Digital Electronics and Computer Architecture (DECA)

Course Code: 24CSE0103

Introduction to Basic Electronics (Unit-1):

(Complete Unit)
Introduction to Basic Electronics, Digital Electronics and Computer
Architecture, Active and passive components, Ohm’s law, Concept and various types of
Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and their series and parallel combinations, n-type and p-type
semiconductor, P-N Junction Diode, V-I Characteristics, Ideal Diode, Diode application as a
switch, Rectifiers: Half Wave, Full Wave and Bridge Rectifiers, Efficiency, Zener Diode, Light
Emitting Diode, Bipolar Transistors : NPN and PNP transistor.

B.E.-CSE I Semester

Department of Interdisciplinary Courses in Engineering (DICE)

&
Department of Computer Science and Engineering 1
Introduction to Basic Electronics

• Electronics is a branch of science and technology that deals with the behavior and
control of electrons. It is a fundamental field that has revolutionized the way we live and
has become an integral part of our everyday lives.

• At its core, electronics involves the study and manipulation of electrical circuits. An
electrical circuit consists of various components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors,
diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits, which work together to control the flow of
electric current.

2
Cont….

3
Cont…

4
Digital Electronics and Computer Architecture
• Digital electronics and computer
architecture are two closely related
fields that play a fundamental role in
the design and operation of modern
computing systems.
• Digital electronics is a branch of
electronics that deals with the
manipulation and control of digital
signals. It involves the use of logic
gates and other digital circuits to
perform various operations on
binary data. Digital electronics is the
foundation of all modern electronic
devices, including computers,
smartphones, and digital cameras.
Fig. 1. Block diagram of Digital computer

5
Digital Electronics and Computer Architecture
• The building blocks of digital
electronics are logic gates,
which are electronic
components that perform basic
logical operations, such as
AND, OR, and NOT. These
gates are used to design more
complex circuits, such as
adders, multiplexers, and flip-
flops, which form the
backbone of digital systems.
The behavior of these circuits
can be described using Fig. 2. Analogy of Digital computers

Boolean algebra, a
mathematical framework for
working with binary variables
and logical operations.

6
Digital Electronics and Computer Architecture

• Computer architecture, on the other

hand, focuses on the structure and
organization of computer systems. It
involves the design of hardware
components, such as processors,
memory modules, and input/output
devices, as well as the development of
instruction sets and system-level
protocols. Computer architects strive
to optimize the performance, power
efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of
computer systems.

Fig. 3. Computer architecture

7
Digital Electronics and Computer Architecture

• One of the key concepts in

computer architecture is the
von Neumann architecture,
which is the basis for most
modern computers. This
architecture consists of a
central processing unit (CPU)
that executes instructions
stored in memory. It also
includes input and output units,
as well as a system bus that
facilitates communication
between different components.
The von Neumann architecture Fig. 4. Von Neuman Computer architecture
provides a framework for the
sequential execution of
instructions, which is the
foundation of general-purpose 8
computing.
Cont…

• In addition to the von Neumann architecture, computer architects also

explore alternative architectures, such as parallel and distributed systems.
These architectures leverage the power of multiple processors or
computers to solve complex problems more efficiently. Parallel
processing, for example, involves dividing a task into smaller subtasks
that can be executed simultaneously, leading to faster computation.

9
Active and passive components
• Active components are capable of amplifying, switching, or controlling the flow of
electrical signals. These components require a power source to function properly.
Transistors, integrated circuits (ICs), operational amplifiers (op-amps), and diodes are
examples of active components. Transistors, such as bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
and field-effect transistors (FETs), are widely used in amplification and switching
applications. ICs, which can contain multiple transistors and other circuit elements, are the
building blocks of many electronic devices. Op-amps are used for signal amplification and
filtering in various applications, including audio systems and instrumentation. Diodes,
with their ability to allow current flow in one direction, are commonly used in rectification
and switching circuits.
• Passive components, on the other hand, do not require an external power source to
operate. They do not actively control or amplify electrical signals but instead respond to
changes in voltage or current. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers are
examples of passive components. Resistors are used to limit current flow, control voltage
levels, and divide voltages in circuits. Capacitors store and release electrical energy,
making them essential in filtering, timing, and energy storage applications. Inductors store
energy in a magnetic field and are used in applications such as filtering, energy storage,
and signal coupling. Transformers, with their ability to transfer electrical energy from one
circuit to another, are commonly used in power supply systems.

