CHAPTER ONE

COMMUNICATION AN OVERVIEW
1.1. Meaning of Communication
Communication as an academic discipline relates to all the ways we communicate, so it
embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both
verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and
explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the journals,
researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever expanding understanding of
how we all communicate. Communication teachers and scholars, in 1995, developed a definition
of the field of communication to clarify it as a discipline for the public.

The field of communication focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within
and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media. The field promotes the effective and
ethical practice of human communication. Communication is the transfer of information from
a sender to a receiver with the information being understood by the receiver. It is a learned
skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to talk, but we must learn to speak well
and communicate effectively. Speaking, listening, and our ability to understand verbal and
nonverbal meanings are skills we develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills
by observing other people and modeling our behaviors based on what we see. We also are
taught some communication skills directly through education, and by practicing those skills
and having them evaluated.

Definitions

The word Communication is derived from a Latin word “cummunicare” which means “to share”.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed
through a language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener. Communication starts with a
sender, who has a message to the receiver. The sender must encode the message and select a
communication channel that will deliver it to the receiver. In communicating facts, the message
may be encoded with words, numbers, or digital symbols; in communicating feelings; it may be
encoded as body language or tone of voice.

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Some important definitions of communication given by prominent writers are as follows:-
1. “Communication is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to
achieve a common purpose.” Chester I. Bernard
2. “Communication is the broad field of human interchange of facts and opinions and not the
technologies of telephone, radio and the like.”Charles E. Redfield
3. “Communication is the act or action of transmitting information.” Leslie W. Rue
4. “Communication is a process involving the transmission and accurate replication of ideas
reinforced by feedback purporting to stimulate actions to accomplish organizational goals.”
Scott
5. “Communication is the transmission and reception of ideas, feelings and attitudes both
verbally and non-verbally eliciting a response. It is a dynamic concept underlying all kinds
of living system.” Sigbond
Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication. It is
hardly possible to make a basic difference between the two. The process and the principles that
regulate them are similar. Their difference lies in their application to situations. General
communication is concerned with many roles at large. On the other hand business
communication is concerned with business activities like internal business activities: maintaining
and improving the morale of employees, giving order to workers, prescribing methods and
procedures, announcing policies and organizational changes, and etc… as well as external
business activities: selling and buying goods and services, reporting the government and
shareholders on the financial condition of the business operations and etc.

1.2. Significance of Communication

Oral communication has long been our main method for communicating with one another. It is
estimated that 75% of a person’s day is spent communicating in some way. A majority of your
communication time may be spent speaking and listening, while a minority of that time is spent
reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills which foster personal, academic,
and professional success.
The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others clearly and
unambiguously. Doing this involves effort from both the sender of the message and the receiver.

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And it's a process that can be filled with error, with messages often misinterpreted by the
recipient. When this isn't detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort and missed
opportunity.

In fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the
same information as a result of the communication. By successfully getting your message across,
you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that
you send do not necessarily reflect your own, causing a communications breakdown and creating
roadblocks that stand in the way of your goals – both personally and professionally.

In spite of the increasing importance placed on communication skills, many individuals continue
to struggle, unable to communicate their thoughts and ideas effectively – whether in verbal or
written format. This inability makes it nearly impossible for them to compete effectively in the
workplace, and stands in the way of career progression.

Getting your message across is paramount to progressing. To do this, you must understand what
your message is, what audience you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must
also weigh-in the circumstances surrounding your communications, such as situational and
cultural context.

Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to
communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can
cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas
from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. Effective
communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the
sender intended to transmit.

Studying the communication process is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel,
evaluate, and supervise through this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the
members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.

The importance of communication in any managerial process can hardly be over-emphasized. If

an organization is to operate as an integrated unit, it is necessary that the top management should

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keep the lower level supervisors and employees well informed of its ultimate objectives and what
it wants each person to accomplish toward their realization

The essential objectives of business communication from among the others would include the
following:

1. To Inform: People in an organization are to be kept informed of the organizational goals,

objectives, procedures, processes, systems, plans, priorities and strategies. Besides,
dissemination of information to external customers, prospects, competitors and the public
about products, services, plans, happenings, events and achievements are very essential.

2. To Educate: Refers to dissemination of knowledge and development of skills and attitudes

among the people working in an organization. There is also a need to familiarize them with
the systems, procedures and processes. This process of education may also extend to
customers.

3. To Motivate: Concerned with inspiring people to pursue goals and reach higher levels of
performance through talks, lectures, films, meetings, non- verbal communication, etc.

4. To Integrate: Coordinating and integrating the different business units, departments and
territorial divisions that pursue different goals, sub–goals and approaches to achieve the
overall organizational goals on sustainable basis. It is also concerned with coordinating
employees working in these different areas to achieve the whole organizational objectives.

5. To Relate: Refers to a means of building and nurturing mutually beneficial relationships

between employees holding different work units and positions.

6. To Promote: Concerned with advertising, politicizing, creating good public relations and
communication as these are one of the very important aspects of business organizations.

7. To Entertain: Communication facilitates social bonding and brings in higher moments that
help to release tension, foster camaraderie/friendship and get rid of feelings.

8. To Persuade: Is concerned with influencing the behavior of others either positively or

negatively.

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9. To Report: communicating facts to the concerned body that is in need of the information/
fact.

10. To Analyze: Critically looking at and evaluating the existing conditions that are important to
make decisions.

11. To Organize: Refers to arranging and re–arranging ideas and things to make them more
productive.

1.3. Communication in Management

In today’s enterprise, information must flow faster than ever before. Even a short stoppage on a
fast moving production line can be very costly in lost out. It is therefore, essential that production
problems be communicated quickly for corrective action. Another important element is the
amount of information, which has greatly increased over the years frequently causing an
information overload. What often needed is not more information, but relevant information. It is
necessary to determine what kind of information the manager needs to have for effective
decision making. To obtain this information frequently requires getting information from
managers’ supervisors and subordinates and also from departments and people elsewhere in an
organization.

Managers use communication every day. In fact, they spend as much as three quarters of their
time communicating. Research has found that 55% of managers’ time is utilized for listening,
22% of their time is consumed for speaking and only remaining 23% of their time allocated for
other activities. Good managers develop effective communication skills. They use these skills to
absorb information, motivate employees, and deal effectively with customers and co-workers.
Good communication can significantly affect a manager’s success.

