CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Objective
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Significance of Communication
1.4. Nature and Development of Communication
1.5. Communication Theories
1.6. Summary
1.7. Review Questions

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
 Explain the importance of communication in Business
 understand nature and development of Communication

1.1 An overview of Business Communication

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that means to impart, to
participate, to share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions
and as a means that individual or organization share meaning and understanding with one
another.
It is the lifeblood of every business. Information must be conveyed, received, understood, and
acted upon in a proper manner. When there is a breakdown in this process, organizational
efficiency suffers. Most organizations depend on communication to accomplish their objectives.
Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information between two or more
persons to bring about mutual understanding and desired action. It is the information exchange
by words or symbols. It is the exchange of facts, ideas and viewpoints which bring about
commonness of interest, purpose and efforts.
In other words, it is a transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion, feeling and attitudes.
Therefore, communication is defined as the process of transmitting and receiving information.
Furthermore, communication has been defined as transferring of thoughts or ideas from one
person (or group of persons) so that they can be understood and act. It is the ability of mankind
to communicate across barriers and beyond boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind.
It is the ability of fostering speedy and effective communication around the world that has
shrunk the world and made ‘globalization’ a reality. Communication had a vital role to play in
ensuring that people belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact
with and relate to people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group.
Communication adds meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and
understanding. It enriches our knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.

From the above definitions, you might notice that all of them share something in common. All of the
definitions stress that there should at least be two people for communication to occur & there should
also be some kind of message that is intended to be transmitted from one party to another. And, when
people communicate, they express their ideas & feelings in a way that is understandable to each
other. They share information with each other.

!
o Communication is the life blood of the business. No business can develop in the absence of
effective communication system.
o Communication is the mortar that holds an organization together, whatever its business or
its size.
o When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is internal
communication and when people in the organization communicate with anyone outside the
organization it is called external communication.
o Ability to work well in teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationship with
seniors, customers and colleagues depends on your communication skill.
1.2 Significance of communication

1.2.1. Purpose of communication

1. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the
commanding nature. It is more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator
transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the next level, so as to enable them to
accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions basically flow from top to the lower
level.
2. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is
endeavored. The integration function of communication mainly involves to bring about inter-
relationship among the various functions of the business organization. It helps in the
unification of different management functions.
3. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to
inform the individual or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures
etc. Top management informs policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn,
the lower level informs the top level the reaction through the middle level. Information can
flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the organization. Becoming informed or
inform others is the main purpose of communication.
4. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the worth of task is
achieved through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or
team, their contribution to the organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or
some ideological scheme demands an adequate and effective communication process.
5. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or
manager to the lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior.
Directing others may be communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common
order, request order or implied order.
6. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A
complete communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal
safety on the jobs. This communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and
avoid cost, procedures etc.
7. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or
being influenced. The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade
others. It implies the provision of feedback which tells the effect of communication.
8. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There
is interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in
the society. Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be
done by the communication with the different media, which has to project the image of the
firm in the society. Through an effective external communication system, an enterprise has to
inform the society about its goals, activities, progress and social responsibility.
9. For employees’ orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time
he or she will be unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc.
Communication helps to make people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with
the policies, objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.
10. Other: Effective decision-making is possible when required and adequate information is
supplied to the decision-maker. Effective communication helps the process of decision
making. In general, everyone in the organization has to provide with necessary information
so as to enable to discharge tasks effectively and efficiently.

