
[bps]. Note that it refers to bits, not bytes. It is usually required by the protocol
that each byte is transferred along with several control bits. It means that one
byte in serial data stream may consist of 11 bits. For example, if the baud rate is
300 bps then maximum 37 and minimum 27 bytes may be transferred per
second.

Arduino UART

The following code will make Arduino send hello world when it starts up.

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); //set up serial library baud rate to 9600
Serial.println("hello world"); //print hello world
}

void loop() {

}
After the Arduino sketch has been uploaded to Arduino, open the Serial monitor
at the top right section of Arduino IDE.

Type anything into the top box of the Serial Monitor and press send or enter on
your keyboard. This will send a series of bytes to the Arduino.

The following code returns whatever it receives as an input.

The following code will make Arduino deliver output depending on the input
provided.

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); //set up serial library baud rate to 9600
}

void loop() {
if(Serial.available()) //if number of bytes (characters) available for reading
from {
serial port
Serial.print("I received:"); //print I received
Serial.write(Serial.read()); //send what you read
}
}
Notice that Serial.print and Serial.println will send back the actual ASCII
code, whereas Serial.write will send back the actual text. See ASCII codes for
more information.
Arduino - Inter Integrated Circuit
Inter-integrated circuit (I2C) is a system for serial data exchange between the
microcontrollers and specialized integrated circuits of a new generation. It is
used when the distance between them is short (receiver and transmitter are
usually on the same printed board). Connection is established via two
conductors. One is used for data transfer and the other is used for
synchronization (clock signal).

As seen in the following figure, one device is always a master. It performs

addressing of one slave chip before the communication starts. In this way, one
microcontroller can communicate with 112 different devices. Baud rate is
usually 100 Kb/sec (standard mode) or 10 Kb/sec (slow baud rate mode).
Systems with the baud rate of 3.4 Mb/sec have recently appeared. The distance
between devices, which communicate over an I2C bus is limited to several
meters.

Board I2C Pins

The I2C bus consists of two signals − SCL and SDA. SCL is the clock signal,
and SDA is the data signal. The current bus master always generates the clock
signal. Some slave devices may force the clock low at times to delay the master
sending more data (or to require more time to prepare data before the master
attempts to clock it out). This is known as “clock stretching”.

Following are the pins for different Arduino boards −

 Uno, Pro Mini A4 (SDA), A5 (SCL)

 Mega, Due 20 (SDA), 21 (SCL)
 Leonardo, Yun 2 (SDA), 3 (SCL)
Arduino I2C

We have two modes - master code and slave code - to connect two Arduino
boards using I2C. They are −

 Master Transmitter / Slave Receiver

 Master Receiver / Slave Transmitter
Master Transmitter / Slave Receiver

Let us now see what is master transmitter and slave receiver.

Master Transmitter

The following functions are used to initialize the Wire library and join the I2C
bus as a master or slave. This is normally called only once.

 Wire.begin(address) − Address is the 7-bit slave address in our case as

the master is not specified and it will join the bus as a master.
 Wire.beginTransmission(address) − Begin a transmission to the I2C
slave device with the given address.
 Wire.write(value) − Queues bytes for transmission from a master to
slave device (in-between calls to beginTransmission() and
endTransmission()).
 Wire.endTransmission() − Ends a transmission to a slave device that
was begun by beginTransmission() and transmits the bytes that were
queued by wire.write().
Example
#include <Wire.h> //include wire library

void setup() //this will run only once {

Wire.begin(); // join i2c bus as master
}

short age = 0;

void loop() {
Wire.beginTransmission(2);
// transmit to device #2
Wire.write("age is = ");
Wire.write(age); // sends one byte
Wire.endTransmission(); // stop transmitting
delay(1000);
}
Slave Receiver

The following functions are used −

 Wire.begin(address) − Address is the 7-bit slave address.

 Wire.onReceive(received data handler) − Function to be called when a
slave device receives data from the master.
 Wire.available() − Returns the number of bytes available for retrieval
with Wire.read().This should be called inside the Wire.onReceive()
handler.
Example
#include <Wire.h> //include wire library

void setup() { //this will run only once

Wire.begin(2); // join i2c bus with address #2
Wire.onReceive(receiveEvent); // call receiveEvent when the master send any
thing
Serial.begin(9600); // start serial for output to print what we receive
}

void loop() {
delay(250);
}

//-----this function will execute whenever data is received from master-----//

void receiveEvent(int howMany) {

while (Wire.available()>1) // loop through all but the last {
char c = Wire.read(); // receive byte as a character
Serial.print(c); // print the character
}
}
Master Receiver / Slave Transmitter

Let us now see what is master receiver and slave transmitter.

Master Receiver

The Master, is programmed to request, and then read bytes of data that are sent
from the uniquely addressed Slave Arduino.

The following function is used −

Wire.requestFrom(address,number of bytes) − Used by the master to request

bytes from a slave device. The bytes may then be retrieved with the functions
wire.available() and wire.read() functions.
Example
#include <Wire.h> //include wire library void setup() {
Wire.begin(); // join i2c bus (address optional for master)
Serial.begin(9600); // start serial for output
}

void loop() {
Wire.requestFrom(2, 1); // request 1 bytes from slave device #2
while (Wire.available()) // slave may send less than requested {
char c = Wire.read(); // receive a byte as character
Serial.print(c); // print the character
}
delay(500);
}
Slave Transmitter

The following function is used.

Wire.onRequest(handler) − A function is called when a master requests data

from this slave device.
Example
#include <Wire.h>

void setup() {
Wire.begin(2); // join i2c bus with address #2
Wire.onRequest(requestEvent); // register event
}

Byte x = 0;

void loop() {
delay(100);
}

// function that executes whenever data is requested by master

// this function is registered as an event, see setup()

void requestEvent() {
Wire.write(x); // respond with message of 1 bytes as expected by master
x++;
}
Arduino - Serial Peripheral Interface
A Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus is a system for serial communication,
which uses up to four conductors, commonly three. One conductor is used for
data receiving, one for data sending, one for synchronization and one
alternatively for selecting a device to communicate with. It is a full duplex
connection, which means that the data is sent and received simultaneously. The
maximum baud rate is higher than that in the I2C communication system.

Board SPI Pins

SPI uses the following four wires −

 SCK − This is the serial clock driven by the master.

 MOSI − This is the master output / slave input driven by the master.
 MISO − This is the master input / slave output driven by the master.
 SS − This is the slave-selection wire.
The following functions are used. You have to include the SPI.h.

 SPI.begin() − Initializes the SPI bus by setting SCK, MOSI, and SS to

outputs, pulling SCK and MOSI low, and SS high.
 SPI.setClockDivider(divider) − To set the SPI clock divider relative to
the system clock. On AVR based boards, the dividers available are 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64 or 128. The default setting is SPI_CLOCK_DIV4, which
sets the SPI clock to one-quarter of the frequency of the system clock (5
Mhz for the boards at 20 MHz).
 Divider − It could be (SPI_CLOCK_DIV2, SPI_CLOCK_DIV4,
SPI_CLOCK_DIV8, SPI_CLOCK_DIV16, SPI_CLOCK_DIV32,
SPI_CLOCK_DIV64, SPI_CLOCK_DIV128).
 SPI.transfer(val) − SPI transfer is based on a simultaneous send and
receive: the received data is returned in receivedVal.
 SPI.beginTransaction(SPISettings(speedMaximum, dataOrder,
dataMode)) − speedMaximum is the clock, dataOrder(MSBFIRST or
LSBFIRST), dataMode(SPI_MODE0, SPI_MODE1, SPI_MODE2, or
SPI_MODE3).
We have four modes of operation in SPI as follows −

 Mode 0 (the default) − Clock is normally low (CPOL = 0), and the data
is sampled on the transition from low to high (leading edge) (CPHA = 0).
 Mode 1 − Clock is normally low (CPOL = 0), and the data is sampled on
the transition from high to low (trailing edge) (CPHA = 1).
 Mode 2 − Clock is normally high (CPOL = 1), and the data is sampled on
the transition from high to low (leading edge) (CPHA = 0).
 Mode 3 − Clock is normally high (CPOL = 1), and the data is sampled on
the transition from low to high (trailing edge) (CPHA = 1).
 SPI.attachInterrupt(handler) − Function to be called when a slave
device receives data from the master.
Now, we will connect two Arduino UNO boards together; one as a master and
the other as a slave.

 (SS) : pin 10
 (MOSI) : pin 11
 (MISO) : pin 12
 (SCK) : pin 13
The ground is common. Following is the diagrammatic representation of the
connection between both the boards −
Let us see examples of SPI as Master and SPI as Slave.