Communication in management demand ability to do well in written and oral communication.

Communicating effectively is an important management skill for several reasons:
*Managers must give direction to the people who work for them. Managers who fail give
clear guidance often find that employees perform their job poorly because they do not understand
what is expected of them.
*Managers must be able to motivate people. Good managers use their ability to communicate
to get other people excited about their jobs.

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*Managers must be able to convince customers that they should do business with them.
Effective communication is the key to convincing a customer to purchase a product or service.
Without good communication skills, managers will find it difficult to attract customers, even if
their companies’ product or services meet the customers’ needs.
*Managers must be able to absorb the ideas of others. Business managers interact with many
people, including co-workers, customers, and suppliers.
To be effective, they must be able to understand and accept other peoples viewpoints.
*Managers must be able to persuade other people. Managers often have ideas that oppose. To
persuade other people to accept their ideas, managers must be able to communicate effectively.

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CHAPTER TWO

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION

The elements of communication includes:-participants (senders & receivers), a message to be

sent, media to carry the communication signals & the environment which the message is sent &
received. These elements & interact in the five steps whether you are speaking, writing, reading
& listening. These phases:

1. The sender has an idea

2. The idea becomes a message
3. The message is transmitted
4. The receiver gets the message
5. The receiver reacts & sends feedback to the sender
1. The sender has an idea: The Communicator (sender/encoder) is the one who initiates the
communication process. He may be an editor, a reporter, a film maker, a speaker, a leader or
anybody who takes the initiative to start a dialogue. Before one speaks or writes, the message
is conceptualized first & then encoded. An effective communication is depends on the
communication skill, knowledge level, & attitude of the communicator and how he/she
desires to affect his/her receiver. An ability to think, to organize thoughts quickly & to
express himself effectively is some of the attitudes of a good communicator. Somebody who
uses appropriate words, sentences, tone, etc may be called a good communicator. He does
not fumble, does not look for words & all that he says is accompanied by appropriate
gestures delivered at an acceptable pace. Another element which is mentioned her is,
knowledge level. We must be able to find out the knowledge level of the person on a
particular topic before we start the dialogue. Also a person must never look down up on the
people with whom he communicates. He must never think that the receivers are inferior to
him. The attitudes of a person should be mature & the minimum respect due to the other
person must be extended to him.
2. The idea becomes a message: after being stimulated & motivated to communicate, the
sender must decide to convey a message to the specific receiver. The message is information

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or the core idea being transmitted. The process of putting a message in the form in which it is
to be communicated is called encoding.

Encoding: is the formulation of messages in the communicator’s mind that is the communicator
not only translates his ideas, thoughts or information in to a message but also decides on the
medium to communicate his planned message. It is the mental process of the sender to convert
ideas in to message. He must choose the media (speaking, writing, signaling or gesturing) that
the receiver can comprehend well. For instance, an illiterate receiver will fail to understand a
written message, but can understand it well told orally. A message is what a communicator
actually produces for transmission using spoken or written words, photographs, paintings, films
posters, etc a great deal of skill & effort is required to formulate a message, the meaning of
which should be understandable to the receiver. Actually the purpose of the communication is to
influence the receiver & get favorable responses so that appropriate decisions can be taken. The
success of communication, therefore, depends on what we say & how we say it. A message can
enhance or distort effective communication. For instance, in an interview your intention is to
impress interviewer, but if you give answer whose meaning is not clear, the interviewer may
perceive that you are incompetent for the job. The typical problems at the time of preparing the
message are:

A. Indecision about content: many people make the mistakes of trying to convey
everything they know about a subject. When message contains too much information, it
is difficult to observe. If you try to explain something without first giving the receiver
adequate background, you will create confusion.
B. Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver: you have to know something’s
about your audience education, age, status, & style in order to create effective message.
Unfamiliarity with you audience is an equally serious handicap.
C. Emotional conflicts: let’s say if you have been asked to recommend ways to improve the
organization of your department. You conclude that the best approach is to combine two
positions. But this eliminates the job of one of your close associates.
D. Difficulty of expressing ideas: the problem of vocabulary, punctuation & etc

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3. The message is transmitted:
The third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. How will you send your message? What is the appropriate channel for any
given message? Channel is the means used to convey the message. The forms of
communication are verbal & non verbal.
 Verbal communication: it is the written or oral use of words to communicate. It takes
place through various channels (like face to face or over telephone) & can take place at
different levels (individually, in-group). Written communication occurs through a
variety of means, such as business letter, memorandums, reports, resumes, written
telephone messages & policy manuals. Advantages of Written communication: it
provides a record of the message, can be disseminated widely with the minimum effort,
& allows the sender to think through the intended message carefully. Also
disadvantages of it: expenses of preparation, impersonal nature of it enhances
misunderstanding by receiver, & the delay of feedback regarding the effectiveness of
the message. Oral/spoken communication takes place through face to face
conversations with one another, meeting with several individuals, & telephone
conversation. Advantage of it: it is a fast, more personal, provides immediate feedback.
Also its disadvantages are: time consuming, can be more difficult to terminate, &
additional effort be expended to document what is said if a record is necessary.
 Non verbal communication: it refers that the information conveyed by actions &
behaviors rather than speaking or writing. Such as facial expressions, voice, hand
gestures, & even closing worn. The following are non verbal communication
categories:
a) Facial expression & eye behavior: it conveys a wide range of emotions. The eyes
& face can divulge hidden emotions-angry, confusions, enthusiasm, fear, joy,
love, sorrow & etc.
b) Gesture & posture: by moving their bodies people can their feeling & messages,
some of which are voluntary & involuntary. E.g. Hand waving
c) Vocal characteristics: person’s voice carries both intentional & unintentional
messages.

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d) Personal appearance: An individual’s appearance helps establish his or her
personal identity. Clothing, hairstyle, jewelry, & makeup communicate people’s
values & social group. People respond to us on the basis of our physical
attractiveness.
e) Touching behavior: touching people in different ways can silently communicate
friendship, love, approval, hatred, & anger. E.g. kiss on the check, pat on
shoulder, slap on the back.
f) Use of time & space: people can build their image of respect ion by being on
time. And also by occupying the best space they can express their status.