Effective communication is important in a business setting because of the following reasons:

1. It helps organizations achieve their goals. So important is communication that without it an
organization cannot function. Its activities require human being to interact, react – communicate.
They exchange information, ideas, plans, order needed supplies, make decisions, rules, proposals,
contracts, agreements. Both within (internal) and outside the organization (external)
communication –oral or written- is its lifeblood. A vital means of attending successfully to
matters of company concern is through effective internal communication. It helps increase job
satisfaction, productivity, safety, and profits as well as decrease absenteeism, grievances, and
turnover. Messages to persons outside the company can have a far-reaching effect on its
reputation and ultimate success.
2. Businesses growth in size: large businesses have a number of branches within a country or even
abroad. For their health and growth, it is extremely important that the central organization
maintains a thorough and up-to-date knowledge of the various activities at the branch offices,
keeps the branch offices well acquainted with the activities at the center, and maintain some kind
of link among the various branches. This calls for effective and efficient network of
communication.
3. Complexity of business activity: business activities have become extremely complex that
different departments handle specialization, planning, production, sales, stores, advertising,
financing, accounts etc. Thus, if these departments do not communicate with one another as well
as with management, there will be no coordination among them.
4. Business Competition: business has become very competitive such that products of common
consumption are available in the market in dozen of brands. All these brands do not sell equally
well. Marketing research has revealed that firms that communicate better can also sell better.
5. A valuable job requirement: if you can communicate effectively in speaking and writing, you
have an important, highly valued skill. Especially if your career requires mainly mental rather
than manual labor, your progress will be strongly influenced by how effectively you
communicate your knowledge, proposals, and ideas to others who need or should receive them.
Preference for communication skills is found in the job descriptions listed by numerous
companies wishing to employee college graduates.
Some of these requirements could be:
i. Must be able to communicate with all levels of management
ii. Needs ability to compose effective correspondence
iii. Must have ability to communicate and sell ideas
iv. Will prepare special analyses, research reports, and proposals

Job and career opportunities in which effective communication is the main responsibility are
available in various areas, such as customer relations, labor relations, marketing, personnel, public
relations, sales, teaching, etc. Also, technical and scientific fields need editors, producers,
researchers, and writers. Communication skills are also important in local, state, and federal
governments. Even when your work is mainly with figures, as in the accounting profession, the
ability to communicate to those who read your financial reports is essential.
6. An essential for promotion: the requisite for a promotable executive is ‘ability to communicate.’
The ability to write and speak well becomes increasingly important as you rise in an organization.
Too often those who cannot communicate effectively in either oral or written communications
remain ‘buried’ in lower, dead-end jobs. Members of management spend 60 to 90 percent of their
working days communicating, speaking, writing, and listening. Many surveys and articles have
confirmed the statement that effective communication is essential for success and promotion in
business.
As a trainee on a new job, you have opportunities to speak about problems with co-workers and to
submit memos, reports and letters that test your ability to communicate clearly and quickly. A
frequent complaint of managers is the inability of college graduates to make them heard, read or
understood. Your messages can reveal how well you are doing a job, and they help management to
evaluate your fitness for a substantial promotion. For example, imagine that you are one of several
highly trained employees in an organization that requires everyone to submit frequent oral and
written reports to clients or company personnel. If there is an opening for promotion and you each
rate about the same except that you alone can write and speak effectively, then clearly you have the
advantage over the others.

7. It helps to meet personal responsibilities: people put things in writing to create a record, to
convey complex data, to make things convenient for the reader, to save money, and to convey their
own messages more effectively. Effective communication- written and spoken- also helps you to
better accomplish various aims in your personal activities. You will sometimes need to write letters,
proposals or reports, or to present your views orally as committee chairperson, club officers, etc. In
these roles you might communicate with public officials, business, industrial, or professional people;
or personal friends. Whatever your purpose, you will usually achieve them more effectively when
you apply the same skills that help you communicate effectively in business.

1.2.2 Significance of communication

 Activity
1. What are the basic significances of communication?