SPI as MASTER

Example

#include <SPI.h>

void setup (void) {

Serial.begin(115200); //set baud rate to 115200 for usart
digitalWrite(SS, HIGH); // disable Slave Select
SPI.begin ();
SPI.setClockDivider(SPI_CLOCK_DIV8);//divide the clock by 8
}

void loop (void) {

char c;
digitalWrite(SS, LOW); // enable Slave Select
// send test string
for (const char * p = "Hello, world!\r" ; c = *p; p++) {
SPI.transfer (c);
Serial.print(c);
}
digitalWrite(SS, HIGH); // disable Slave Select
delay(2000);
}
SPI as SLAVE

Example

#include <SPI.h>
char buff [50];
volatile byte indx;
volatile boolean process;

void setup (void) {

Serial.begin (115200);
pinMode(MISO, OUTPUT); // have to send on master in so it set as output
SPCR |= _BV(SPE); // turn on SPI in slave mode
indx = 0; // buffer empty
process = false;
SPI.attachInterrupt(); // turn on interrupt
}
ISR (SPI_STC_vect) // SPI interrupt routine {
byte c = SPDR; // read byte from SPI Data Register
if (indx < sizeof buff) {
buff [indx++] = c; // save data in the next index in the array buff
if (c == '\r') //check for the end of the word
process = true;
}
}

void loop (void) {

if (process) {
process = false; //reset the process
Serial.println (buff); //print the array on serial monitor
indx= 0; //reset button to zero
}
}
Arduino - Blinking LED
LEDs are small, powerful lights that are used in many different applications. To
start, we will work on blinking an LED, the Hello World of microcontrollers. It
is as simple as turning a light on and off. Establishing this important baseline
will give you a solid foundation as we work towards experiments that are more
complex.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × LED
 1 × 330Ω Resistor
 2 × Jumper
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.
Note − To find out the polarity of an LED, look at it closely. The shorter of the
two legs, towards the flat edge of the bulb indicates the negative terminal.

Components like resistors need to have their terminals bent into 90° angles in
order to fit the breadboard sockets properly. You can also cut the terminals
shorter.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open the new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code

/*
Blink
Turns on an LED on for one second, then off for one second, repeatedly.
*/

// the setup function runs once when you press reset or power the board
void setup() { // initialize digital pin 13 as an output.
pinMode(2, OUTPUT);
}

// the loop function runs over and over again forever

void loop() {
digitalWrite(2, HIGH); // turn the LED on (HIGH is the voltage level)
delay(1000); // wait for a second
digitalWrite(2, LOW); // turn the LED off by making the voltage LOW
delay(1000); // wait for a second
}
Code to Note

pinMode(2, OUTPUT) − Before you can use one of Arduino’s pins, you need
to tell Arduino Uno R3 whether it is an INPUT or OUTPUT. We use a built-in
“function” called pinMode() to do this.
digitalWrite(2, HIGH) − When you are using a pin as an OUTPUT, you can
command it to be HIGH (output 5 volts), or LOW (output 0 volts).
Result

You should see your LED turn on and off. If the required output is not seen,
make sure you have assembled the circuit correctly, and verified and uploaded
the code to your board.

Arduino - Fading LED

This example demonstrates the use of the analogWrite() function in fading an
LED off. AnalogWrite uses pulse width modulation (PWM), turning a digital
pin on and off very quickly with different ratios between on and off, to create a
fading effect.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × LED
 1 × 330Ω Resistor
 2 × Jumper
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.

Note − To find out the polarity of an LED, look at it closely. The shorter of the
two legs, towards the flat edge of the bulb indicates the negative terminal.
Components like resistors need to have their terminals bent into 90° angles in
order to fit the breadboard sockets properly. You can also cut the terminals
shorter.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open the new sketch File by clicking New.
Arduino Code

/*
Fade
This example shows how to fade an LED on pin 9 using the analogWrite()
function.

The analogWrite() function uses PWM, so if you want to change the pin
you're using, be
sure to use another PWM capable pin. On most Arduino, the PWM pins are
identified with
a "~" sign, like ~3, ~5, ~6, ~9, ~10 and ~11.
*/

int led = 9; // the PWM pin the LED is attached to

int brightness = 0; // how bright the LED is
int fadeAmount = 5; // how many points to fade the LED by
// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:
void setup() {
// declare pin 9 to be an output:
pinMode(led, OUTPUT);
}

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {
// set the brightness of pin 9:
analogWrite(led, brightness);
// change the brightness for next time through the loop:
brightness = brightness + fadeAmount;
// reverse the direction of the fading at the ends of the fade:
if (brightness == 0 || brightness == 255) {
fadeAmount = -fadeAmount ;
}
// wait for 30 milliseconds to see the dimming effect
delay(300);
}
Code to Note

After declaring pin 9 as your LED pin, there is nothing to do in the setup()
function of your code. The analogWrite() function that you will be using in the
main loop of your code requires two arguments: One, telling the function which
pin to write to and the other indicating what PWM value to write.

In order to fade the LED off and on, gradually increase the PWM values from 0
(all the way off) to 255 (all the way on), and then back to 0, to complete the
cycle. In the sketch given above, the PWM value is set using a variable called
brightness. Each time through the loop, it increases by the value of the
variable fadeAmount.
If brightness is at either extreme of its value (either 0 or 255), then fadeAmount
is changed to its negative. In other words, if fadeAmount is 5, then it is set to -5.
If it is -5, then it is set to 5. The next time through the loop, this change causes
brightness to change direction as well.

analogWrite() can change the PWM value very fast, so the delay at the end of
the sketch controls the speed of the fade. Try changing the value of the delay
and see how it changes the fading effect.
Result

You should see your LED brightness change gradually.

Arduino - Reading Analog Voltage

This example will show you how to read an analog input on analog pin 0. The
input is converted from analogRead() into voltage, and printed out to the serial
monitor of the Arduino Software (IDE).

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × 5K variable resistor (potentiometer)
 2 × Jumper
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.
Potentiometer

A potentiometer (or pot) is a simple electro-mechanical transducer. It converts

rotary or linear motion from the input operator into a change of resistance. This
change is (or can be) used to control anything from the volume of a hi-fi system
to the direction of a huge container ship.

The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat (essentially a variable

wirewound resistor). The variety of available pots is now quite astonishing, and
it can be very difficult for the beginner (in particular) to work out which type is
suitable for a given task. A few different pot types, which can all be used for the
same task makes the job harder.
The image on the left shows the standard schematic symbol of a pot. The image
on the right is the potentiometer.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code

/*
ReadAnalogVoltage
Reads an analog input on pin 0, converts it to voltage,
and prints the result to the serial monitor.
Graphical representation is available using serial plotter (Tools > Serial
Plotter menu)
Attach the center pin of a potentiometer to pin A0, and the outside pins to
+5V and ground.
*/
// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {
// initialize serial communication at 9600 bits per second:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {
// read the input on analog pin 0:
int sensorValue = analogRead(A0);
// Convert the analog reading (which goes from 0 - 1023) to a voltage (0 -
5V):
float voltage = sensorValue * (5.0 / 1023.0);
// print out the value you read:
Serial.println(voltage);
}
Code to Note

In the program or sketch given below, the first thing that you do in the setup
function is begin serial communications, at 9600 bits per second, between your
board and your computer with the line −

Serial.begin(9600);
In the main loop of your code, you need to establish a variable to store the
resistance value (which will be between 0 and 1023, perfect for an int datatype)
coming from your potentiometer −

int sensorValue = analogRead(A0);

To change the values from 0-1023 to a range that corresponds to the voltage, the
pin is reading, you need to create another variable, a float, and do a little
calculation. To scale the numbers between 0.0 and 5.0, divide 5.0 by 1023.0 and
multiply that by sensorValue −

float voltage= sensorValue * (5.0 / 1023.0);

Finally, you need to print this information to your serial window. You can do
this with the command Serial.println() in your last line of code −

Serial.println(voltage)
Now, open Serial Monitor in the Arduino IDE by clicking the icon on the right
side of the top green bar or pressing Ctrl+Shift+M.

Result
You will see a steady stream of numbers ranging from 0.0 - 5.0. As you turn the
pot, the values will change, corresponding to the voltage at pin A0.

Arduino - LED Bar Graph

This example shows you how to read an analog input at analog pin 0, convert
the values from analogRead() into voltage, and print it out to the serial monitor
of the Arduino Software (IDE).

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × 5k ohm variable resistor (potentiometer)
 2 × Jumper
 8 × LED or you can use (LED bar graph display as shown in the image
below)
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.
10 Segment LED Bar Graph

These 10-segment bar graph LEDs have many uses. With a compact footprint,
simple hookup, they are easy for prototype or finished products. Essentially,
they are 10 individual blue LEDs housed together, each with an individual
anode and cathode connection.

They are also available in yellow, red, and green colors.

Note − The pin out on these bar graphs may vary from what is listed on the
datasheet. Rotating the device 180 degrees will correct the change, making pin
11 the first pin in line.
Arduino Code

/*
LED bar graph
Turns on a series of LEDs based on the value of an analog sensor.
This is a simple way to make a bar graph display.
Though this graph uses 8LEDs, you can use any number by
changing the LED count and the pins in the array.
This method can be used to control any series of digital
outputs that depends on an analog input.
*/
// these constants won't change:
const int analogPin = A0; // the pin that the potentiometer is attached to
const int ledCount = 8; // the number of LEDs in the bar graph
int ledPins[] = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; // an array of pin numbers to which LEDs
are attached

void setup() {
// loop over the pin array and set them all to output:
for (int thisLed = 0; thisLed < ledCount; thisLed++) {
pinMode(ledPins[thisLed], OUTPUT);
}
}

void loop() {
// read the potentiometer:
int sensorReading = analogRead(analogPin);
// map the result to a range from 0 to the number of LEDs:
int ledLevel = map(sensorReading, 0, 1023, 0, ledCount);
// loop over the LED array:
for (int thisLed = 0; thisLed < ledCount; thisLed++) {
// if the array element's index is less than ledLevel,
// turn the pin for this element on:
if (thisLed < ledLevel) {
digitalWrite(ledPins[thisLed], HIGH);
}else { // turn off all pins higher than the ledLevel:
digitalWrite(ledPins[thisLed], LOW);
}
}
}
Code to Note

The sketch works like this: first, you read the input. You map the input value to
the output range, in this case ten LEDs. Then you set up a for-loop to iterate
over the outputs. If the output's number in the series is lower than the mapped
input range, you turn it on. If not, you turn it off.
Result

You will see the LED turn ON one by one when the value of analog reading
increases and turn OFF one by one while the reading is decreasing.