10
.
Active and passive components

Fig. 5. Active and passive components

11
Ohm's Law
• Ohm's Law is a fundamental concept in electronics that relates the current
flowing through a conductor to the voltage applied across it and the resistance
of the conductor. It provides a mathematical relationship between these three
quantities and is widely used in the analysis and design of electrical circuits.
• According to Ohm's Law, the current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage applied across it and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the conductor. This relationship can be expressed using the
equation:
I=V/R
where I is the current in amperes (A), V is the voltage in volts (V), and R is
the resistance in ohms (Ω).
• Ohm's Law can also be rearranged to solve for voltage or resistance. For
example:
V=I*R
This equation allows us to calculate the voltage drop across a resistor
given the current flowing through it and its resistance, or to determine the
resistance needed to achieve a desired voltage drop at a given current.
12
Ohm's Law

Fig. 6. verification of Ohm’s Law

13
Various Types of Resistors, Capacitors,
Inductors
• Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are fundamental electronic
components used in various electrical circuits. Understanding different
types of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, as well as their series and
parallel combinations, is crucial for circuit design and analysis.
• They play a crucial role in regulating the flow of current, storing electrical
energy, and creating magnetic fields.

14
Resistors
• Resistors are passive two-terminal electrical components that resist the flow of
electric current. They are used to control the amount of current flowing through a
circuit or to create specific voltage drops. There are several types of resistors,
including:
• 1. Carbon Composition Resistors: These resistors are made of a mixture of carbon
powder and a binder. They are known for their high stability and reliability.
• 2. Metal Film Resistors: Metal film resistors are constructed by depositing a thin
layer of metal alloy on a ceramic or plastic substrate. They offer low noise levels,
high precision, and good stability.
• 3. Wire wound Resistors: These resistors are made by winding a resistance wire
around a ceramic or fiberglass core. They have high power handling capabilities
and are suitable for high-current applications.

15
Cont…

16
Color Coding of Resistors

17
Resistor in parallel and series

• When resistors are connected in parallel, they are placed side by side,
with both ends of each resistor connected to the same points in the circuit.
In this configuration, the voltage across each resistor is the same, while
the total current flowing through the resistors is divided among them. The
total resistance of resistors in parallel can be calculated using the formula:

Fig. 7. Resistors in parallel 18

• Connecting resistors in series involves placing them in a sequential
manner, with one end of each resistor connected to the end of the previous
resistor. In this arrangement, the total resistance of the resistors is simply
the sum of their individual resistances. The total resistance of resistors in
series can be calculated by adding the resistances:

Fig. 8. Resistors in series

19
Capacitors
• Capacitors are passive electronic components that store and release electrical
energy. They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating
material called a dielectric. Different types of capacitors include:
• 1. Ceramic Capacitors: Ceramic capacitors are small, inexpensive, and widely
used in electronic circuits. They provide high capacitance values and are
suitable for high-frequency applications.
• 2. Electrolytic Capacitors: Electrolytic capacitors are polarized capacitors that
use an electrolyte as the dielectric. They offer high capacitance values and are
commonly used in power supply circuits.
• 3. Film Capacitors: Film capacitors are made by depositing a thin film of metal
on a plastic or ceramic substrate. They have excellent self-healing properties and
are suitable for high-temperature applications.

20
Capacitors

21
Cont…
.

22
Capacitors In parallel
• when capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is simply
the sum of the individual capacitances:
• C_total = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
• In a parallel configuration, the total capacitance increases, while the
voltage across each capacitor remains the same. This means that when
capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall capacitance is greater than
any of the individual capacitances.

Fig. 9. capacitors in Parallel

23
Capacitors In series
• When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance (C_total) is
calculated using the following formula:
• 1/C_total = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + ...
• In other words, the reciprocal of the total capacitance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. This means that when
capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance decreases. It is
important to note that the voltage across each capacitor in a series
configuration is the same.