The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and receive for official
purpose like running a business, managing an organization, conducting the formal affairs of a
voluntary organization and so on. Business communication is marked by formality as against
personal and social communication. The success of any business to a large extent depends on
efficient and effective communication. It takes place among business entities, in market and
market places, within organizations and between various group of employees, owners and
employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and customers, sales persons and prospects and
also between people within the organization and the press persons. All such communication
impacts business. Done with care, such communication can promote business interests.
Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light and may adversely affect the business
interest. Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to effect
change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of maintaining effective
communication process. The management problem generally results in poor communication.
Serious mistakes are made because orders are misunderstood. The basic problem in
communication is that the meaning which is actually understood may not be what the other
intended to send. It must be realized that the speaker and the listener are two separate individuals
having their own limitations and number of things may happen to distort the message that pass
between them. When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is internal
communication. They do so to work as a team and realize the common goals. It could be official
or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include face-to-face and written communication.
Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video conferencing, meeting etc. are the examples of
internal communication. When people in the organization communicate with anyone outside the
organization it is called external communication. These people may be clients or customers,
dealers or distributors, media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external
communication.
1.3 Nature and Development of communication

1.3.1 Nature of Communication

 Activity
1. When do we say that communication exists?

There are many ways of communicating and many times what we hear is not what the other person
said, and consequently, what we say frequently can be interpreted in an entirely different manner by
the listener. Generally, communication is said to exist when:

 There is a person (sender or transmitter) desirous of passing on some information.

 There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on.
 The receiver partly or wholly understands the message passed on to her/him.
 The receiver responds to the message; i.e. there is some kind of feedback.

Communication cannot exist in the absence of any of these four components. It is said to exist when
there are at least two parties and there is a message (either oral or written) that is intended to be
communicated. Communication further requires that the receiver of the message understands it and
conform this by nodding or by giving some kind of gesture or by verbally responding.

For example, let’s say that your professor is writing the answer to a complex mathematical problem
on the chalkboard, but offers neither a verbal explanation for how he arrived at the answer nor the
opportunity for questions. In this instance, the professor has sent a message (via chalkboard);
however, the chances are very good that many students do not fully understand what the message
means. Thus, communication has not taken place. Therefore, communication is a process of ‘sharing’
rather than simply sending information.

1.3.2 Development of Business Communication

In the past so many years, office technology has improved, and with it has come an array of
developments that make business communication easier, faster, and less costly than before. Office
technology permits information to be produced quickly and easily. For example, a typist using
personal computer as a word processor can produce in one hour a greater number of typed paged with
fewer errors than a typist working with a standard electric typewriter. Moreover, if changes have to
be made, the computer-generated pages can be modified by adding, deleting, or rearranging material
without having to retype everything. Information analysis & data retrieval have been made simpler &
faster through modern office technology. Hence, technology plays a crucial role in the operation of
today’s’ modern offices.

Technology can help us reduce the time spent creating various businesses documents, as well as
enhance our ability to create professional-looking documents that will get attention from others. In
addition, technology facilitates the nearly instantaneous transmission of written and electronic
communication using duplicating machines and electronic mail.
Some of the communication technologies include:
 Computers
 Fax machines
 Scanners
 Satellite networks
 Telephone (voice mail, cellular phones, pagers)
 Telecommunication (electronic mail, video conferencing, on-line information services)
 Copiers
 Software

1.3 Communication Theories

“Communication is the production and exchange of information and meaning by use of signs
and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages, receiving and decoding them, and
synthesizing information and meaning. Communication permeates all levels of human
experience and it is central to understanding human behavior.”
Theories of communication are actually is not something new that came into picture in twentieth
century. In the history of philosophy, Aristotle first addressed the problem of communication and
attempted to work out a theory of it in The Rhetoric. Aristotle represented communication as
might an orator who speaks to large audiences. Although His model incorporates few elements.

Mass communication research was always traditionally concerned with political influence over
the mass press, and then over the influences of films and radio. The 1950s was fertile for model-
building, accompanying the rise in sociology and psychology. It was in the USA that a science of
communication was first discussed

The earliest model was a simple sender-channel-message-receiver model. Modifications added

the concept of feedback, leading to a loop.

The next development was that receivers normally selectively perceive, interpret and retain
messages.
“The most important thing in communication is to hear what isn't being said.” Peter Drucker
(1909 - 2005)

Since “Communication is the production and exchange of information and meaning by use of
signs and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages, receiving and decoding them,
and synthesizing information and meaning. Communication permeates all levels of human
experience and it is central to understanding human behavior.”