Arduino - Keyboard Logout

This example uses the Keyboard library to log you out of your user session on
your computer when pin 2 on the ARDUINO UNO is pulled to ground. The
sketch simulates the keypress in sequence of two or three keys at the same time
and after a short delay, it releases them.

Warning − When you use the Keyboard.print() command, Arduino takes over
your computer's keyboard. To ensure you do not lose control of your computer
while running a sketch with this function, set up a reliable control system before
you call Keyboard.print(). This sketch is designed to only send a Keyboard
command after a pin has been pulled to ground.
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Leonardo, Micro, or Due board
 1 × pushbutton
 1 × Jumper
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

For this example, you need to use Arduino IDE 1.6.7

Note − You must include the keyboard library in your Arduino library file.
Copy and paste the keypad library file inside the file with the name libraries
(highlighted) as shown in the following screenshot.

Arduino Code

/*
Keyboard logout
This sketch demonstrates the Keyboard library.
When you connect pin 2 to ground, it performs a logout.
It uses keyboard combinations to do this, as follows:
On Windows, CTRL-ALT-DEL followed by ALT-l
On Ubuntu, CTRL-ALT-DEL, and ENTER
On OSX, CMD-SHIFT-q
To wake: Spacebar.
Circuit:
* Arduino Leonardo or Micro
* wire to connect D2 to ground.
*/

#define OSX 0
#define WINDOWS 1
#define UBUNTU 2

#include "Keyboard.h"

// change this to match your platform:

int platform = WINDOWS;

void setup() {
// make pin 2 an input and turn on the
// pullup resistor so it goes high unless
// connected to ground:

pinMode(2, INPUT_PULLUP);
Keyboard.begin();
}

void loop() {
while (digitalRead(2) == HIGH) {
// do nothing until pin 2 goes low
delay(500);
}

delay(1000);

switch (platform) {
case OSX:
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_GUI);

// Shift-Q logs out:

Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_SHIFT);
Keyboard.press('Q');
delay(100);

// enter:
Keyboard.write(KEY_RETURN);
break;

case WINDOWS:
// CTRL-ALT-DEL:
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_CTRL);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press(KEY_DELETE);
delay(100);
Keyboard.releaseAll();
//ALT-l:
delay(2000);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press('l');
Keyboard.releaseAll();
break;

case UBUNTU:
// CTRL-ALT-DEL:
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_CTRL);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press(KEY_DELETE);

delay(1000);
Keyboard.releaseAll();

// Enter to confirm logout:

Keyboard.write(KEY_RETURN);
break;
}

// do nothing:
while (true);
}

Keyboard.releaseAll();

// enter:
Keyboard.write(KEY_RETURN);
break;
case WINDOWS:

// CTRL-ALT-DEL:
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_CTRL);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press(KEY_DELETE);
delay(100);
Keyboard.releaseAll();

//ALT-l:
delay(2000);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press('l');
Keyboard.releaseAll();
break;

case UBUNTU:
// CTRL-ALT-DEL:
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_CTRL);
Keyboard.press(KEY_LEFT_ALT);
Keyboard.press(KEY_DELETE);
delay(1000);
Keyboard.releaseAll();

// Enter to confirm logout:

Keyboard.write(KEY_RETURN);
break;
}
// do nothing:
while (true);
}
Code to Note

Before you upload the program to your board, make sure you assign the correct
OS you are currently using to the platform variable.

While the sketch is running, pressing the button will connect pin 2 to the ground
and the board will send the logout sequence to the USB connected PC.

Result

When you connect pin 2 to the ground, it performs a logout operation.

It uses the following keyboard combinations to logout −

 On Windows, CTRL-ALT-DEL followed by ALT-l

 On Ubuntu, CTRL-ALT-DEL, and ENTER
 On OSX, CMD-SHIFT-q
Arduino - Keyboard Message
In this example, when the button is pressed, a text string is sent to the computer
as keyboard input. The string reports the number of times the button is pressed.
Once you have the Leonardo programmed and wired up, open your favorite text
editor to see the results.

Warning − When you use the Keyboard.print() command, the Arduino takes
over your computer's keyboard. To ensure you do not lose control of your
computer while running a sketch with this function, set up a reliable control
system before you call Keyboard.print(). This sketch includes a pushbutton to
toggle the keyboard, so that it only runs after the button is pressed.
Components Required
You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Leonardo, Micro, or Due board
 1 × momentary pushbutton
 1 × 10k ohm resistor
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.
Arduino Code

/*
Keyboard Message test For the Arduino Leonardo and Micro,
Sends a text string when a button is pressed.
The circuit:
* pushbutton attached from pin 4 to +5V
* 10-kilohm resistor attached from pin 4 to ground
*/

#include "Keyboard.h"
const int buttonPin = 4; // input pin for pushbutton
int previousButtonState = HIGH; // for checking the state of a pushButton
int counter = 0; // button push counter

void setup() {
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT); // make the pushButton pin an input:
Keyboard.begin(); // initialize control over the keyboard:
}
void loop() {
int buttonState = digitalRead(buttonPin); // read the pushbutton:
if ((buttonState != previousButtonState)&& (buttonState == HIGH)) // and it's
currently pressed: {
// increment the button counter
counter++;
// type out a message
Keyboard.print("You pressed the button ");
Keyboard.print(counter);
Keyboard.println(" times.");
}
// save the current button state for comparison next time:
previousButtonState = buttonState;
}
Code to Note

Attach one terminal of the pushbutton to pin 4 on Arduino. Attach the other pin
to 5V. Use the resistor as a pull-down, providing a reference to the ground, by
attaching it from pin 4 to the ground.

Once you have programmed your board, unplug the USB cable, open a text
editor and put the text cursor in the typing area. Connect the board to your
computer through USB again and press the button to write in the document.

Result

By using any text editor, it will display the text sent via Arduino.
Arduino - Mouse Button Control
Using the Mouse library, you can control a computer's onscreen cursor with an
Arduino Leonardo, Micro, or Due.

This particular example uses five pushbuttons to move the onscreen cursor.
Four of the buttons are directional (up, down, left, right) and one is for a left
mouse click. Cursor movement from Arduino is always relative. Every time an
input is read, the cursor's position is updated relative to its current position.

Whenever one of the directional buttons is pressed, Arduino will move the
mouse, mapping a HIGH input to a range of 5 in the appropriate direction.

The fifth button is for controlling a left-click from the mouse. When the button
is released, the computer will recognize the event.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Leonardo, Micro or Due board
 5 × 10k ohm resistor
 5 × momentary pushbuttons
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

For this example, you need to use Arduino IDE 1.6.7

Arduino Code
/*
Button Mouse Control
For Leonardo and Due boards only .Controls the mouse from
five pushbuttons on an Arduino Leonardo, Micro or Due.
Hardware:
* 5 pushbuttons attached to D2, D3, D4, D5, D6
The mouse movement is always relative. This sketch reads
four pushbuttons, and uses them to set the movement of the mouse.
WARNING: When you use the Mouse.move() command, the Arduino takes
over your mouse! Make sure you have control before you use the mouse
commands.
*/

#include "Mouse.h"
// set pin numbers for the five buttons:
const int upButton = 2;
const int downButton = 3;
const int leftButton = 4;
const int rightButton = 5;
const int mouseButton = 6;
int range = 5; // output range of X or Y movement; affects movement speed
int responseDelay = 10; // response delay of the mouse, in ms

void setup() {
// initialize the buttons' inputs:
pinMode(upButton, INPUT);
pinMode(downButton, INPUT);
pinMode(leftButton, INPUT);
pinMode(rightButton, INPUT);
pinMode(mouseButton, INPUT);
// initialize mouse control:
Mouse.begin();
}

void loop() {
// read the buttons:
int upState = digitalRead(upButton);
int downState = digitalRead(downButton);
int rightState = digitalRead(rightButton);
int leftState = digitalRead(leftButton);
int clickState = digitalRead(mouseButton);
// calculate the movement distance based on the button states:
int xDistance = (leftState - rightState) * range;
int yDistance = (upState - downState) * range;
// if X or Y is non-zero, move:
if ((xDistance != 0) || (yDistance != 0)) {
Mouse.move(xDistance, yDistance, 0);
}

// if the mouse button is pressed:

if (clickState == HIGH) {
// if the mouse is not pressed, press it:
if (!Mouse.isPressed(MOUSE_LEFT)) {
Mouse.press(MOUSE_LEFT);
}
} else { // else the mouse button is not pressed:
// if the mouse is pressed, release it:
if (Mouse.isPressed(MOUSE_LEFT)) {
Mouse.release(MOUSE_LEFT);
}
}
// a delay so the mouse does not move too fast:
delay(responseDelay);
}
Code to Note

Connect your board to your computer with a micro-USB cable. The buttons are
connected to digital inputs from pins 2 to 6. Make sure you use 10k pull-down
resistors.