A channel: is the vehicle through which a message is carried from the communicator to the
receiver. The channels of the communication are many; spoken verbal, non verbal, mass media
like TV, radio, newspapers, books, etc. Choosing the appropriate channel one most suitable for
the message as well as the receiver, is a complicated task. The success & failure of the
communication depends on the selection of the right channel. For instance, if you have prepared
a campaign on national integration what media would you choose to reach the intended
audience? And even after selecting the media you have to decide if it is feasible cost wise,
taking in to account the number of people & the kind of people who will be exposed to your
message, & certain other factors. Actually your intention or desire would be to reach out to the
maximum number of people but for efficient communication your attempt should be to minimize
time & cost in to total information exchange effort.

4. The receiver gets the message:

The receiver: the receiver is the individual to whom the message is directed & also known as
decoder. Decoding is the mental process of the receiver tying to interpret & giving the exact
meaning to the message received. At the other end of the communication, is the recipient of the
message & must possess the same orientation as the communicator. If the receiver does not have
the ability to listen, to read, to think, he will not be able to receive & decode the messages in the
manner the communicator want him to. For effective communication, the receiver is the most
important link in the communication process.

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5. The receiver reacts & gives feed back to the sender:
Feedback is the receiver’s response to a message. It is the final link in the communication
process. Now the response involves reversals of the communication process so that the receiver
now becomes the sender & the sender becomes the receiver. It enables the sender to evaluate the
effectiveness of the message. It provides the guidance for the next message that you send to the
receiver. Kmug9@f4

2.3. Barriers of Communication

Personnel in a workplace communicate with peers, managers, and supervisors, members of the
public, suppliers and others. Barriers to communication can cause problems and
misunderstanding with effective communication.
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. - Freeman Teague, Jr.
Anything that obstructs/distorts (be obstacle to) the free flow of information in the
communication process between the communicating parties (sender and receiver) is barrier.

Although most acts of communication are at least partially successful, very few are perfect as
some meaning of information is lost as the message encounters barriers along its pathway to the
receiver. Communication barriers can arise while the message is being developed, transmitted,
received or processed. Business communication is especially more prone to misunderstanding

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because the message is complex, conditions are difficult and psychological or social differences
often separate the sender and the receiver. These barriers arise and prevent the achievement of
the desired result.

According to their nature, we can classify barriers of communication into four groups that can be
discussed as follows.

1. Physical Barriers
Physical barriers are communication barriers that are arising from the defects in the system itself
i.e. complex and rigid company bureaucracy, unhealthy working environment, very long
organizational hierarchy, weak management, etc. This kind of barrier can be easily removed
with minimum effort relative to semantic communication barriers.

Physical barriers can arise from:

Source/Sender: The person who sends the message must be trust worthy. Hostile feelings
towards the sender create a predetermined thought, which distorts the message in turn.
Distance: If the sender is calling out the receiver to tell him orally, distance becomes an
obstacle because of the large distance between the communicating parties. Telephones, faxes
and other similar media can reduce distance barriers.
Time: Communication is only effective & useful if it is conveyed at a right time & place.
Physical Noise: Refers to any noise which creates disturbance in the communication
environment.
Defects in the Medium: This is communication barrier that arises from defects in the
communication devices. Example, Problematic microphone.

2. Semantic Barriers
Semantic barriers are communication barriers that emerge from problems of language. This
type of barrier is not very easy to be removed unlike physical barriers of communication.
Semantic barrier includes:
o Bad Expressions: Related to vague and unclear messages, excess of words or inaccuracy,
unnecessary repetitions and irrelevant matters.
o Inaccurate Translation: Negligence when messages are to be rerouted or interpreted in the
same or different languages.

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o Semantics: Failure of a receiver to understand the message as the sender intends. If the
receiver understands the sender’s message differently, barrier arises.

3. Psychological and Physiological Barriers

Psychological Barrier: Barrier related to problems of the mind of the communicating parties.
Physiological Barrier: Barriers related to problems of the body of the communicating parties.

4. Other Barriers
These barriers comprise the following communication barriers:
 Lack of common knowledge: High sounding words and phrases can create confusion,
especially to illiterate people.
 Unsolicited communication: is communication sent when it is not been asked for from the
receiver.
 Over communication: Repetition of communication more than the required number of
times. Too much quantum (information load) of communication can confuse the receiver.

 Poor communication skills: Lack of skill in writing, reading, listening and speaking.
 Poor expression: Limited word power, improper organization of ideas, lack of coherence,
incorrectness, incompleteness, etc.

 Faulty transmission: Errors of omission and commission. This is concerned with the bias,
feelings, and perceptions the transmitter brings which the originator of the message would
not have intended. It also happens when the originator expects the transmitter to detail,
illustrate, and elucidate the idea, which the latter may fail to do.

 Indifference and lack of interest: Is created when there is no attentive listening to oral
communication, no careful reading of written communication and there is no keen
observance of non–verbal communication. Therefore, the intended message is either not
received at all or is incomplete and worse still, wrongly understood.

 Tendency to evaluate: Evaluating the spoken/written content which will lead to loss of part
of the concentration.

 Conflicting interests and attitudes: Clash in interest and attitude of communicating parties.

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 Prejudices: Interacting with a bias.

 Hierarchical differences: Differing status, position, and self–experience.

2.4 Overcoming Communication Barriers

The following co ordinal rules are important to overcome communication barriers along with the
respective methodology of the rules.

Rules Methodology

1. Plan and clarify ideas - Test thinking

- Collate ideas/suggestions of others

- Support decision–making

- High–level motivation

2. Create a climate of trust and confidence - Win trust and confidence

3. Time your message carefully - What, where, why, who, when and how

4. Re – enforce words with action - Practice what you preach

5. Communicate efficiently - Use feedback

6. Clarify your message - Use sample and meaningful language

7. Purposeful communication - Direct it to a purpose or person

CHAPTER THREE

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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication

principles. These principles tie in closely with the basic concepts of the
communication process and are important for both written and oral
communications. They provide guidelines for choice of content and style of
presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your messages.

These principles called “seven “C”s. These are completeness, conciseness, consideration,
Concreteness, clarity, courtesy, and correctness.

1. COMPLETENESS

By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures. And
when desirable, go for extra details.