Theories of communication are actually is not something new that came into picture in twentieth
century. In the history of philosophy, Aristotle first addressed the problem of communication and
attempted to work out a theory of it in The Rhetoric. Aristotle represented communication as
might an orator who speaks to large audiences. Although His model incorporates few elements.

Chapter Summary

 The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that means to
impart, to participate, to share or to make common.

 Communication is the life blood of the business. No business can develop in the absence
of effective communication system.

 Communication is the mortar that holds an organization together, whatever its business or
its size.

 Some of Purposes of communication, for instruction ,for integration, for information, for
evaluation ,for direction for teaching & for influencing e.t.c

 Some of the communication technologies may include: ,Computers, Fax machines,

Scanners .Satellite networks ,Telephone (voice mail, cellular phones,
pagers),Telecommunication (electronic mail, video conferencing, on-line information
services) ,Copiers & Software.

Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your answer to any one of
the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific section again.

Number Can you Yes No

1 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
2 Explain the importance of communication in Business
3 understand nature and development of Communication
Chapter I: Summary Questions
1. Effective Communication is important in a business setting because :
a. It helps organizations achieve their goals
b. Business growth in size
c. Business competition
d. A valuable job requirement
e. All
2. How do you define communication?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the role of communication in management of business?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________
4. What are the different purposes of communication? Briefly explain any five of them.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______ .
5. Discuss the different situations when the communication exists.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and emotions by two or more
persons.” Explain the statement and discuss the role of feedback in communication.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
7. “Communication is the two way process.” Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
8. Discuss the elements of communication process.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Answer Key: Multiple choices’ 1. E

CHAPTER TWO
ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN
ORGANIZATIONS

2.1 Objective
2.2 Introduction
2.3 The process and Model of Communication
2.4 Barrier of communication in an Organization
2.5 Forms of communication
2.5.1 Formal Flow of Communication
2.5.2 Informal Communication
2.5.3 Principles of Effective Communication
2.5.4 Get ways to effective Communication
2.5.5 Seven C’s of Communication
2.6 Summary
2.7 Review Questions

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Describe the process of communication
 Explain different types of communication barriers
 understand formal flows of communication

2.2 Introduction
2.3 The process and Model of Communication
2.3.1. The communication Process/cycle

The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or reaction to the
sender constitute the communication cycle. The process of communication begins when one
person (the sender) wants to transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to someone else
(the receiver). This facts, idea or opinion has meaning to the sender. The next step is translating
or converting the message into a language which reflects the idea. That is the message must be
encoded. The encoding process is influenced by content of the message, the familiarity of sender
and receiver and other situation of factors. After the message has been encoded, it is transmitted
through the appropriate channel or medium. Common channel in organization includes meetings,
reports, memorandums, letters, e-mail, fax and telephone calls. When the message is received, it
is decoded, by the receiver and gives feedback to the sender as the conformation about the
particular message has been carefully understand or not.
The process of communication involves the following elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known as sender.
Sender initiates the message and changes the behavior of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact, idea, opinion
or information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if communication is to take place.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organizes his idea into series of symbols
(words, signs, etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended receiver or receivers.
4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the information.
Communication channel is the media through which the message passes. It is the link that
connects the sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is the person to
whom the particular message is sent by the transmitter. The communication process is
incomplete without the existence of receiver of the message. It is a receiver who receives and
tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into the
understandable meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from the message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process. For the exchange to be complete the
information must go back to whom from where it started (or sender), so that he can know the
reaction of the receiver. The reaction or response of the receiver is known as feedback.
Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver
Channel

Feedback
Feed BackFeejbh

Fig.2.1 The communication Process

 Activity
Briefly describe the communication Process?

2.4 Barrier of communication in an organization

2.2 Barriers of Communication

No two persons are exactly alike mentally, physically, or emotionally. Thus the innumerable
human difference plus cultural, social, & environmental differences may cause problems in
conveying an intended message. Although all communication is subject to misunderstandings,
business communication is particularly different. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver,
& communication situation can create barriers to effective communication.