Arduino - Keyboard Serial

This example listens for a byte coming from the serial port. When received, the
board sends a keystroke back to the computer. The sent keystroke is one higher
than what is received, so if you send an "a" from the serial monitor, you will
receive a "b" from the board connected to the computer. A "1" will return a "2"
and so on.

Warning − When you use the Keyboard.print() command, the Leonardo,

Micro or Due board takes over your computer's keyboard. To ensure you do not
lose control of your computer while running a sketch with this function, set up a
reliable control system before you call Keyboard.print(). This sketch is designed
to only send a Keyboard command after the board has received a byte over the
serial port.
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Arduino Leonardo, Micro, or Due board

Procedure
Just connect your board to the computer using USB cable.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.
Notes − You must include the keypad library in your Arduino library file. Copy
and paste the keypad library file inside the file with the name ‘libraries’
highlighted with yellow color.

Arduino Code

/*
Keyboard test
For the Arduino Leonardo, Micro or Due Reads
a byte from the serial port, sends a keystroke back.
The sent keystroke is one higher than what's received, e.g. if you send a, you
get b, send
A you get B, and so forth.
The circuit:
* none
*/

#include "Keyboard.h"

void setup() {
// open the serial port:
Serial.begin(9600);
// initialize control over the keyboard:
Keyboard.begin();
}

void loop() {
// check for incoming serial data:
if (Serial.available() > 0) {
// read incoming serial data:
char inChar = Serial.read();
// Type the next ASCII value from what you received:
Keyboard.write(inChar + 1);
}
}
Code to Note
Once programed, open your serial monitor and send a byte. The board will reply
with a keystroke, that is one number higher.

Result

The board will reply with a keystroke that is one number higher on Arduino
IDE serial monitor when you send a byte.

Arduino - Humidity Sensor

In this section, we will learn how to interface our Arduino board with different
sensors. We will discuss the following sensors −

 Humidity sensor (DHT22)

 Temperature sensor (LM35)
 Water detector sensor (Simple Water Trigger)
 PIR SENSOR
 ULTRASONIC SENSOR
 GPS
Humidity Sensor (DHT22)

The DHT-22 (also named as AM2302) is a digital-output, relative humidity, and

temperature sensor. It uses a capacitive humidity sensor and a thermistor to
measure the surrounding air, and sends a digital signal on the data pin.

In this example, you will learn how to use this sensor with Arduino UNO. The
room temperature and humidity will be printed to the serial monitor.

The DHT-22 Sensor

The connections are simple. The first pin on the left to 3-5V power, the second
pin to the data input pin and the right-most pin to the ground.

Technical Details

 Power − 3-5V
 Max Current − 2.5mA
 Humidity − 0-100%, 2-5% accuracy
 Temperature − 40 to 80°C, ±0.5°C accuracy
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × DHT22
 1 × 10K ohm resistor
Procedure
Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code
// Example testing sketch for various DHT humidity/temperature sensors

#include "DHT.h"
#define DHTPIN 2 // what digital pin we're connected to
// Uncomment whatever type you're using!
//#define DHTTYPE DHT11 // DHT 11
#define DHTTYPE DHT22 // DHT 22 (AM2302), AM2321
//#define DHTTYPE DHT21 // DHT 21 (AM2301)
// Connect pin 1 (on the left) of the sensor to +5V
// NOTE: If using a board with 3.3V logic like an Arduino Due connect pin 1
// to 3.3V instead of 5V!
// Connect pin 2 of the sensor to whatever your DHTPIN is
// Connect pin 4 (on the right) of the sensor to GROUND
// Connect a 10K resistor from pin 2 (data) to pin 1 (power) of the sensor
// Initialize DHT sensor.
// Note that older versions of this library took an optional third parameter to
// tweak the timings for faster processors. This parameter is no longer needed
// as the current DHT reading algorithm adjusts itself to work on faster procs.
DHT dht(DHTPIN, DHTTYPE);

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("DHTxx test!");
dht.begin();
}

void loop() {
delay(2000); // Wait a few seconds between measurements
float h = dht.readHumidity();
// Reading temperature or humidity takes about 250 milliseconds!
float t = dht.readTemperature();
// Read temperature as Celsius (the default)
float f = dht.readTemperature(true);
// Read temperature as Fahrenheit (isFahrenheit = true)
// Check if any reads failed and exit early (to try again).
if (isnan(h) || isnan(t) || isnan(f)) {
Serial.println("Failed to read from DHT sensor!");
return;
}

// Compute heat index in Fahrenheit (the default)

float hif = dht.computeHeatIndex(f, h);
// Compute heat index in Celsius (isFahreheit = false)
float hic = dht.computeHeatIndex(t, h, false);
Serial.print ("Humidity: ");
Serial.print (h);
Serial.print (" %\t");
Serial.print ("Temperature: ");
Serial.print (t);
Serial.print (" *C ");
Serial.print (f);
Serial.print (" *F\t");
Serial.print ("Heat index: ");
Serial.print (hic);
Serial.print (" *C ");
Serial.print (hif);
Serial.println (" *F");
}
Code to Note

DHT22 sensor has four terminals (Vcc, DATA, NC, GND), which are connected
to the board as follows −
 DATA pin to Arduino pin number 2
 Vcc pin to 5 volt of Arduino board
 GND pin to the ground of Arduino board
 We need to connect 10k ohm resistor (pull up resistor) between the
DATA and the Vcc pin
Once hardware connections are done, you need to add DHT22 library to your
Arduino library file as described earlier.

Result

You will see the temperature and humidity display on serial port monitor which
is updated every 2 seconds.

Arduino - Temperature Sensor

The Temperature Sensor LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit
temperature devices with an output voltage linearly proportional to the
Centigrade temperature.

The LM35 device has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated
in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from
the output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 device does not
require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of
±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°C over a full −55°C to 150°C temperature
range.
Technical Specifications

 Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)

 Linear + 10-mV/°C scale factor
 0.5°C ensured accuracy (at 25°C)
 Rated for full −55°C to 150°C range
 Suitable for remote applications
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × LM35 sensor
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code

float temp;
int tempPin = 0;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
temp = analogRead(tempPin);
// read analog volt from sensor and save to variable temp
temp = temp * 0.48828125;
// convert the analog volt to its temperature equivalent
Serial.print("TEMPERATURE = ");
Serial.print(temp); // display temperature value
Serial.print("*C");
Serial.println();
delay(1000); // update sensor reading each one second
}
Code to Note

LM35 sensor has three terminals - Vs, Vout and GND. We will connect the
sensor as follows −
 Connect the +Vs to +5v on your Arduino board.
 Connect Vout to Analog0 or A0 on Arduino board.
 Connect GND with GND on Arduino.
The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) converts analog values into a digital
approximation based on the formula ADC Value = sample * 1024 / reference
voltage (+5v). So with a +5 volt reference, the digital approximation will be
equal to input voltage * 205.

Result

You will see the temperature display on the serial port monitor which is updated
every second.
Arduino - Water Detector / Sensor
Water sensor brick is designed for water detection, which can be widely used in
sensing rainfall, water level, and even liquid leakage.

Connecting a water sensor to an Arduino is a great way to detect a leak, spill,

flood, rain, etc. It can be used to detect the presence, the level, the volume
and/or the absence of water. While this could be used to remind you to water
your plants, there is a better Grove sensor for that. The sensor has an array of
exposed traces, which read LOW when water is detected.

In this chapter, we will connect the water sensor to Digital Pin 8 on Arduino,
and will enlist the very handy LED to help identify when the water sensor
comes into contact with a source of water.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × Water Sensor
 1 × led
 1 × 330 ohm resistor
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and hook up the components on the breadboard as
shown in the image given below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking on New.
Arduino Code

#define Grove_Water_Sensor 8 // Attach Water sensor to Arduino Digital Pin 8

#define LED 9 // Attach an LED to Digital Pin 9 (or use onboard LED)

void setup() {
pinMode(Grove_Water_Sensor, INPUT); // The Water Sensor is an Input
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT); // The LED is an Output
}

void loop() {
/* The water sensor will switch LOW when water is detected.
Get the Arduino to illuminate the LED and activate the buzzer
when water is detected, and switch both off when no water is present */
if( digitalRead(Grove_Water_Sensor) == LOW) {
digitalWrite(LED,HIGH);
}else {
digitalWrite(LED,LOW);
}
}
Code to Note

Water sensor has three terminals - S, Vout(+), and GND (-). Connect the sensor
as follows −
 Connect the +Vs to +5v on your Arduino board.
 Connect S to digital pin number 8 on Arduino board.
 Connect GND with GND on Arduino.
 Connect LED to digital pin number 9 in Arduino board.
When the sensor detects water, pin 8 on Arduino becomes LOW and then the
LED on Arduino is turned ON.

Result

You will see the indication LED turn ON when the sensor detects water.