In order to achieve completeness in your communication:

 Answer all questions asked

Replying to an inquiry or request, answer all questions asked, and even anticipate the reader’s/
listener’s reaction by providing other relevant information.
 Give something extra when desirable
Sometimes, as an intelligent writer/speaker, you know what your receiver may need to know
about any certain thing. In this case you must include anything that is of your reader’s benefit.
 Check the five ‘W’s questions
The five question method is useful when you write requests, announcements, or other
informative messages. For instance, to order (request) merchandise, make clear WHAT you
want, WHEN you need it, to WHOM and WHERE it is to be sent, HOW the payment will be
made.

2. CONCISENESS

Conciseness means “convey the message by using fewest words”. As you know that all
businessmen have a short time. Hence a concise message saves the time and expenses for both
the parties. A concise messages save time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a
business message, can be achieved by avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief

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and to the point sentences, including relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving
conciseness does not mean to losing completeness of message.

 Avoid Wordy Expression

1. Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without changing
meaning.

E.g. Instead of “at this time” you can just use only a concise word: - NOW,

Wordy: In due course Concise: Soon

Wordy: Due to the fact that Concise: Because
Wordy: In spite of the fact that Concise: Although
2. Avoid that and which clauses in your sentences
Example:
Wordy: She bought desks that are of executive type. Concise: She bought executive type desks.
3. Avoid over using: avoid over using of words at the beginning of sentences in your message
such as there is, there was, it is, it was, there are, there were and son.
Example:
Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed. Concise: Four rules should be observed.

 Include only relevant information

Always try to provide only relevant information to the receiver of the message. Stick to the
purpose of the message, prune irrelevant words and rambling sentences, omit information
obvious to the receiver, avoid long introductions and get to the important point tactfully and
concisely.
Wordy: We hereby wish to let you know that our company is pleased with the confidence
You have reposed in us.
Concise: We appreciate your confidence.

 Avoid unnecessary repetitions

Sometimes repetition is necessary for focusing some special issue. But when the same thing is
said two or three times without reasons, the message become wordy and boring, therefore it
should be avoided.

There are some ways to eliminate unnecessary repetition:-

1. Use shorter name or initials after you have mentioned the long once one.

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E.g. Instead of “Kotebe Metropolitan University” better to say “Kotebe University or KMU”

3. CONSIDERATION
Consideration means – to consider the receiver’s Interest/Intention. It is very important in
effective communication while writing a message you should always keep in mind your target
group. Consideration demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a
message. It refers to the use of you attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing
reader’s problems, desires, emotions and his response.

Generally the following mechanisms help us to achieve consideration principles of the

communication. These are:

 Focus on YOU instead of I &WE

Your receivers are usually more concerned about themselves than about you or the company you
represent. They are more likely to read your message when they see their name and the pronoun
“you” rather than “I” “WE” “US”.

Example:
A) I want to send my congratulations for your promotion (“I” attitude )
B) Congratulations to you on your promotion (‘you’ attitude)
C) We will ship soon the goods in your May 4 order (“we” attitude)
 Show readers benefits & interest

Readers may react positively when benefit are shown to them. Always try to address his/her need
and want. Always show/write to reader what has been done so far as his/her query is concerned.
Always avoid that has not been done so far. Always write a message in such a way how audience
should be benefited from it. They will be more likely to react favorably and do what you suggest
if you show that benefits are worth the effort and the cost. In situations where actual direct reader
benefit is impossible or irrelevant to the subject matter, the message should at least show interest
in and concern for the readers needs or viewpoint.

 Emphasize, positive and pleasant facts

The communicator should stress what can be done instead of what cannot be done, and focusing
on words your receiver can consider favorably.

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 Apply ethics and integrity

To be truly considerate, you need also to apply integrity – high moral standards, personal honor,
truthfulness and sincerity – to your written and oral messages. Integrity is indispensable in our
jobs, in business transactions, in social and political activities, in everything we do. Without it
business communication would provide worthless, & our confidence in people would be
shattered. Ethics is concerned with what is right and wrong in human conduct. Codes of ethics
provide standards enabling us to determine the fundamental distinction between right and wrong
human behavior.

4. CONCRETENESS

It means that message should be specific instead of general. Misunderstanding of words creates
problems for both parties (sender and receiver). When you talk to your client always use facts
and figures instead of generic or irrelevant information. Being definite, vivid and specific rather
than vague, obscure and generally leads to concreteness of the message. Facts and figures being
presented in the message should be specif.

The following mechanism helps to make your communication or message concrete.

 Use specific facts and figures

Using specific facts and figures, whenever possible adds up to the concreteness of your message.
The receiver of your message would be very comfortable with your speech when you can
support some of your ideas with facts.

Example;
Vague: Please send us the following items by the end of this month.
Clear: The following items should reach us on or before 21 August

Vague: A lot of people in Ethiopia are facing drought.

Clear: Currently, around 10 million people in Ethiopia are need of food assistance.

 Put action in your verbs

Active verbs make writing forceful and more interesting to read or hear.

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Example;

Passive: These figures are checked; Active: The research department checks these figures.

Active verbs also make sentence specific, personal and concise.

Example;

Specific: “The chief executive decided” is more explicit than “A decision has been made.”

 Choose vivid, and image building words

Use comparisons, figurative language, and concrete instead of nouns.

Comparisons

A1) there are a great, many solder joints in the space craft, and each must have just the right
amount of solder.

A2) the spacecraft has 2.5 million solder joints. If an extra drop of solder had been left on these
joints, the excess weight would have been equivalent to the payload of the vehicle.

Figurative language

Figures of speech may express an idea more vividly than literal language.

A1) x product helps you lose your double chin in four weeks, if you use x as directed.

A2) if two chins quarrel for a place on your collar, x product helps settle the argument. Only one
chin remains after you use x just four weeks as directed.

Concrete, instead of abstract noun

This is especially very important as subjects of your sentences. Concrete nouns represent
subjects your recipient can touch, see, smell, hear or taste. Abstract nouns as subjects designate
intangible concepts. They bring vague ‘picture’ if any, to a person’s mind.

5. CLARITY

Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the
meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder. You should always choose precise words.
Always choose familiar and easy words. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.

In business communication always use precise words rather longer statements. If you have a

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choice between long words and shorter one, always use shorter one. You should try your level
best to use familiar/easy to understand words so that your reader will quickly understand it.