The major barriers of communication include the following:

1. Channel selection: Communication may be oral, written, visual or audio-visual. The different
communication channels can be personal barriers in that some individuals always seem to lean
toward a particular channel even though a more effective one exists. All the media have their
relative merits and limitations. While a properly chosen medium can add to the effectiveness of a
communication, an unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to it.
Consider, for example, a superior who uses a written memo to let you know about the recent
denial of a promotion. The more effective channel in this case might have been face-to-face
meeting in which you can ask questions. If a salesperson is required to submit a report based on
the comparative sales figures of the last five years, he will fail to communicate anything if he
writes a lengthy paragraph about it. He has to present the figures in a tabular form, or preferably
make a bar diagram, which would make communication an instantaneous process. An employee
desirous of expressing his regrets for his earlier misconduct with his supervisor should meet him
personally. Whatsoever a lengthy letter he might write, it can never be as effective as an earnest
look on his face. But if he does not meet him personally, his written explanation will most
probably be misinterpreted. In offices, if memos are frequently issued to employees to ask them
to explain minor things like late arrivals or early departure they become a source of irritation. A
manager using a memo to complement an employee for a creditable achievement or to
congratulate another employee for a wedding is surely creating communication barrier through
the wrong choice of medium.

2. Physical barriers: these include noise, and time & distance.

a. Noise: Anything that interferes with communication & distorts or blocks the message is
noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories oral communication could be
difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like blaring often interferes in
communication by telephone. The word “noise” is also used to refer to all kinds of physical
interference like illegible handwriting, smudged copies of duplicated typescript, poor telephone
connections, use of jargons (terms that have a precise meaning among specialists, but are
unfamiliar to others), distraction that prevents the receiver from paying attention, a worn
printer ribbon that makes a document hard to read, etc.

b. Time & Distance: Time and distance also act as barriers to communication. Modern
communication facilities like fax, telephone and Internet are not available everywhere. This is
especially so in most companies of our country. Even when these technologies are available,
sometimes-mechanical breakdowns render these facilities ineffective. In such cases, the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver becomes a barrier. There is a kind of communication
gap between persons working in different shifts of a factory. Can you imagine how difficult it
would be to send an urgent message to a business partner living in Holland if it had to be done
through postal mail?

3. Semantics: refer to the different uses & meanings of words. Words are symbols; therefore,
they do not necessarily have the same meaning for everyone. Semantic barriers include:

a. Interpretations of words: Do you remember a situation where you and your friend
understood a word communicated by somebody else in a different way? The knowledge
we each have about a subject or word affects the meaning we attach to it. Individuals
have their own network of words & meanings available for recall that overlap, but do
not correspond exactly, with those of others. Individuals using their own networks can
attach different meanings to words. Receivers decode words & phrases in conformity
with their own network, which may be very different from those of senders. Words are
capable of communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver
does not assign the same meaning to a word as the sender has intended, that may lead to
miscommunication. For some, a successful career means having prestigious job title &
making lots of money; for others, it may mean having a job they really enjoy & plenty
of personal time to spend with family & friends. Different word interpretations are
especially noticeable in ‘bypassed’ instructions & in reactions to denotations,
connotations, and euphemisms.
b. Bypassed instructions: when the message sender & receiver attribute different
meanings to the same words or use different words though intending the same meaning,
bypassing often occurs. Example: An office manager handed to a new assistant a letter,
with the instruction “Take it to our store room and burn it.” In the office manager’s
mind (and in the firm’s jargon) the word “burn” meant to make a copy on a
photocopier. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted an extra copy.
However, the puzzled new employee afraid to ask questions, burned the letter and thus
destroyed the only existing copy! To avoid communication errors of bypassing, when
you give instructions or discuss issues, be sure your words & sentences will convey the
intended meaning to the recipient. Also, when you are the recipient of unclear
instruction, before acting on it, ask questions to determine the sender’s intended
meaning.
c.Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums: Many of us have at some time been
surprised that a remark intended as a complement, or joke was interpreted by the
receiver as an insult. A statement intended as a good deed can be distorted into
something self-serving. Some of these communication problems may occur because
words have both denotative and connotative meanings, and the sender has not
considered the receiver’s probable interpretation and reactions.