Fig. 10. capacitors in Serial

24
Inductors
• Inductors, also known as coils or chokes, are passive components that
store energy in a magnetic field when current flows through them. They
are commonly used in filters, oscillators, and power supply circuits.
Different types of inductors include:
• 1. Air Core Inductors: Air core inductors have a coil wound around a non-
magnetic core. They offer high inductance values and low resistance but
are susceptible to interference.
• 2. Iron Core Inductors: Iron core inductors have a coil wound around a
ferromagnetic core, such as iron or ferrite. They provide high inductance
values and are widely used in power applications.
• 3. Toroidal Inductors: Toroidal inductors have a coil wound around a
donut-shaped core. They offer high inductance values, low
electromagnetic interference, and compact size.

25
Series Connection
• When inductors are connected in series, their total inductance is the sum of
individual inductances. This can be represented by the equation:
• Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + Ln
• In a series connection, the current passing through each inductor is the same.
However, the total voltage across the series combination is divided among the
inductors based on their individual inductance values.
• It is important to note that inductors in series do not share the same magnetic
field. Instead, the magnetic fields generated by each inductor add up, resulting in
increased total magnetic energy.

Fig. 11.inductors in series

26
Parallel Connection

• When inductors are connected in parallel, their total inductance can be

calculated using the following equation:
• 1/Ltotal = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 + ... + 1/Ln
• In a parallel connection, the voltage across each inductor is the same.
However, the total current passing through the combination is divided
among the individual inductors based on their individual inductance
values.

Fig. 12.inductors in parallel

27
Series-Parallel Connections
Resistors

28
Cont…
Q. 1 Calculate the equivalent resistance for the circuit which is connected to 24 V battery
and also find the potential difference across 4 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in the circuit.

29
Cont…
Q. 2 Calculate the equivalent resistance in the following circuit and also find the current
I, I1 and I2 in the given circuit.

30
Cont…
Q. 3 Calculate the equivalent resistance between A and B in the given circuit.

31
• Capacitors

32
Cont…
• Inductor

33
Semiconductors

34
Types of Semiconductor

35
Intrinsic Semiconductor

36
Intrinsic Semiconductor

37
Extrinsic Semiconductor

38
Semiconductor

39
P and n type semiconductors

40
P and n type semiconductors

Trivalent Impurities for p-type Pentavalent Impurities for n-type

semiconductor: Aluminium, Boron, semiconductor: Pentavalent impurities
Gallium, and Indium are added in the p- like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus and
type semiconductor Bismuth

41
Resistance Effects of Doping

• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will

be lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the
material will be low and current will flow freely.

• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be

fewer free electrons so the resistance will be high
and less current will flow.

• By controlling the doping amount, virtually any

resistance can be achieved.
Current Flow in N-type
Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a
positive terminal that attracts the
free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls them
away from their atoms leaving the
atoms charged positively.

• Electrons from the negative

terminal of the supply enter the
semiconductor material and are
attracted by the positive charge of
the atoms missing one of their
electrons.

• Current (electrons) flows from the

positive terminal to the negative
terminal.
Current Flow in P-type
Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative
supply terminal are attracted to
the positive holes and fill them.

• The positive terminal of the

supply pulls the electrons from
the holes leaving the holes to
attract more electrons.

• Inside the semiconductor current

flow is actually by the movement
of the holes from positive to
negative.
In Summary

• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent insulator.

• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to add or
subtract electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons with
vacancies called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the lower the
resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor material can be
made as conductive as desired.
PN Junction Diode
A p–n junction is a boundary or interface between two types of semiconductor
material, p-type and n-type, inside a single crystal of semiconductor. It is created
by doping.

46
Formation of depletion layer

At the interface of two semiconductors the excess electrons in the

combine with the excess holes in the P region.
N region loses its electrons and have immobile positive ions.
P region accepts the electrons and have immobile negative ions.
At one point , the migratory action is stopped. And depletion region
is created.

47
PN Junction Diode
 An additional electrons from the N region are repelled by the net negative
charge of the p region.
 An additional holes from the P region are repelled by the net positive charge of
the n region.
 Depletion layer : The formation of a narrow region on either side of the junction
which becomes free from mobile charge carriers is called depletion layer.
 The depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge carriers but only fixed
and immobile ions.
 Its width depends upon the doping level.