By implementing the following mechanism it is possible to make your message clear:

 Choose short, familiar and conversational words

When you have a choice between a long word and a short word one, use the short, familiar and
conversational word that your reader or listener will quickly understand. Also, use synonyms
instead of Latin terms if they, though short, may be unfamiliar to your message receivers.

Example;

 Circa(L) – about
 Subsequent – after
 Promulgate – announce , declare
 Inadvertence – error
 e.g..(L) – foe example
 Domicile – home , house
 Remuneration – pay
 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs

Arranging your words in well-constructed sentences and paragraphs is also an essential task that
requires adaptations to your reader. Important characteristics to consider are; length, unity, and
coherence.

Length as short as desirable

Generally, short sentences are preferred. The suggested average sentence length should be about
17 to 20 words. Because of a pleasing variety of length is desirable, you can have a range of
from 3 to 30 or more words. But when a sentence exceeds 40 words, try to rewrite it in to more
than one sentence. Please also note that it is important that your sentences are not too short
either.

Unity to express main ideas

Unity means that you have one main idea and any other ideas in the sentence must be closely
related to it. In a paragraph, unity likewise means you have one main idea or topic. Usually a
topic sentence is a good way to express the main idea (Of course, a one-or two sentence

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paragraph need not have topic sentence). The preferred position for the topic sentence in most
paragraphs is at the beginning, where it receives the best emphasis. The sentences that follow it
contain the details to help develop the main idea. However, if you think you reader will consider
your main topic unfavorable or unclear, you may be wise to place the supporting details firs and
then lead up topic sentences at the end.

Coherence for clear meaning

Arrange words clearly so that the ideas clearly express the intended meaning. Place the correct
modifiers as close as possible to the word it is supposed to modify.

For coherence in a paragraph each sentence should be relevant to the main idea expressed in the
topic sentences. Transitional words and phrases correctly placed within paragraphs help to point
one sentence to another. Likewise they can lead the reader from one paragraph to another.

 Include examples, illustrations and other visual aids when desirable

When you have complicated or lengthy explanation in a letter, speech, or report, you will often
find you can improve the clarity by giving your receipts an example, analogy, or illustration.
Furthermore, visual aids such as headings, tabulations, itemization, picture, and charts are
definite aid to clarity and easy understanding. Some important statements may be underlined,
numbered, colored, or typed in CAPITALS or italics or on short lines with wider margins.

6. COURTESY

Courtesy means not only thinking about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be
achieved by using polite words and gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing
respect to the receiver. Courtesy builds goodwill. Courtesy strengthen relations.

Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy; be aware of your message
receiver. True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspective of others, but also their
feelings. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical
insertions of “please” and “Thank you”. Courteous communication generates a special tone in
their writing and speaking.

To achieve Courtesy to your message:

 Be sincere, tactful, thought full and appreciative

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Though few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are common cause of
discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes from negative
personal attitudes.

Example:

A1) your letter is not clear at all; I can’t understand it. (Tactless, blunt)

A2) if I understand your letter correctly, it seems that it needs some clarification. (Tactful)

A1) apparently you have already forgotten what I wrote you two weeks ago. (Tactless, blunt)

A2) as mentioned in my may 15 letter or memo to you continue with the facts (tactful)

 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt and belittle

The thoughtful business communicator should avoid expressions that might offend the reader or
listener.

Irritating expressions

Here is the list if expressions that you should avoid, particularly when used with “you’ and
“your”.

 Contrary to your inference

 I do not agree with you
 You failed to you are probably ignorant of the fact that
 You failed to we are amazed you can’t
 You neglect
 Your stubborn silence
 You leave us no choice
 You surely don’t expect etc
 Choose nondiscriminatory expressions

Courtesy also requires use of nondiscriminatory expressions that refer to any particular,
gender, and race, ethnic, Origin, etc

Instead of these gender-specific words. Choose these Bias Free words

Businessman Business person or business worker
Chairman Chair, chairperson,

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Manpower Worker, employee
Newsman Newscaster or reporter or journalist
Salesman Salesperson, sales, representative, agent
7. CORRECTNESS

At the core of correctness are the proper grammar, punctuation and spelling. However, message
must be perfect grammatically and mechanically. The term correctness, as applied to business
messages also mean three characteristics: Use the right level of language, Check the accuracy of
figures, facts and words, Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.

Therefore, correctness in your writing can be achieved through:

 Use the right Level of Language

We suggest that there are two level of language:
1. Formal
2. Informal.
Formal and Informal Words
Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing: doctoral dissertations, master’s thesis,
legal documents, top-level government agreements and other material where formality is
demanded.

Informal writing is more characteristic of business writing. Here you use words that are short,
well-known and conversational as in this comparison list:

Formal informal formal informal

Anticipate expect endeavor try

Ascertain find out interrogate ask

Deem think (believe) procure get

 Checking Accuracy of Facts and Figures

Check Accuracy of Facts, Figures and words it is impossible to convey meaning precisely,
through words, from the head of the sender to a receiver. Our goal is to be as precise as possible,
which means checking and double-checking to ensure that the figures, facts and words you use
are correct. “A good check of your data is to have another person read and comment on the
validity of the material”

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 Maintaining acceptable writing mechanics

Acceptable writing mechanics include correct punctuation, capitalization, and syllabication,

and spelling –plus correct sentence and paragraph structure, already mentioned under clarity.
This area also includes using correct format, for letters, memos, and reports.

Two common weaknesses in writing mechanics that deserve special thought and brief attention
are mentioned here. These are incorrect spelling and careless omissions.

Spelling errors

Business executives and customers expect you to spell correctly and may begin to question your
overall ability if you misspell – especially the customer’s name and every day words like
convenience, questionnaire, stationery, personnel and accommodation. Errors of transposition

(‘nad’ instead of and) are spelling errors that show carelessness.

Careless omissions

Another way to maintain correct writing mechanics is to double –check for any careless
omissions of punctuation marks or words needed for grammatical accuracy. Sometimes even
small omission can lead to costly miscommunication.