Denotations: the denotative meaning is the meaning on which most people will probably agree.
It often is the dictionary definition. The word informs the receiver & it names objects, people, or
events without indicating positive or negative qualities. Such words are car, desk, book, house,
water conveys denotative meaning, provided, of course, that the communicators understand the
English language & provided that the receiver has a similar understanding of the context in
which the word is used.

Connotations: in addition to more literal denotative meanings, some words have connotative
meanings that arouse qualitative judgments & personal reactions. The term ‘meeting room’ is
denotative. Director’s lounge, executive suite, boardroom, though they each denote a meeting
place, also has connotative meanings. The word ‘student’ is denotative; bookworm, scholar,
dropout, school dummy, gunner are connotative. Some words have favorable connotations in
some contexts but unfavorable meanings in other instances. Compare, for example, fat check &
fat girl; free enterprise & free (rude, bold) manners; cheap products & cheap price.

The communicators’ different backgrounds & interests also affect the connotative meanings for
words. On hearing that a particular person is ‘cool’, members of one generation may take it to
mean the person is fun to be with, while members of earlier generation may believe it means that
the individual is unemotional & insensitive.

Euphemisms: tactful writer & speakers are euphemisms whenever possible to replace words that
might have blunt, painful, lowly, or distasteful connotations. Euphemisms are mild, innovative
expressions with which most people do not have negative associations. Expressions like the
following have obvious connotative advantage: maintenance worker or staff member instead of
janitor; slender instead of skinny; restroom instead of toilet. Instead of saying an employee was
fired, a communicator may use such euphemism as laid off, terminated, or a victim of
reorganization or staff cutbacks.

To communicate effectively you need to be aware of the usual connotative meanings of various
terms and also to realize that some people may have their own unique meanings because of their
experiences & background. Thus choose your words carefully, considering both their
connotations and other denotations to convey the idea you want and achieve the desired results.

4. Perception of reality: The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different to different

people. Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite and continually changing. Besides,
each human being has limited sensory perceptions-touch, sight, hearings, smell, and taste and
each person’s mental filter is unique. People perceive reality in different ways. No two persons
perceive reality in identical manners. We make various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations
of the world around us.

a. Abstracting: the process of focusing on some details & omitting others. In countless
instances, abstracting is necessary and desirable - for both written and oral
communications. Whether you write a memo, letter or report or converse by telephone,
you will be limited somewhat by time, expense, space, and purpose. You will need to
select facts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose and to omit the rest. We often
use abstracting while preparing business reports & application letters. Precise writing is
nothing but the art of abstracting. So how is abstracting considered a barrier to
communication? Abstracting poses a grave barrier to communication for details, which
look pertinent to one reporter, may look insignificant or trivial to another. You as a
communicator must also anticipate the likelihood that others may not be abstracting as
you are. Their points may be as important as yours though they select differently from the
infinite details in reality. For example, when reporting on an event- a football game or an
accident, no two witnesses give exactly the same descriptions. The participants will
perceive different details than the observers, but all or several observers may mention
some parts of the whole. Juries often determine which witness’s details are the most
credible.
Differences in abstracting occur not only when persons describe events but also when they
describe people, equipment, project, or animals. We do not give allowances for these differences,
and misunderstandings arise. Very often we yield to the “allness” fallacy.