48
PN Junction Diode
The electrons in the N region have to climb the potential hill in
order to reach the P region

Electrons trying to cross from the N region to P region experience

a retarding field of the battery and therefore repelled. Similarly
for holes from P region. Thus, this potential is called built-in
potential. tial barrier

49
PN Junction Diode

50
Forward Biased PN Junction

51
PN Junction Diode
 If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the
PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they
require to cross the junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN
junction is decreased.
 Once the junction is crossed, a number of electrons and the holes will recombine .
 For each hole in the P section that combines with an electron from the N section, a
covalent bond breaks and an electron is liberated which enters the positive terminal
 Thus creating an electron hole pair.
 Current in the N region is carried by electrons
 Current in the P region is carried by holes.
 By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled
away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This
has the effect of increasing or decreasing the effective resistance of the junction
itself allowing or blocking the flow of current through the diodes pn-junction.

52
Reverse Biased PN Junction

53
V-I Characteristics

54
PN Junction Diode
VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and
current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is
taken along the y-axis. With the help of the curve, we can understand that there are
three regions in which the diode works.

Zero bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias

When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage
applied and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the
flow of current.

55
PN Junction Diode
• When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is
connected to the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal of the external voltage.

• When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential
barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium
diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential barriers decrease, and there is a
flow of current.

• When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve
obtained is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the
potential barrier.

• Once the diode overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally,
and the curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases, and the curve
obtained is linear.
56
PN Junction Diode
• When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-
type is connected to the negative terminal while the n-type is
connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This
results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation
current flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in
the junction.
• When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will
have increased kinetic energy which affects the majority charges.
This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also
destroy the diode. 57
IdealDiode

58
Diode as Switch

An ideal diode just functions as a switch. When an ordinary switch

is turned on or closed, both its contacts combine together, due to
which its resistance becomes zero. However, when the switch is
turned off (open), an infinite resistance takes place between
contacts due to the opening of the contacts.
Exactly the same way, when a diode is forward biased, it functions
as a closed switch i.e. it practically becomes a diode short circuit.
59
Diode as Switch
• However, when a diode is reversed bias, it offers unlimited resistance, due to
which the flow of currents stops completely from within it. Thus, an ideal
diode (a diode with no forward drop, nor a reverse flow of current, further
with no breakdown on such a diode) is a device or instrument that, just like a
switch, acts as a short circuit in the forward direction and as an open circuit in
the reverse direction.
• Thus, the ideal diode is considered as a bi-stable or two-directional switch,
which closes in the forward direction and opens in the reverse direction. Thus,
it has two conditions i.e. on or off. In case of high frequency, as a diode turns
on or off (due to a rapid change in direction of the cycle)(i.e. it has to change
consistently from a conducting condition to a non-conducting condition).
• Thus, it functions as a switch on high frequency as well. Remember, the on
/off of a diode depends on the frequency being provided to the power supply.
Suppose, if the value of supply frequency is 50 cycles per second, it turns on
or off continuously 50 times. Due to this characteristic of a diode, it assumes
the capacity of a switch.

60
Use of Diode in Rectifiers

• Use of Diode in Rectifiers

61
RECTIFIERS: INTRODUCTION
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating

current (AC), into pulsating current, which is in only one

direction, a process known as rectification.

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS

• Half wave Rectifier

• Full wave Rectifier

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

• In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative

half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is

blocked.

• Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the

output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer.