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CHAPTER FOUR
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction

There are internal and external communications. Internal communication is communication

among members of an organization. External communication is a communication between the
organization and external environment.
4.1. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Internal communication is the exchange of messages between employees inside the

organization. When you talk, send an e-mail message, or write a memo to co-workers,
supervisors, or managers about customer needs, supplier delivery schedules, or project progress,
you are communicating internally. Communication between organizational members can be
formal or informal.
4.1.1 Formal Communication

Formal communication channels are established within the organization’s chain of command in
order to accomplish task objectives. In an effective organization, communication flows in
various directions: downward, upward, and horizontal and diagonal.

In formal communication, transmission of messages is made as per the procedures specifically

set up for the purpose in the organization. Usually 0rders and instructions flow from the
superiors to the subordinates and reports, suggestions, and recommendations flow from the
subordinates to the superiors.

1. Downward Communication

Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the
organizational hierarchy. The major purposes of downward communication are to advise,
inform, direct, instruct, and evaluate employees and, to provide information for organization
members about organizational goals and policies.

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The kinds of media used for downward communication include instructions, speeches, meetings,
the telephone, loudspeakers, memorandum, letters, handbooks, pamphlets, policy statements,
procedures, and electronic news displays. In fact, many downward directives are not understood
or even read. Consequently, a feedback system is essential for finding out whether information
was perceived as intended by the sender.

The advantage of downward communication is that when messages are clear and comprehensive,
employees better understand:

- Their role in the company,

- What resources are available, and
- What is expected from them professionally?

Disadvantages
- One disadvantage of downward messages is noise. Downward noise includes message
filtering and distortion. Because message travel through people, their perceptual differences
may magnify, minimize, or alter a message as it moves down through the ranks. People
perceive messages differently, so they may add, delete, or change information accordingly.
- Another disadvantage of downward messages is that employees may experience message
overload when they receive too much information at one time. Many messages reiterate what
employees already know and other messages do not affect certain employees at all.
- Downward flow of information through the different levels of the organization is time
consuming. Indeed, delays may be so frustrating that some top managers insist that
information be sent directly to the person or group requiring it.
- Problems in downward communication also exist when managers do not provide employees
with the information they need to carry out their tasks effectively. In fact, they can fail to
pass on important information such as a higher level change in policy or to instruct
employees adequately on how to perform their duties. This lack of communication is
sometimes deliberate, as when managers withhold information to keep employees dependent
on them. The net effect of incomplete downward communication is that employees can feel
confused, uninformed, or powerless and might fail to carry out their tasks properly.

2. Upward Communication

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Upward communication flows from individuals at lower levels of the organizational structure to
those at higher levels. In such situations; the communicator is at lower level in the organization
than the receiver. The main function of upward communication is to supply information to the
upper levels about what is happening at the lower levels.

Organizational communication researcher Gary Kreps also identifies the following functions of
upward communication:

1. It provides managers with feedback about current organizational issues and problems,
and information about day-to-day operations that they need for making decisions about
directing the organization.
2. It is management’s primary source of feedback for determining the effectiveness of its
downward communication.
3. It relieves employees’ tensions by allowing lower-level organization members to share
relevant information with their superiors.
4. It encourages employees’ Participation and involvement, thereby enhancing
organizational cohesiveness.

Upward communication includes progress report, suggestions, explanations, and requests for
aid or decisions.

Effective upward communication is usually found in participative and democratic organizational

environments. Effective upward communication requires environment in which subordinates
feel free to communicate.

So what can managers do to facilitate the free flow of information? Since most of the
responsibility for improving upward communication rests with managers , they must create an
informal climate that encourages upward communication. They should announce their
willingness to hear from subordinates, seek open-door policy, and utilize informal contacts such
as chats during breaks, in the elevator, or at social gatherings.

Like downward messages, upward messages may have the disadvantage of filtering and
distortion, generally because employees don’t want superiors to view them unfavorably. The
superior, not wanting to deal with bad news, may dismiss a negative message entirely (Angell).

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In addition, middle managers may keep information that would reflect unfavorably on them from
reaching their managers

3. Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication is the flow of information among people on the same or similar
organizational levels (Koontz and Weihrich).

Horizontal communication is necessary in an organization for the following purposes:

 To coordinate and integrate diverse organizational functions.

 To prepare plan.
 To solve problems: such as how to reduce waste, etc.
 To share information: such as an easier way to perform a task.
 To resolve conflict: such as disagreement between co-workers.
 To build relationship: group member’s interactions, to build understanding and friendship.

Examples:

- Communication between production and sales departments in a business organization.

- Communication among the different departments or colleges within a university.

Messages may be exchanged between members of the same department or members from
different departments or teams. When the head of accounting department communicates with the
head of management department concerning the course offerings in a College of Business and
Economics, the flow of communication is horizontal.

Advantages and disadvantages of horizontal communication

Advantages

- It increases worker productivity through coordination of interpersonal working

relationships.
- It boosts morale.
- It allows employees to interact and learn from each other.
- It encourages teamwork and collaboration.

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The most notable disadvantage of horizontal communication is professional rivalry, which is
competition between members of different departments. Sometimes employees may be reluctant
to share information or collaborate because they feel threatened or jealous. Stiff competition over
company resources, choice projects, or new positions can stifle horizontal communication.

4. Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication is the flow of information among persons at different levels who have
no direct reporting relationships with one another (Koontz and Weihrich).

Diagonal communication is important in situations where members cannot communicate

effectively through other channels. A diagonal channel would be the most efficient in terms of
time and effort for the organization (Invancevich et. al. 2005).

4.1.2 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION ( Grapevine)

An informal communication network operates independently from official channels and involves
messages that flow in all directions and through all levels of authority (Angell).

Informal communication channels exist to serve the interests of those people, who make them
up, regardless of their positions in the organization.
Grapevines develop within organizations when employees share common hobbies, hometowns,
lunch breaks, family ties, and social relationships (Rue and Byars, 2005). The grapevine always
exists within the formal organizational structure. However, it does not follow the organizational
hierarchy; it may go from secretary to president or from engineer to clerk.

The information that travels through a grapevine typically takes the form of gossip (beliefs about
other people) and rumors (efforts to predict future events). For instance, gossip might describe an
incident in which a manager lost his temper, and a rumor might concern expectations that a new
sales office will open next year.