Arduino - PIR Sensor

PIR sensors allow you to sense motion. They are used to detect whether a
human has moved in or out of the sensor’s range. They are commonly found in
appliances and gadgets used at home or for businesses. They are often referred
to as PIR, "Passive Infrared", "Pyroelectric", or "IR motion" sensors.

Following are the advantages of PIR Sensors −

 Small in size
 Wide lens range
 Easy to interface
 Inexpensive
 Low-power
 Easy to use
 Do not wear out
PIRs are made of pyroelectric sensors, a round metal can with a rectangular
crystal in the center, which can detect levels of infrared radiation. Everything
emits low-level radiation, and the hotter something is, the more radiation is
emitted. The sensor in a motion detector is split in two halves. This is to detect
motion (change) and not average IR levels. The two halves are connected so
that they cancel out each other. If one-half sees more or less IR radiation than
the other, the output will swing high or low.

PIRs have adjustable settings and have a header installed in the 3-pin
ground/out/power pads.
For many basic projects or products that need to detect when a person has left or
entered the area, PIR sensors are great. Note that PIRs do not tell you the
number of people around or their closeness to the sensor. The lens is often fixed
to a certain sweep at a distance and they are sometimes set off by the pets in the
house.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × PIR Sensor (MQ3)
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code

#define pirPin 2
int calibrationTime = 30;
long unsigned int lowIn;
long unsigned int pause = 5000;
boolean lockLow = true;
boolean takeLowTime;
int PIRValue = 0;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(pirPin, INPUT);
}

void loop() {
PIRSensor();
}

void PIRSensor() {
if(digitalRead(pirPin) == HIGH) {
if(lockLow) {
PIRValue = 1;
lockLow = false;
Serial.println("Motion detected.");
delay(50);
}
takeLowTime = true;
}
if(digitalRead(pirPin) == LOW) {
if(takeLowTime){
lowIn = millis();takeLowTime = false;
}
if(!lockLow && millis() - lowIn > pause) {
PIRValue = 0;
lockLow = true;
Serial.println("Motion ended.");
delay(50);
}
}
}
Code to Note

PIR sensor has three terminals - Vcc, OUT and GND. Connect the sensor as
follows −
 Connect the +Vcc to +5v on Arduino board.
 Connect OUT to digital pin 2 on Arduino board.
 Connect GND with GND on Arduino.
You can adjust the sensor sensitivity and delay time via two variable resistors
located at the bottom of the sensor board.

Once the sensor detects any motion, Arduino will send a message via the serial
port to say that a motion is detected. The PIR sense motion will delay for certain
time to check if there is a new motion. If there is no motion detected, Arduino
will send a new message saying that the motion has ended.

Result

You will see a message on your serial port if a motion is detected and another
message when the motion stops.

Arduino - Ultrasonic Sensor

The HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor uses SONAR to determine the distance of an
object just like the bats do. It offers excellent non-contact range detection with
high accuracy and stable readings in an easy-to-use package from 2 cm to 400
cm or 1” to 13 feet.

The operation is not affected by sunlight or black material, although

acoustically, soft materials like cloth can be difficult to detect. It comes
complete with ultrasonic transmitter and receiver module.
Technical Specifications

 Power Supply − +5V DC

 Quiescent Current − <2mA
 Working Current − 15mA
 Effectual Angle − <15°
 Ranging Distance − 2cm – 400 cm/1″ – 13ft
 Resolution − 0.3 cm
 Measuring Angle − 30 degree
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Breadboard
 1 × Arduino Uno R3
 1 × ULTRASONIC Sensor (HC-SR04)
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Arduino Code

const int pingPin = 7; // Trigger Pin of Ultrasonic Sensor

const int echoPin = 6; // Echo Pin of Ultrasonic Sensor

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Starting Serial Terminal
}

void loop() {
long duration, inches, cm;
pinMode(pingPin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
digitalWrite(pingPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(pingPin, LOW);
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);
inches = microsecondsToInches(duration);
cm = microsecondsToCentimeters(duration);
Serial.print(inches);
Serial.print("in, ");
Serial.print(cm);
Serial.print("cm");
Serial.println();
delay(100);
}

long microsecondsToInches(long microseconds) {

return microseconds / 74 / 2;
}
long microsecondsToCentimeters(long microseconds) {
return microseconds / 29 / 2;
}
Code to Note

The Ultrasonic sensor has four terminals - +5V, Trigger, Echo, and GND
connected as follows −

 Connect the +5V pin to +5v on your Arduino board.

 Connect Trigger to digital pin 7 on your Arduino board.
 Connect Echo to digital pin 6 on your Arduino board.
 Connect GND with GND on Arduino.
In our program, we have displayed the distance measured by the sensor in
inches and cm via the serial port.

Result

You will see the distance measured by sensor in inches and cm on Arduino
serial monitor.

Arduino - Connecting Switch

Pushbuttons or switches connect two open terminals in a circuit. This example
turns on the LED on pin 2 when you press the pushbutton switch connected to
pin 8.
Pull-down Resistor

Pull-down resistors are used in electronic logic circuits to ensure that inputs to
Arduino settle at expected logic levels if external devices are disconnected or
are at high-impedance. As nothing is connected to an input pin, it does not mean
that it is a logical zero. Pull down resistors are connected between the ground
and the appropriate pin on the device.

An example of a pull-down resistor in a digital circuit is shown in the following

figure. A pushbutton switch is connected between the supply voltage and a
microcontroller pin. In such a circuit, when the switch is closed, the micro-
controller input is at a logical high value, but when the switch is open, the pull-
down resistor pulls the input voltage down to the ground (logical zero value),
preventing an undefined state at the input.

The pull-down resistor must have a larger resistance than the impedance of the
logic circuit, or else it might pull the voltage down too much and the input
voltage at the pin would remain at a constant logical low value, regardless of the
switch position.
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Arduino UNO board

 1 × 330 ohm resistor
 1 × 4.7K ohm resistor (pull down)
 1 × LED
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.
Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking on New.

Arduino Code

// constants won't change. They're used here to

// set pin numbers:
const int buttonPin = 8; // the number of the pushbutton pin
const int ledPin = 2; // the number of the LED pin
// variables will change:
int buttonState = 0; // variable for reading the pushbutton status

void setup() {
// initialize the LED pin as an output:
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
// initialize the pushbutton pin as an input:
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT);
}

void loop() {
// read the state of the pushbutton value:
buttonState = digitalRead(buttonPin);
// check if the pushbutton is pressed.
// if it is, the buttonState is HIGH:
if (buttonState == HIGH) {
// turn LED on:
digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH);
} else {
// turn LED off:
digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW);
}
}
Code to Note
When the switch is open, (pushbutton is not pressed), there is no connection
between the two terminals of the pushbutton, so the pin is connected to the
ground (through the pull-down resistor) and we read a LOW. When the switch
is closed (pushbutton is pressed), it makes a connection between its two
terminals, connecting the pin to 5 volts, so that we read a HIGH.

Result

LED is turned ON when the pushbutton is pressed and OFF when it is released.

Arduino - DC Motor
In this chapter, we will interface different types of motors with the Arduino
board (UNO) and show you how to connect the motor and drive it from your
board.

There are three different type of motors −

 DC motor
 Servo motor
 Stepper motor
A DC motor (Direct Current motor) is the most common type of motor. DC
motors normally have just two leads, one positive and one negative. If you
connect these two leads directly to a battery, the motor will rotate. If you switch
the leads, the motor will rotate in the opposite direction.
Warning − Do not drive the motor directly from Arduino board pins. This may
damage the board. Use a driver Circuit or an IC.
We will divide this chapter into three parts −

 Just make your motor spin

 Control motor speed
 Control the direction of the spin of DC motor
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1x Arduino UNO board

 1x PN2222 Transistor
 1x Small 6V DC Motor
 1x 1N4001 diode
 1x 270 Ω Resistor
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.
Precautions

Take the following precautions while making the connections.

 First, make sure that the transistor is connected in the right way. The flat
side of the transistor should face the Arduino board as shown in the
arrangement.
 Second, the striped end of the diode should be towards the +5V power
line according to the arrangement shown in the image.
Spin ControlArduino Code

int motorPin = 3;

void setup() {
}

void loop() {
digitalWrite(motorPin, HIGH);
}
Code to Note

The transistor acts like a switch, controlling the power to the motor. Arduino
pin 3 is used to turn the transistor on and off and is given the name 'motorPin' in
the sketch.

Result

Motor will spin in full speed when the Arduino pin number 3 goes high.

Motor Speed Control

Following is the schematic diagram of a DC motor, connected to the Arduino

board.
Arduino Code

int motorPin = 9;

void setup() {
pinMode(motorPin, OUTPUT);
Serial.begin(9600);
while (! Serial);
Serial.println("Speed 0 to 255");
}

void loop() {
if (Serial.available()) {
int speed = Serial.parseInt();
if (speed >= 0 && speed <= 255) {
analogWrite(motorPin, speed);
}
}
}
Code to Note

The transistor acts like a switch, controlling the power of the motor. Arduino
pin 3 is used to turn the transistor on and off and is given the name 'motorPin' in
the sketch.