HW

• Half-Wave rectifier

64
Cont…

65
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

• PIV

66
Output DC Voltage

67
Cont…

68
Cont…

69
Important Formulas for Numerical
. Maximum Peak Voltage=

• Maximum Secondary Coil Voltage=

• DC Load Voltage=

• Half Wave rectifier,

70
Cont…

71
Full-Wave Rectifier

Types of Full-Wave Rectifier

• Centre-tap Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier

72
Centre-Tap Rectifier

73
Cont…

74
PIV

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) for Centre-Tap Rectifier

75
Bridge Rectifier

• In a circuit with a non - center tapped transformer, four

diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave

rectification.
Bridge rectifier

77
Cont…
.

78
PIV for Bridge rectifier

• PIV for Bridge rectifier

79
Output DC Voltage

• Output DC Voltage

80
Numerical
.

81
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Advantages of Half Wave rectifiers
• Simplicity
• Low cost
• Efficient
• Compact design
• High reliability
DISADVANTAGES OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS
• Low efficiency
• Limited output
• Increased ripple
• Limited voltage range
• Power loss
ADVANTAGES OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
• The ripple frequency is two times the input frequency.
• Efficiency is higher.
• The large DC power output.
• Ripple factor is less.
• The ripple voltage is low and the higher frequency in case
full-wave rectifier so simple filtering circuit is required.
• Higher output voltage.
• Higher transformer utilization factor.
• Utilizes both halves of the AC waveform.
• Easier to provide smoothing as a result of using the ripple
frequency.
DISADVANTAGES OF FULL WAVE
RECTIFIERS
• More complicated than half-wave rectifier.
• It requires more diodes, two for center tap rectifier and four for bridge
rectifier.
• PIV rating of the diode is higher.
• Higher PIV diodes are larger in size and too much costlier.
• The cost of the center tap transformer is high.
• The twice frequency hum on an audio circuit maybe it is more audible.
• This rectifier is difficult to locate the center tap on the secondary winding.
• The DC output is small as using each of diode utilized only one-half of
the transformer secondary voltages.
• When a small voltage is required to be rectified, the full-wave rectifier
circuit is not suitable.
APPLICATIONS OF HALF WAVE
RECTIFIERS
• Modulation
• Voltage Multiplier
• Soldering
• Firing Circuits
APPLICATIONS OF FULL WAVE
RECTIFIERS
• Power supply
• Battery charging
• Motor control
• Welding equipment
• Audio amplifiers
• Signal demodulation
APPLICATIONS OF BRIDGE
RECTIFIERS

• Electric welding
• Circuits
• Audio systems
• Lighting systems
• Power electronics(UPS, Invertors, Motor drivers)
• Electric welding
• Circuits
• Audio systems
• Lighting systems
• Power electronics(UPS, Invertors, Motor drivers)
Ripple factor

90
Half wave

91
Half wave

92
Full Wave

93
Full Wave

94
Difference

95
Filters

96
Shunt capacitors filters
• This is the simplest and the cheapest filter. The capacitance offers a low-
reactance path to the ac components of current. All the dc current passes
through the load. Only a small part of the ac component passes through the
load, producing a small ripple voltage.
• The capacitor changes the conditions under which the diodes (of the rectifier)
conduct. When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges
to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the positive peak, the rectifier output voltage
tries to fall.
• But at point B, the capacitor has +Vm volts across it. Since the source voltage
becomes slightly less than Vm, the capacitor willi try to send current back
through the diode (of the rectifier). This reverse-biases the diode, i.e., it
becomes open-circuited.

97
Contiue…

• The diode (open circuit) disconnects or separates the source from the load. The
capacitor starts to discharge through the load. This prevents the load voltage
from falling to zero. The capacitor continues to discharge until the source
voltage (the dotted curve) becomes more than the capacitor voltage (at point C).
• The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak
value Vm. During the time the capacitor is charging (from point C to point D)
the rectifier supplies the charging current ic through the capacitor branch as well
as the load current iL.
• When the capacitor discharges (from point B to point C), the rectifier does not
supply any current; the capacitor sends current iL through the load. The current
is maintained through the load all the time. The rate at which the capacitor
discharges between points Band C depends upon the time constant CRL·
• The longer this time constant is, the steadier is the output voltage. If the load
current is fairly small (i.e., RL is sufficiently large) the capacitor does not
discharge very much, and the average load voltage Vdc is slightly less than the
peak value Vm.
98
Continue..

An increase in the load current (i.e., decrease in the value of Rd makes the time constant of the discharge
path smaller. The capacitor then discharges more rapidly, and the load voltage is not constant. The ripple
increase with increase in load current. Also, the de output voltage, Vdc decreases.
99
Series Inductor Filter
• An inductor has the fundamental property of opposing any change in current flowing
through it. This property is used in the series inductor filter of Figure. Whenever the current
through an inductor tends to change, a 'back emf' is induced in the inductor. This induced
back emf prevents the current from changing its value.
• For dc (zero frequency), the choke resistance R in series with the load resistance RL forms a
voltage divider as shown in Figure. If Vdc is the dc voltage from a full wave rectifier, the dc
voltage Vdc across the load is given as

Usually, R is much smaller than RL; therefore, almost all of the de voltage reaches the load.