Messages travel extremely quickly on the grapevine, which is short-cut to formal channels. Some
employees feel that grapevine information is more detailed and more current or relevant than
messages received through normal channels. The grapevine satisfies social needs; helps clarify
orders and decisions, and serve as a way of getting out information that can’t be expressed

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adequately through normal channels. Managers must recognize that information in the grapevine
travels more rapidly than information in the formal channels of communication.

It is important that managers should recognize that grapevine will exist whether they want it to or
not. Additionally, managers can do little to control the direction, speed, and accuracy of
grapevines. What managers can do, however, is diminish the amount of grapevine rumors with
effective communication. Management should use it to complement formal channels of
communication. In utilizing the grapevine, honesty is the best policy.

Davis has identified four possible types of grapevine chains see figure 4.2. In single strand
chain, person A tells something to person B, who tells it to person C, and so on. This chain is
least accurate at passing on information. In the gossip chain, one person seeks out and tells
everyone the information he or she has obtained. This chain is often used when information of an
interesting non-job related nature is being conveyed. In the probability chain, individuals are
indifferent about whom they offer information to. They tell people at random, and those people
in turn tell others at random. This chain is likely to be used when the information is mildly
interesting but insignificant. In the cluster chain, person A conveys the information to a few
selected individuals, some of whom then inform a few selected others.

Davis believes that the cluster chain is the dominant grapevine pattern in organizations. Usually
few individuals, called “Liaison individuals,” pass on the information they have obtained, and
they are likely to do so only to people they trust or from whom they would like favors. They are
most likely to pass on information that is interesting to them, job –related, and above all, timely.

Advantages of the company grapevine include the speed at which messages can travel and the
opportunity for management to receive important employee feedback. The grapevine can also
explain on confirm confusing or complex formal messages (Angell, 2004).

The downside of the grapevine is that inaccurate rumors can spread that undermine morale or
project performance.

4.2. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

External communication is the exchange of messages between the organization and the external
environment (Angell). The external communication links the organization with the outside world.

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Organizations are involved in communicating externally to present products and services, to
develop a positive image, to attract employees, and to gain attention.
The channels used for external communication include annual reports, newsletters, brochures,
advertisements, press releases, conferences, and sponsorship of special community events.
Many external messages are viewed or created by company public relations professionals to
ensure that they are consistent with the organizations philosophy and policy.

According to Angell, external communication between the organization and the environment is a
process involving input, throughput, and output. The flow of external message is illustrated in figure 4.3.

Input is all the information the organization receives from environment, such as customer
perceptions and expectations, product or service problems, economic trends, and new state or
federal regulations.

Throughput involves the organization’s analysis and evaluation of the input it receives and the
transformation of that input into outputs.

Output refers to messages the organization transmits to the environment in response to received input.

Stockholder
Customers
Governme
Communit
Media
For example, an electronics manufacturer may receive information from consumers that its
s
nt
y
product requires too much time to install. The manufacturer takes that input and decides to
redesign the product so that it is easier for customers to install. Then the organization
OutputInput
reintroduces the product and promotes the improved installation process to the public.
The
The most obvious advantage of external communication is feedback from the environment,
Organizati
which can be vital to
onthe survival of any organization. External information can also help the
organization plan, make decisions, avoid problems, and satisfy customer needs.

A typical external communication program includes four distinct programs:

- Public relations involve the communication of a positive image, exemplary organization
citizenship, and promotion of an identity as a contributor or society and the immediate
community.
- Advertizing involves illustrating products or services in a positive manner. This form of
communication is designed to attract customers.

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- Promoting the culture and opportunities available to prospective employees. This
communication is designed to attract employee talent to sustain and grow the
organization.
- Customer surveys are used to gather feedback about the experience of external
constituents with the organization. This information is used to make modifications or
changes in service, product, or relationships.

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CHAPTER FIVE

PUBLIC RELATION

5.1 PUBLICS

Is a communities of people at large (whether or not organized as groups) that have a direct or
indirect association with an organization: customers, employees, investors, media, students, etc.
Publics can be also defined as: a collection of people who share “a common understanding of the
world, a shared identity, a claim to inclusiveness, a consensus regarding the collective interest”
In this sense, public may refer to a local collection of people (e.g., one’s peers) or a much
broader collection of people (e.g., members of a nation-state). In marking, public can be defined
as a collection of people organized by nationality as an “imagined community,”

5.2 PUBLIC RELATION

Public relations (PR) is the actions of a corporation, store, government, individual,

etc., in promoting goodwill between itself and the public, the community,
employees, customers, etc.

An earlier definition of public relations, by The first World Assembly of Public Relations
Associations, held in Mexico City, in August 1978, was "the art and social science of analyzing
trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing
planned programs of action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest."

Others define it as the practice of managing communication between an organization and its
publics. Public relations provide an organization or individual exposure to their audiences using
topics of public interest and news items that provide a third-party endorsement. Common
activities include speaking at conferences, working with the media, crisis communications, social
media engagement, and employee communication.

Public relations are communication between an organization and its various stakeholders—both
internal and external. In its purest form, PR is the art and science of influencing public opinion
through communications.

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In order to enhance public relation, organizations establish public relation department. The main
goal of a public relations department is to enhance a company’s reputation. Staff that work in
public relations, or as it is commonly known, PR, are skilled publicists. They are able to present
a company or individual to the world in the best light. The role of a public relations department
can be seen as a reputation protector. The business world of today is extremely competitive.
Companies need to have an edge that makes them stand out from the crowd, something that
makes them more appealing and interesting to both the public and the media. The public are the
buyers of the product and the media are responsible for selling it.

Public relations provide a service for the company by helping to give the public and the media a
better understanding of how the company works. Within a company, public relations can also
come under the title of public information or customer relations. These departments assist
customers if they have any problems with the company. They are usually the most helpful
departments, as they exist to show the company at their best. PR also helps the company to
achieve its full potential. They provide feedback to the company from the public. This usually
takes the form of research regarding what areas the public is most happy and unhappy with.

There are certain skills necessary to work in the world of PR. These include a very high level of
communication skills, written and verbal. The PR person must also be very adept at multitasking
and time management. He or she may also have some form of media background or training in
order to understand how the media and advertising work. Organizational and planning skills are
also important in public relations.

The PR worker must also be able to cope very well under pressure. He or she must have the
ability to cope with a barrage of questions from the media and the public. If a company comes
under critical attack, it is the PR department who must take control of the situation. They must
effectively answer the criticism and turn it around in order to protect the company’s reputation.