When the program starts, it prompts you to give the values to control the speed
of the motor. You need to enter a value between 0 and 255 in the Serial
Monitor.
In the 'loop' function, the command 'Serial.parseInt' is used to read the number
entered as text in the Serial Monitor and convert it into an 'int'. You can type
any number here. The 'if' statement in the next line simply does an analog write
with this number, if the number is between 0 and 255.

Result

The DC motor will spin with different speeds according to the value (0 to 250)
received via the serial port.

Spin Direction Control

To control the direction of the spin of DC motor, without interchanging the

leads, you can use a circuit called an H-Bridge. An H-bridge is an electronic
circuit that can drive the motor in both directions. H-bridges are used in many
different applications. One of the most common application is to control motors
in robots. It is called an H-bridge because it uses four transistors connected in
such a way that the schematic diagram looks like an "H."
We will be using the L298 H-Bridge IC here. The L298 can control the speed
and direction of DC motors and stepper motors, and can control two motors
simultaneously. Its current rating is 2A for each motor. At these currents,
however, you will need to use heat sinks.
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × L298 bridge IC
 1 × DC motor
 1 × Arduino UNO
 1 × breadboard
 10 × jumper wires
Procedure

Following is the schematic diagram of the DC motor interface to Arduino Uno

board.
The above diagram shows how to connect the L298 IC to control two motors.
There are three input pins for each motor, Input1 (IN1), Input2 (IN2), and
Enable1 (EN1) for Motor1 and Input3, Input4, and Enable2 for Motor2.

Since we will be controlling only one motor in this example, we will connect
the Arduino to IN1 (pin 5), IN2 (pin 7), and Enable1 (pin 6) of the L298 IC.
Pins 5 and 7 are digital, i.e. ON or OFF inputs, while pin 6 needs a pulse-width
modulated (PWM) signal to control the motor speed.

The following table shows which direction the motor will turn based on the
digital values of IN1 and IN2.

IN1 IN2 Motor Behavior

BRAKE
1 FORWARD

1 BACKWARD

1 1 BRAKE

Pin IN1 of the IC L298 is connected to pin 8 of Arduino while IN2 is connected
to pin 9. These two digital pins of Arduino control the direction of the motor.
The EN A pin of IC is connected to the PWM pin 2 of Arduino. This will
control the speed of the motor.

To set the values of Arduino pins 8 and 9, we have used the digitalWrite()
function, and to set the value of pin 2, we have to use the analogWrite()
function.

Connection Steps

 Connect 5V and the ground of the IC to 5V and the ground of Arduino,

respectively.
 Connect the motor to pins 2 and 3 of the IC.
 Connect IN1 of the IC to pin 8 of Arduino.
 Connect IN2 of the IC to pin 9 of Arduino.
 Connect EN1 of IC to pin 2 of Arduino.
 Connect SENS A pin of IC to the ground.
 Connect Arduino using Arduino USB cable and upload the program to
Arduino using Arduino IDE software.
 Provide power to Arduino board using power supply, battery, or USB
cable.
Arduino Code
const int pwm = 2 ; //initializing pin 2 as pwm
const int in_1 = 8 ;
const int in_2 = 9 ;
//For providing logic to L298 IC to choose the direction of the DC motor

void setup() {
pinMode(pwm,OUTPUT) ; //we have to set PWM pin as output
pinMode(in_1,OUTPUT) ; //Logic pins are also set as output
pinMode(in_2,OUTPUT) ;
}

void loop() {
//For Clock wise motion , in_1 = High , in_2 = Low
digitalWrite(in_1,HIGH) ;
digitalWrite(in_2,LOW) ;
analogWrite(pwm,255) ;
/* setting pwm of the motor to 255 we can change the speed of rotation
by changing pwm input but we are only using arduino so we are using highest
value to driver the motor */
//Clockwise for 3 secs
delay(3000) ;
//For brake
digitalWrite(in_1,HIGH) ;
digitalWrite(in_2,HIGH) ;
delay(1000) ;
//For Anti Clock-wise motion - IN_1 = LOW , IN_2 = HIGH
digitalWrite(in_1,LOW) ;
digitalWrite(in_2,HIGH) ;
delay(3000) ;
//For brake
digitalWrite(in_1,HIGH) ;
digitalWrite(in_2,HIGH) ;
delay(1000) ;
}
Result

The motor will run first in the clockwise (CW) direction for 3 seconds and then
counter-clockwise (CCW) for 3 seconds.

Arduino - Servo Motor

A Servo Motor is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be
positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As
long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the
angular position of the shaft. If the coded signal changes, the angular position of
the shaft changes. In practice, servos are used in radio-controlled airplanes to
position control surfaces like the elevators and rudders. They are also used in
radio-controlled cars, puppets, and of course, robots.

Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, have built-in
control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their size. A standard servo
such as the Futaba S-148 has 42 oz/inches of torque, which is strong for its size.
It also draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo,
therefore, does not consume much energy.

The guts of a servo motor is shown in the following picture. You can see the
control circuitry, the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3
wires that connect to the outside world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and
the white wire is the control wire.

Working of a Servo Motor

The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable
resistor, aka pot) connected to the output shaft. In the picture above, the pot can
be seen on the right side of the circuit board. This pot allows the control
circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo motor.

If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds
that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor until it is at a desired angle.
The output shaft of the servo is capable of traveling somewhere around 180
degrees. Usually, it is somewhere in the 210-degree range, however, it varies
depending on the manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an angular
motion of 0 to 180 degrees. It is mechanically not capable of turning any farther
due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear.
The power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel.
So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If
it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This
is called proportional control.
How Do You Communicate the Angle at Which the Servo Should Turn?

The control wire is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined by
the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse
Coded Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (.02
seconds). The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5
millisecond pulse, for example, will make the motor turn to the 90-degree
position (often called as the neutral position). If the pulse is shorter than 1.5
milliseconds, then the motor will turn the shaft closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse
is longer than 1.5 milliseconds, the shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Arduino UNO board

 1 × Servo Motor
 1 × ULN2003 driving IC
 1 × 10 KΩ Resistor
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking on New.
Arduino Code

/* Controlling a servo position using a potentiometer (variable resistor) */

#include <Servo.h>
Servo myservo; // create servo object to control a servo
int potpin = 0; // analog pin used to connect the potentiometer
int val; // variable to read the value from the analog pin

void setup() {
myservo.attach(9); // attaches the servo on pin 9 to the servo object
}

void loop() {
val = analogRead(potpin);
// reads the value of the potentiometer (value between 0 and 1023)
val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 180);
// scale it to use it with the servo (value between 0 and 180)
myservo.write(val); // sets the servo position according to the scaled value
delay(15);
}
Code to Note

Servo motors have three terminals - power, ground, and signal. The power wire
is typically red, and should be connected to the 5V pin on the Arduino. The
ground wire is typically black or brown and should be connected to one
terminal of ULN2003 IC (10 -16). To protect your Arduino board from damage,
you will need some driver IC to do that. Here we have used ULN2003 IC to
drive the servo motor. The signal pin is typically yellow or orange and should
be connected to Arduino pin number 9.

Connecting the Potentiometer

A voltage divider/potential divider are resistors in a series circuit that scale the
output voltage to a particular ratio of the input voltage applied. Following is the
circuit diagram −

$$V_{out} = (V_{in} \times R_{2})/ (R_{1} + R_{2})$$

Vout is the output potential, which depends on the applied input voltage (V in) and
resistors (R1 and R2) in the series. It means that the current flowing through
R1 will also flow through R2 without being divided. In the above equation, as
the value of R2 changes, the Vout scales accordingly with respect to the input
voltage, Vin.
Typically, a potentiometer is a potential divider, which can scale the output
voltage of the circuit based on the value of the variable resistor, which is scaled
using the knob. It has three pins: GND, Signal, and +5V as shown in the
diagram below −

Result

By changing the pot’s NOP position, servo motor will change its angle.

Arduino - Stepper Motor

A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless, synchronous motor, which
divides a full rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor,
which rotates continuously when a fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step
motor rotates in discrete step angles.

The Stepper Motors therefore are manufactured with steps per revolution of 12,
24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting in stepping angles of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and
1.8 degrees per step. The stepper motor can be controlled with or without
feedback.

Imagine a motor on an RC airplane. The motor spins very fast in one direction
or another. You can vary the speed with the amount of power given to the
motor, but you cannot tell the propeller to stop at a specific position.

Now imagine a printer. There are lots of moving parts inside a printer, including
motors. One such motor acts as the paper feed, spinning rollers that move the
piece of paper as ink is being printed on it. This motor needs to be able to move
the paper an exact distance to be able to print the next line of text or the next
line of an image.

There is another motor attached to a threaded rod that moves the print head back
and forth. Again, that threaded rod needs to be moved an exact amount to print
one letter after another. This is where the stepper motors come in handy.

How a Stepper Motor Works?

A regular DC motor spins in only direction whereas a Stepper motor can spin in
precise increments.

Stepper motors can turn an exact amount of degrees (or steps) as desired. This
gives you total control over the motor, allowing you to move it to an exact
location and hold that position. It does so by powering the coils inside the motor
for very short periods of time. The disadvantage is that you have to power the
motor all the time to keep it in the position that you desire.