The allness fallacy states that we believe that whatever we know or say about an object or event
is all that is worth knowing or saying about it. The more we delve into some subjects the more
we realize there is so much more to learn and to consider. And unfortunately the less we know
the more sure we feel that we know it all. Even experts on certain subjects admit they don’t
know all the answers; they continue to study all available facts, though they sometimes disagree
among themselves. Unfortunately, it is true of some people that the ‘less they know, the more
sure they are that they know it all.’ Thus, it is best for us to avoid assuming we know all about
any subject or circumstances simply because we have a few facts. Otherwise we may have an
inadequate, erroneous impression of the whole, as did the six blind men who each felt only one
part of an elephant. The one who felt only the swinging tail thought an elephant was like a rope;
the second one who felt the elephant’s tusk thought an elephant was a spear; the third who
touched the elephant’s side thought an elephant was a wall; the fourth one thought the elephant
was a tree having felt its knee; the fifth one having felt the elephant’s trunk thought the elephant
was a snake; and the last person thought the elephant was a fan having felt its ear.

b. Inferring: What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can immediately verify and
confirm & constitutes a fact. But the statements that go beyond the facts and the
conclusions based on facts are called inferences. They are conclusions made by reasoning
from evidences or premises. A very simple example of inferring is when we drop a letter
in the post box, we assume that it will be picked up by someone and be delivered to the
destiny we desired. If enough rain fall during the summer, we can infer that the price of
‘teff’ will go down. We infer that the gas station attendant pumps gasoline (not water)
into our car’s tank.

For business & professional persons inferences are essential & desirable in analyzing materials,
solving problems, & planning. Systems analysts, marketing specialists, advertisers, architects,
engineers, and designers are all required to draw inferences after they have gathered as much
factual data as possible. Also, as consumers in our daily activities, we may make inferences that
are necessary & usually fairly reliable. When we base our inferences on direct observations or
on reasonable evidence, they are likely to be quite dependable; but even so, there are
disappointing exceptions. Conclusions we make about things we have not observed directly may
be true or untrue.

As intelligent communicator we must avoid faulty inferences. We must realize that inferences
may be incorrect & unreliable & may cause miscommunication. We need to anticipate risks
before acting on the inferences. Consider this simple example. Suppose that a personnel manager
observes a particular new employee has been leaving the office one hour late everyday for the
last two weeks. What can be inferred from this observation? The manager might infer that the
worker is:
 Exceptionally conscientious;
 That he is incapable of doing the required work within the regular time;
 That he has been given more responsibility than should be expected of a new trainee; or
 Even that he is searching for some secrets from confidential materials after others have
left the office.
Do you suppose the personnel manager should take an action based on any of the above-
mentioned inferences or any other possible inference that the manager could make? Before
acting on any of these inferences, the manager should get more facts. A wrong inference can
surely be a barrier to communication.

a. Making frozen evaluation: another drawback of effective perception is the frozen

evaluation – the stereotyped, static impression that ignores significant differences or
changes. Stereotyping is the tendency to attribute characteristics of an individual on the basis
of an assessment of the group to which the individual belongs. The manager uses those
perceived common characteristics to draw conclusions about the characteristics of the
individual, rather than acquiring information about those characteristics more directly. It is
often based on faulty inferences. To help you assure that your comprehension of reality will
be correct, you need to recognize that any person, product, or event may be quite different
from others in a group, or may have significant differences today when compared with
characteristics yesterday or some time ago. You should recognize individual differences
within groups & differences within time periods. In all, we should remember to avoid frozen
evaluation made on the basis of what was true for one (for a group) at one time. Changes
occur in everything.

Perhaps you might know someone who asserts “I’ll never again buy any coat with ELICO
label! The one that I bought last year came apart at the seams.” S/he should realize that (1)
probably not all ELICO coats last year ripped at the seam (ELICO coat #1 is not exactly the
same as ELICO coat #2) and (2) ELICO coats last year may not be the same as ELICO coat
this year or next year. A customer payment record this year is not necessarily exactly the
same as last year. Nor can you be sure that a successful sales campaign this month will again
be successful next month.

5. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the attitudes &
opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to react favorably when the
message they receive agrees with their views towards the information, the set of facts, & the
sender. In addition, sometimes unrelated circumstances affect their attitudes, & responses like:

a. Emotional state: a person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired when a person
is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to consider the other
person’s viewpoint & to choose words carefully. Likewise, the receiver will have difficulty-
decoding message when her/his emotions are strong. For instance, a person who is elated at
receiving good news might not pay close attention to some one else’s words or body language.
Some one who is angry might pay attention but misinterpret a message in light of her/his anger.