In general, public relations are used to build rapport with employees, customers, investors,
voters, or the general public. Almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in
the public arena employs some level of public relations. There are a number of public relations
disciplines falling under the banner of corporate communications, such as analyst relations,

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media relations, investor relations, internal communications and labor relations. Most of them
include the aspect of peer review to get liability.

5.3 MEDIA RELATIONS

Media relations involve working with various media for the purpose of informing the public of
an organization's mission, policies and practices in a positive, consistent and credible manner.
Typically, this means coordinating directly with the people responsible for producing the news
and features in the mass media. The goal of media relations is to maximize positive coverage in
the mass media without paying for it directly through advertising.

Many people use the terms public relations and media relations interchangeably; however, doing
so is incorrect. Media relations refer to the relationship that a company or organization develops
with journalists, while public relations extend that relationship beyond the media to the general
public.

Dealing with the media presents unique challenges in that the news media cannot be controlled
they have ultimate control over whether stories pitched to them are of interest to their audiences.
Because of this, ongoing relationships between an organization and the news media are vital.
One way to ensure a positive working relationship with media personnel is to become deeply
familiar with their "beats" and areas of interests. Media relations and public relations
practitioners should read as many magazines, journals, newspapers, and blogs as possible, as
they relate to one's practice.

Working with the media on the behalf of an organization allows for awareness of the entity to be
raised as well as the ability to create an impact with a chosen audience. It allows access to both
large and small target audiences and helps build public support and mobilizing public opinion for
an organization. This is all done through a wide range of media and can be used to encourage
two-way communications.

All organizations, whether profit-driven or charitable, must learn how to effectively

communicate who they are their objectives, functions, and activities. Some charitable
organizations, by their very nature, may not have the resources to hire a communications

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professional or fund an ambitious communications and media strategy to help them do this.
However, all such organizations, regardless of available resources, can benefit from forming a
relationship with the local and perhaps even national media. This monograph is meant to serve as
a practical guide to help such organizations create and maintain this mutually beneficial
relationship.

Whether it is intended or not, the general public will form an opinion about an organization
based on what it says or even what it does not say. An organization must therefore think about
what it wants to communicate to the public and take the necessary steps to transmit that message
effectively.

Some organizations have a communications plan: a document that maps out how the
organization will share information related to its work with patients, the general public,
government, healthcare providers, and other stakeholders. An effective communications plan
addresses the following points:

• What is your organization’s philosophy/mission?

• What kind of message do you wish to transmit?

• What limitations do you have?

• What actions can you take to achieve your communications: goals while taking your limitations
into account?

Using the media to communicate with the public is often part of the communications strategy

Types of Media

“Media” is a generic term that includes print media (newspapers and magazines) and electronic
media (TV, radio, and the Internet).

Print media

Print media is ideal for comprehensive, thought provoking information and useful for conveying
long-lasting information. Print media is most interested in research results, figures, statistics,
explanations through interviews, testimonials, etc.

Newspapers

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Newspapers can be daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, etc. They can come in standard or tabloid
size and reach a significant percentage of the reading public. Because of the broad demographic
reach of most newspapers, it is difficult to target a specific audience. However, newspapers are
effective in increasing awareness of the organization and its activities within a specific
geographical area.

Magazines

Magazines are usually focused on a more specific target audience but they have a much longer
lead time (many days and even weeks between the writing and the publication of a story) so it is
important to take into account the sort of news you are going to spread. Magazines are better
suited for more in-depth coverage than newspapers.

Others
Other types of print media like flyers or brochures can either inform or educate a targeted group
of people.

Electronic media

Electronic media is immediate so timing is critical and deadlines are even tighter. This type of
media favors brief and specific stories and is ideal for transmitting impact information: overall
data, specific figures, and brief testimonials

Television

Television stations may be interested in stories that have a strong visual element, such as an
event involving a local dignitary or the opening of a new treatment centre with high-tech
equipment, etc. Television is one of the most popular and appealing media for these types of
stories, but it can be expensive. Television commercials are costly to produce and air-time, even
for a 15-second spot, is very expensive.

Radio

Radio offers the public a fast, effortless way of getting information. It is a popular medium and
one to take advantage of local stations is often looking for local news. Radio provides numerous
publicity opportunities: newscasts, current affairs programs, interview programs, and open-line
shows where listeners can call in and share information and opinions.

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Internet
In today’s electronic age, the internet — where it is available — is an increasingly important way
to communicate with the public. It is often the first place people will look when searching for
information about an issue or organization. In addition, the internet offers a variety of other tools
that reach a broad and international audience, this should not be overlooked. These include
online journals, publications, news-alerts, on-line press release services, and social media
websites (such as Face book or MySpace) amongst others.

Building Media Relations

Whenever possible, inform and update the media with interesting and positive stories. Creating
positive dialogue about your organization through the media is a lot cheaper than advertising.
The best strategy is to make the media your ally.

Build a list of media contacts

It is very important to have a database or other way to gather information on the journalists with
whom you are creating professional relationships. These databases should include basic
information such as the type of media they work in, the audience they reach, their contact
information, etc. You can also add notes on the conversations or communications you have with
them on an ongoing basis.

Establish and maintain relationships

It is essential to maintain cordial, productive, and ongoing relationships with journalists working
in all types of media without discriminating against anyone based on their political ideology or
bias. Make sure that your media contacts can depend on you to provide them with clear, timely,
and accurate information about your organization and its activities. Doing so on a regular basis
will help you establish a relationship of trust, which is in everyone’s best interest. The more
relevant information there is on an organization and the clearer, faster, and more accurately that
information is communicated, the better the results will be.

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Communicating with the Media

Media requests
Occasionally, a journalist may come knocking on your door asking for specific information for
an article or special report.

Selling your story

The best way to interest the media in your story is to make it “newsworthy”. News is any
information that is interesting or unusual. The media are interested in local stories or national
stories with a local angle. Before deciding to involve the media in a particular aspect of the
organization’s work, ask yourself if the story:

• builds awareness of the organization, of the services it offers, and of the needs of its members;

• creates a need or increased desire to support the organization, its members, and the services it
offers;

• has a local angle;

• passes the “interest test”. Ask yourself and your colleagues if the story qualifies as news to the
media outlet you are targeting.

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