All you need to know for now is that, to move a stepper motor, you tell it to
move a certain number of steps in one direction or the other, and tell it the speed
at which to step in that direction. There are numerous varieties of stepper
motors. The methods described here can be used to infer how to use other
motors and drivers which are not mentioned in this tutorial. However, it is
always recommended that you consult the datasheets and guides of the motors
and drivers specific to the models you have.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Arduino UNO board

 1 × small bipolar stepper Motor as shown in the image given below
 1 × LM298 driving IC
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.
Arduino Code

/* Stepper Motor Control */

#include <Stepper.h>
const int stepsPerRevolution = 90;
// change this to fit the number of steps per revolution
// for your motor
// initialize the stepper library on pins 8 through 11:
Stepper myStepper(stepsPerRevolution, 8, 9, 10, 11);

void setup() {
// set the speed at 60 rpm:
myStepper.setSpeed(5);
// initialize the serial port:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
// step one revolution in one direction:
Serial.println("clockwise");
myStepper.step(stepsPerRevolution);
delay(500);
// step one revolution in the other direction:
Serial.println("counterclockwise");
myStepper.step(-stepsPerRevolution);
delay(500);
}
Code to Note

This program drives a unipolar or bipolar stepper motor. The motor is attached
to digital pins 8 - 11 of Arduino.

Result

The motor will take one revolution in one direction, then one revolution in the
other direction.

Arduino - Tone Library

In this chapter, we will use the Arduino Tone Library. It is nothing but an
Arduino Library, which produces square-wave of a specified frequency (and
50% duty cycle) on any Arduino pin. A duration can optionally be specified,
otherwise the wave continues until the stop() function is called. The pin can be
connected to a piezo buzzer or a speaker to play the tones.

Warning − Do not connect the pin directly to any audio input. The voltage is
considerably higher than the standard line level voltages, and can damage sound
card inputs, etc. You can use a voltage divider to bring the voltage down.
Components Required
You will need the following components −

 1 × 8-ohm speaker
 1 × 1k resistor
 1 × Arduino UNO board
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.

Sketch

Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.
To make the pitches.h file, either click the button just below the serial monitor
icon and choose "New Tab", or use Ctrl+Shift+N.

Then paste the following code −

/*************************************************
* Public Constants
*************************************************/

#define NOTE_B0 31
#define NOTE_C1 33
#define NOTE_CS1 35
#define NOTE_D1 37
#define NOTE_DS1 39
#define NOTE_E1 41
#define NOTE_F1 44
#define NOTE_FS1 46
#define NOTE_G1 49
#define NOTE_GS1 52
#define NOTE_A1 55
#define NOTE_AS1 58
#define NOTE_B1 62
#define NOTE_C2 65
#define NOTE_CS2 69
#define NOTE_D2 73
#define NOTE_DS2 78
#define NOTE_E2 82
#define NOTE_F2 87
#define NOTE_FS2 93
#define NOTE_G2 98
#define NOTE_GS2 104
#define NOTE_A2 110
#define NOTE_AS2 117
#define NOTE_B2 123
#define NOTE_C3 131
#define NOTE_CS3 139
#define NOTE_D3 147
#define NOTE_DS3 156
#define NOTE_E3 165
#define NOTE_F3 175
#define NOTE_FS3 185
#define NOTE_G3 196
#define NOTE_GS3 208
#define NOTE_A3 220
#define NOTE_AS3 233
#define NOTE_B3 247
#define NOTE_C4 262
#define NOTE_CS4 277
#define NOTE_D4 294
#define NOTE_DS4 311
#define NOTE_E4 330
#define NOTE_F4 349
#define NOTE_FS4 370
#define NOTE_G4 392
#define NOTE_GS4 415
#define NOTE_A4 440
#define NOTE_AS4 466
#define NOTE_B4 494
#define NOTE_C5 523
#define NOTE_CS5 554
#define NOTE_D5 587
#define NOTE_DS5 622
#define NOTE_E5 659
#define NOTE_F5 698
#define NOTE_FS5 740
#define NOTE_G5 784
#define NOTE_GS5 831
#define NOTE_A5 880
#define NOTE_AS5 932
#define NOTE_B5 988
#define NOTE_C6 1047
#define NOTE_CS6 1109
#define NOTE_D6 1175
#define NOTE_DS6 1245
#define NOTE_E6 1319
#define NOTE_F6 1397
#define NOTE_FS6 1480
#define NOTE_G6 1568
#define NOTE_GS6 1661
#define NOTE_A6 1760
#define NOTE_AS6 1865
#define NOTE_B6 1976
#define NOTE_C7 2093
#define NOTE_CS7 2217
#define NOTE_D7 2349
#define NOTE_DS7 2489
#define NOTE_E7 2637
#define NOTE_F7 2794
#define NOTE_FS7 2960
#define NOTE_G7 3136
#define NOTE_GS7 3322
#define NOTE_A7 3520
#define NOTE_AS7 3729
#define NOTE_B7 3951
#define NOTE_C8 4186
#define NOTE_CS8 4435
#define NOTE_D8 4699
#define NOTE_DS8 4978
Save the above given code as pitches.h
Arduino Code
#include "pitches.h"
// notes in the melody:
int melody[] = {
NOTE_C4, NOTE_G3,NOTE_G3, NOTE_GS3, NOTE_G3,0, NOTE_B3,
NOTE_C4};
// note durations: 4 = quarter note, 8 = eighth note, etc.:

int noteDurations[] = {
4, 8, 8, 4,4,4,4,4
};

void setup() {
// iterate over the notes of the melody:
for (int thisNote = 0; thisNote < 8; thisNote++) {
// to calculate the note duration, take one second
// divided by the note type.
//e.g. quarter note = 1000 / 4, eighth note = 1000/8, etc.
int noteDuration = 1000/noteDurations[thisNote];
tone(8, melody[thisNote],noteDuration);
//pause for the note's duration plus 30 ms:
delay(noteDuration +30);
}
}

void loop() {
// no need to repeat the melody.
}
Code to Note
The code uses an extra file, pitches.h. This file contains all the pitch values for
typical notes. For example, NOTE_C4 is middle C. NOTE_FS4 is F sharp, and
so forth. This note table was originally written by Brett Hagman, on whose
work the tone() command was based. You may find it useful whenever you
want to make musical notes.

Result

You will hear musical notes saved in the pitches.h. file.

Arduino - Wireless Communication

The wireless transmitter and receiver modules work at 315 Mhz. They can
easily fit into a breadboard and work well with microcontrollers to create a very
simple wireless data link. With one pair of transmitter and receiver, the modules
will only work communicating data one-way, however, you would need two
pairs (of different frequencies) to act as a transmitter/receiver pair.

Note − These modules are indiscriminate and receive a fair amount of noise.
Both the transmitter and receiver work at common frequencies and do not have
IDs.
Receiver Module Specifications

 Product Model − MX-05V

 Operating voltage − DC5V
 Quiescent Current − 4mA
 Receiving frequency − 315Mhz
 Receiver sensitivity − -105DB
 Size − 30 * 14 * 7mm
Transmitter Module Specifications

 Product Model − MX-FS-03V

 Launch distance − 20-200 meters (different voltage, different results)
 Operating voltage − 3.5-12V
 Dimensions − 19 * 19mm
 Operating mode − AM
 Transfer rate − 4KB / S
 Transmitting power − 10mW
 Transmitting frequency − 315Mhz
 An external antenna − 25cm ordinary multi-core or single-core line
 Pinout from left → right − (DATA; VCC; GND)
Components Required

You will need the following components −

 2 × Arduino UNO board

 1 × Rf link transmitter
 1 × Rf link receiver
Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.

Sketch
Open the Arduino IDE software on your computer. Coding in the Arduino
language will control your circuit. Open a new sketch File by clicking New.

Note − You must include the keypad library in your Arduino library file. Copy
and paste the VirtualWire.lib file in the libraries folder as highlighted in the
screenshot given below.
Arduino Code for Transmitter

//simple Tx on pin D12

#include <VirtualWire.h>
char *controller;

void setup() {
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);
vw_set_ptt_inverted(true);
vw_set_tx_pin(12);
vw_setup(4000);// speed of data transfer Kbps
}

void loop() {
controller="1" ;
vw_send((uint8_t *)controller, strlen(controller));
vw_wait_tx(); // Wait until the whole message is gone
digitalWrite(13,1);
delay(2000);
controller="0" ;
vw_send((uint8_t *)controller, strlen(controller));
vw_wait_tx(); // Wait until the whole message is gone
digitalWrite(13,0);
delay(2000);
}
Code to Note

This is a simple code. First, it will send character '1' and after two seconds it
will send character '0' and so on.
Arduino Code for Receiver

//simple Rx on pin D12

#include <VirtualWire.h>

void setup() {
vw_set_ptt_inverted(true); // Required for DR3100
vw_set_rx_pin(12);
vw_setup(4000); // Bits per sec
pinMode(5, OUTPUT);
vw_rx_start(); // Start the receiver PLL running
}

void loop() {
uint8_t buf[VW_MAX_MESSAGE_LEN];
uint8_t buflen = VW_MAX_MESSAGE_LEN;
if (vw_get_message(buf, &buflen)) // Non-blocking {
if(buf[0]=='1') {
digitalWrite(5,1);
}
if(buf[0]=='0') {
digitalWrite(5,0);
}
}
}
Code to Note

The LED connected to pin number 5 on the Arduino board is turned ON when
character '1' is received and turned OFF when character '0' received.
Arduino - Network Communication
The CC3000 WiFi module from Texas Instruments is a small silver package,
which finally brings easy-to-use, affordable WiFi functionality to your Arduino
projects.