100
• The operation of a series inductor filter depends upon the current through it. Therefore, this filter
(and also the choke-input LC filter discussed in the next section) can only be used together with a
full-wave rectifier (since it requires current to flow at all times). Furthermore, the higher the current
flowing through it, the better is its filtering action. Therefore, an increase in load current results in
reduced ripple.
101
Chok input LC Filter
• Figure on the next slide shows a choke-input filter using an inductor L in series and capacitor
C in shunt with load. An LC filter combines the features of both the series inductor filter and
shunt capacitor filter. Therefore, the ripples remain fairly the same even when the load current
changes.
• The choke (iron-core inductor) allows the de component to pass through easily because its de
resistance R is very small. For dc, the capacitor appears as open circuit and all the dc current
passes through the load resistance RL. Therefore, the circuit acts like a dc voltage divider of
Figure on next slide, and the output de voltage is given by Equation on this slide.
• The fundamental frequency of the ac component in the output of the rectifier is 100 Hz (twice
the line frequency). For this ac, the reactance X L(= 2pi*fL) is high. The ac current has
difficulty in passing through the inductor. Even if some ac current manages to pass through
the choke, it flows through the low reactance XC(~ l/2pi*c/C) rather than through load
resistance RL · The ripples are reduced very effectively because X L is much greater than XC,
and XC is much smaller than RL . The circuit works like the ac voltage divider of Fig. If v; is
the rms value of the ripple voltage from the full-wave rectifier, then the rms value of the
output ripple is given as

102
Continue..

103
Pi Filter
• Very often, in addition to the LC filter, we use an additional capacitor C1 for providing
smoother output voltage. This filter is called Pi filter (its shape is like the Greek pi letter Pi).
The rectifier now feeds directly into the capacitor C1• Therefore, the filter is also called
capacitor-input filter.

• Since the rectifier feeds into the capacitor C1, this type of filter can be used together with a half-wave
rectifier. (The choke-input filter cannot be used with a half-wave rectifier.)
• Typical values for C1 and C2 for a half-wave rectifier are 32 μF each; and for L, 30 H. The half-wave
rectifier ripple frequency being 50 Hz, these components have reactance's of XL = I 00 Q and Xe = 9492
Q approximately. The reactance's of L and C2 act as an ac potential divider. This reduces the ripple
voltage to approximately 100/9426 times its original value.
• In the full-wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is 100 Hz. It means that a filter using the same component
values would be more efficient in reducing the ripple. In other words, for a given amount of ripple
smaller components can be used..

104
Zener Diode

• A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped

semiconductor device engineered to function in reverse direction.
• As the reverse voltage increases and reaches the predetermined breakdown
voltage () current begins to flow through the diode. This current reaches a
maximum level determined by the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and
remains constant for wide ranges of voltages.
• Device symbol is different from ordinary diode symbol.

105
Zener Diode (contd..)

• V-I characteristics of the diode is given by :

106
Zener Diode As Voltage Regulator
• Zener diode voltage regulator After the ripples have been smoothed or filtered
from the rectifier output, we get a sufficiently steady dc output. But for many
applications, even this sort of power supply may not serve the purpose. First, this
supply does not have a good enough voltage regulation. That is, the output voltage
reduces as the load (current) connected to it is increased. Secondly, the dc output
voltage varies with the change in the ac input voltage. To improve the constancy
of the dc output voltage as the load and/or the ac input voltage vary, a voltage-
regulator circuit is used. The stabilizer circuit is connected between the output of
the filter and the load.
• The simplest regulator circuit consists merely of a resistor Rs connected in series
with the input voltage, and a zener diode connected in parallel with the load. The
voltage from an unregulated power supply is used as the input voltage Vi to the
regulator circuit. As long as the voltage across R L is less than the zener
breakdown voltage Vz, the zener diode does not conduct. If the zener diode does
not conduct, the resistors Rs and RL make a potential divider across Vi. At an
increased Vi, the voltage across RL becomes greater than the zener breakdown
voltage. It then operates in its breakdown region. The resistor Rs limits the zener
current from exceeding its rate maximum /z max·
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Zener Diode As Voltage Regulator

The maximum permissible current is Izmax= Power/Vz = P/Vz

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Zener Diode As Voltage Regulator

Reasons why we need Regulator Circuit

1. Output Voltage decreases as the load connected to it is increased.

2. The DC output voltage varies with the change in AC input voltage.

To improve the constancy of the DC output voltage as the load/ ac input voltage
vary a Voltage Regulator circuit is used.