It uses SPI for communication (not UART!) so you can push data as fast as you
want or as slow as you want. It has a proper interrupt system with IRQ pin so
you can have asynchronous connections. It supports 802.11b/g,
open/WEP/WPA/WPA2 security, TKIP & AES. A built-in TCP/IP stack with a
"BSD socket" interface supports TCP and UDP in both the client and the server
mode.

Components Required

You will need the following components −

 1 × Arduino Uno
 1 × Adafruit CC3000 breakout board
 1 × 5V relay
 1 × Rectifier diode
 1 × LED
 1 × 220 Ohm resistor
 1 × Breadboard and some jumper wires
For this project, you just need the usual Arduino IDE, the Adafruit’s CC3000
library, and the CC3000 MDNS library. We are also going to use the aREST
library to send commands to the relay via WiFi.

Procedure

Follow the circuit diagram and make the connections as shown in the image
given below.

The hardware configuration for this project is very easy.

 Connect the IRQ pin of the CC3000 board to pin number 3 of the
Arduino board.
 VBAT to pin 5, and CS to pin 10.
 Connect the SPI pins to Arduino board: MOSI, MISO, and CLK to pins
11, 12, and 13, respectively.
 Vin is connected to Arduino 5V, and GND to GND.
Let us now connect the relay.
After placing the relay on the breadboard, you can start identifying the two
important parts on your relay: the coil part which commands the relay, and the
switch part where we will attach the LED.

 First, connect pin number 8 of Arduino board to one pin of the coil.
 Connect the other pin to the ground of Arduino board.
You also have to place the rectifier diode (anode connected to the ground pin)
over the pins of the coil to protect your circuit when the relay is switching.

 Connect the +5V of Arduino board to the common pin of the relay’s
switch.
 Finally, connect one of the other pin of the switch (usually, the one which
is not connected when the relay is off) to the LED in series with the 220
Ohm resistor, and connect the other side of the LED to the ground of
Arduino board.
Testing Individual Components

You can test the relay with the following sketch −

const int relay_pin = 8; // Relay pin

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(relay_pin,OUTPUT);
}

void loop() {
// Activate relay
digitalWrite(relay_pin, HIGH);
// Wait for 1 second
delay(1000);
// Deactivate relay
digitalWrite(relay_pin, LOW);
// Wait for 1 second
delay(1000);
}
Code to Note

The code is self-explanatory. You can just upload it to the board and the relay
will switch states every second, and the LED will switch ON and OFF
accordingly.

Adding WiFi Connectivity

Let us now control the relay wirelessly using the CC3000 WiFi chip. The
software for this project is based on the TCP protocol. However, for this project,
Arduino board will be running a small web server, so we can “listen” for
commands coming from the computer. We will first take care of Arduino
sketch, and then we will see how to write the server-side code and create a nice
interface.

First, the Arduino sketch. The goal here is to connect to your WiFi network,
create a web server, check if there are incoming TCP connections, and then
change the state of the relay accordingly.

Important Parts of the Code

#include <Adafruit_CC3000.h>
#include <SPI.h>
#include <CC3000_MDNS.h>
#include <Ethernet.h>
#include <aREST.h>
You need to define inside the code what is specific to your configuration, i.e.
Wi-Fi name and password, and the port for TCP communications (we have used
80 here).

// WiFi network (change with your settings!)

#define WLAN_SSID "yourNetwork" // cannot be longer than 32 characters!
#define WLAN_PASS "yourPassword"
#define WLAN_SECURITY WLAN_SEC_WPA2 // This can be
WLAN_SEC_UNSEC, WLAN_SEC_WEP,
// WLAN_SEC_WPA or WLAN_SEC_WPA2

// The port to listen for incoming TCP connections

#define LISTEN_PORT 80
We can then create the CC3000 instance, server and aREST instance −

// Server instance
Adafruit_CC3000_Server restServer(LISTEN_PORT); // DNS responder
instance
MDNSResponder mdns; // Create aREST instance
aREST rest = aREST();
In the setup() part of the sketch, we can now connect the CC3000 chip to the
network −

cc3000.connectToAP(WLAN_SSID, WLAN_PASS, WLAN_SECURITY);

How will the computer know where to send the data? One way would be to run
the sketch once, then get the IP address of the CC3000 board, and modify the
server code again. However, we can do better, and that is where the CC3000
MDNS library comes into play. We will assign a fixed name to our CC3000
board with this library, so we can write down this name directly into the server
code.

This is done with the following piece of code −

if (!mdns.begin("arduino", cc3000)) {
while(1);
}
We also need to listen for incoming connections.

restServer.begin();
Next, we will code the loop() function of the sketch that will be continuously
executed. We first have to update the mDNS server.

mdns.update();
The server running on Arduino board will wait for the incoming connections
and handle the requests.

Adafruit_CC3000_ClientRef client = restServer.available();

rest.handle(client);
It is now quite easy to test the projects via WiFi. Make sure you updated the
sketch with your own WiFi name and password, and upload the sketch to your
Arduino board. Open your Arduino IDE serial monitor, and look for the IP
address of your board.

Let us assume for the rest here that it is something like 192.168.1.103.

Then, simply go to your favorite web browser, and type −

192.168.1.103/digital/8/1

You should see that your relay automatically turns ON.

Building the Relay Interface

We will now code the interface of the project. There will be two parts here: an
HTML file containing the interface, and a client-side Javascript file to handle
the clicks on the interface. The interface here is based on the aREST.js project,
which was made to easily control WiFi devices from your computer.
Let us first see the HTML file, called interface.html. The first part consists
importing all the required libraries for the interface −

<head>
<meta charset = utf-8 />
<title> Relay Control </title>
<link rel = "stylesheet" type = "text/css"
href =
"https://maxcdn.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/3.3.4/css/bootstrap.min.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type = "text/css" href = "style.css">
<script type = "text/javascript"
src = "https://code.jquery.com/jquery-2.1.4.min.js"></script>
<script type = "text/javascript"
src = "https://cdn.rawgit.com/Foliotek/AjaxQ/master/ajaxq.js"></script>
<script type = "text/javascript"
src =
"https://cdn.rawgit.com/marcoschwartz/aREST.js/master/aREST.js"></script>
<script type = "text/javascript"
src = "script.js"></script>
</head>
Then, we define two buttons inside the interface, one to turn the relay on, and
the other to turn it off again.

<div class = 'container'>

<h1>Relay Control</h1>
<div class = 'row'>
<div class = "col-md-1">Relay</div>
<div class = "col-md-2">
<button id = 'on' class = 'btn btn-block btn-success'>On</button>
</div>
<div class = "col-md-2">
<button id = 'off' class = 'btn btn-block btn-danger'>On</button>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Now, we also need a client-side Javascript file to handle the clicks on the
buttons. We will also create a device that we will link to the mDNS name of our
Arduino device. If you changed this in Arduino code, you will need to modify it
here as well.

// Create device
var device = new Device("arduino.local");
// Button

$('#on').click(function() {
device.digitalWrite(8, 1);
});

$('#off').click(function() {
device.digitalWrite(8, 0);
});
The complete code for this project can be found on the GitHub repository. Go
into the interface folder, and simply open the HTML file with your favorite
browser. You should see something similar inside your browser −

Try to click a button on the web interface; it should change the state of the relay
nearly instantly.

If you managed to get it working, bravo! You just built a Wi-Fi-controlled light
switch. Of course, you can control much more than lights with this project. Just
make sure your relay supports the power required for the device you want to
control, and you are good to go.

Programming fundamentals (C language)

Project 1: Simple LED Program

Project 2: LED Blinking

/*

* Blink - makes a single LED blink on and off

*/

void setup() {

pinMode(13, OUTPUT); // pin 13 - change value if you have LED on diff pin

void loop() {

digitalWrite(13, HIGH); // set pin 13 to high voltage, turning LED on

delay(1000); // wait 1000 milliseconds, or one second.

digitalWrite(13, LOW); // set pin 13 to low voltage, or zero. LED off.

delay(1000); //wait one second before starting the loop again.

Project 3: RGB Interfacing & Traffic Light Control

Project 4: IR Sensor, DC Motor Interfacing & Automated Door Opening

System

Project 5: Controlling Direction of Motor (Forward, Reverse)

Project 6: LCD Interfacing

Project 7: Interfacing Bluetooth Module

Project 8: Control Electronics Devices using Android Smartphone &
Arduino

Project 9: Voice Controlled Home Automation System.

Project 10: Gesture Controlled Home Automation.

Project 11: Interfacing 7 Segment Display

Project 12: Interfacing Keypad with Arduino

Project 13: Interfacing Analog Sensor

Project 14: Interfacing Temperature & Humidity Sensor

Robot Assembling

Robot 1: Line Follower Robot

Robot 2: Obstacle Avoider Robot

Robot 3: Android App Based Controlled Robot over Bluetooth

Robot 4: Voice Controlled Robot

Robot 5: Gesture Controlled Robot using Android Smartphone

Robot 6: Edge Avoider Robot