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)

• The LED is a special type of diode, and it has similar electrical characteristics to a
PN junction diode. It allows the flow of current in the forward direction and
blocks the current in the reverse direction.
• It is a specially doped diode and made up of a special type of semiconductors such
as GaAs (Gallium Arsenide).

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LEDs work on the principle of Electroluminescence. On passing a current through the

diode, minority charge carriers and majority charge carriers recombine at the junction.
On recombination, energy is released in the form of photons.

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)(Contd..)

• Construction: It is designed through the deposition of three semiconductor

material layers over a substrate. These three layers are arranged one by one where the
top region is a P-type region, the middle region is active, and the bottom region is N-
type.

• Working: When the diode is forward biased, then the electrons & holes are moving
fast across the junction and they are combined constantly, removing one another out.
Soon after the electrons are moving from the n-type to the p-type silicon, it combines
with the holes, then it disappears. Hence it recombines and gives the little burst of
energy in the form of a tiny packet or photon of light.

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LED (Light Emitting Diode)(Contd..)

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Bipolar Junction Transistors

• The basic of electronic system nowadays is semiconductor

device.

• The famous and commonly use of this device is BJTs

(Bipolar Junction Transistors).

• The transistor is a 3 layer semiconductor consisting of either

2-n and 1-p or 2-p and 1-n type of layer of material.

• The former is called npn transistor while other is called the

pnp transistor

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BJT (BIPOLAR JINCTION TRANSISTOR)

Some important points:

• There are 3 terminals.
• The middle section is thin than other. There are two junction, so transistor
can be considered as two diode connected back to back
• Transistors are current-driven devices.

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Position of the terminals and
symbol of BJT.

The emitter and collector terminals

are made of the same type of
semiconductor material, their functions
cannot be interchanged.
Collector region is made larger than
emitter since it required to dissipate more
heat.

• Emitter – Heavily doped

• Base – Lightly Doped
• Collector- Moderately doped

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Construction of NPN

The NPN transistor is

made of semiconductor
materials like silicon or
germanium. When a p-
type semiconductor
material is fused between
two n-type semiconductor
materials, an NPN
transistor is formed.

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Transistor Operation

• Working of npn transistor

Forward bias is applied to

emitter base junction and
reverse bias is applied to
collector-base junction

The forward bias in the emitter base junction causes electrons

to move towards base. This constitutes the emitter current .

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Transistor Operation

• Working of NPN transistor: As this electrons flow toward p-

type base, they try to recombine with holes. As base is lightly
doped only few electrons recombine with holes within the
base.
• These recombined electrons constitute small base current.
The remainder electrons crosses base and constitute
collector current.
Ie = Ib +Ic

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Transistor operation

• Working of PNP transistor

Forward bias is
applied to emitter-
base junction and
reverse bias is applied
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to collector- base
junction.

The forward bias in the emitter-base junction causes holes to move

toward base. This constitute emitter current, Ie
Transistor Operation

Working of pnp transistor:

• As this holes flow toward n-type base, they try to recombine
with electrons. As base is lightly doped only few holes
recombine with electrons within the base.
• These recombined holes constitute small base current.
• The remainder holes crosses base and constitute collector
current.

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Difference Between NPN and
PNP Transistor
NPN PNP

The current flows from collector terminal The current flows from emitter to
to emitter terminal. collector terminal.

One P-type semiconductor is sandwiched It is made of up two P-type material

between the two N-type semiconductors. layers with N-type sandwiched between
them.

The current flow from the collector is The current flow from the emitter to
generated by keeping a +ve voltage there. collector is generated at emitter terminal
by keeping a +ve voltage there.

The transistor switches ON with the The transistors switch ON when there is
increase in current in the base terminal no current flow at the base terminal

When the current is reduced in the base, When a current is present at the base of a
the transistor doesn’t function across the PNP transistor, then the transistor
collector terminal and switches OFF switches OFF.

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Thank you