For example, a division sales manager who has just has an argument with a spouse is not likely
to receive a quarterly sales report showing a downturn in sales with much sensitivity or to be
open to explanations as to why sales are low. However, it is possible that, with time to cool off,
the manager will be more willing to listen to reasons for poor sales.

b. Favorable or Unfavorable information: rejecting, distorting, & avoiding are three common
undesirable, negative ways receivers react to information they consider unfavorable. For
example, if a change in the policy of an organization proves advantageous to employees, they
welcome it as good; if it is contrary to their beliefs or benefits, they may reject, or resent the
company and their boss, perhaps falsely accusing them of being unfair. Or they may instead,
distort, the meaning and misinterpret the true purpose of the policy change. Or they may avoid
the message, situation or people by putting off acceptance, hoping that the delay will some how
prevent the change & protect them.

c. Closed mind: some people have a closed mind toward receiving new information. The
closed-minded person is one of the most difficult to communicate with. Typically this person has
only inadequate and mainly incorrect knowledge of the subject. Yet s/he refuses to consider any
new facts, even from an expert who has made a long, careful study of the problem and the
proposed change. The closed minded person says in essence: “my mind is made up” “Don’t
bother me with facts” “I want what I want”. Closed-minded people stubbornly reject, distort or
avoid a viewpoint before they know the facts.

d. Status consciousness: people in the upper areas of organization’s hierarchy, those who
have more status & power, may be hesitant to listen to those individuals lower in the hierarchy,
feeling for example, that people of lower status & power do not possess any useful information. By
the same token, people of lower status & power may be reluctant to share information because they
believe that people with higher status & power will not listen. Subordinates are afraid of
communicating any unpleasant information to their managers. They may be afraid that they might
displease their superiors by telling them unpleasant facts. Or they may fear that unfavorable
communication may adversely reflect upon their own competence. The subordinates also find it
difficult to offer proposals for the improvement of the organization, for such proposals are not
usually encouraged.

e. Credibility: people react more favorably when a communicator has credibility – when
they respect, trust, & believe in the communicator. A sender’s credibility plays an important role in
how a message is received & understood. If the receiver does not consider the sender trustworthy or
knowledgeable about the subject being communicated, s/he will most likely be reluctant even to
listen to the message. For example, if you learn that your professor has no educational background
about management, you may feel that she has little knowledge concerning the area of management
&, thus, place little weight on anything she tells you concerning the subject. Likewise, a sender may
limit what s/he communicates to a receiver who is not considered trustworthy. For instance, if an
employee offers an idea for a more efficient way to perform a job & his supervisor takes credit for it,
then the employee is more likely to withhold future information from the supervisor, as he will
probably not trust the supervisor with such information.

f. Information overload: refers to the condition of having too much information to process. The
implication is that individuals can effectively process only a certain amount of information. An
example would be if your professor gave you too much information, too quickly, concerning a
term paper’s requirements or if a manager gave an employee too much information at one time
about a report’s requirements. In either situation, the receiver probably does not receive the
entire message. Managers need to be aware of potential for information overload & to make
appropriate adjustments.

 Activity
List out Some of Barriers in Communication?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2.3 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is divided into external and internal communication. External communications

are those communications which are occurring outside the organization like communication with
other companies, with government, general public etc. Internal communications are those which
are inside the organization. Internal communications are further divided into two parts, formal or
official and informal.
 Formal: Formal communication flows along prescribed channels which all members
desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow.
 Informal: Along with the formal channel of communication every organization has an
equally effective channel of communication that is the informal channel often called
grapevine, because it runs in all directions—Horizontal, Vertical, Diagonal. It flows
around water cooler, down hallways, through lunch rooms and wherever people get
together in groups.

2.3.1 Formal Flow of Communication

The formal communication is communication that flows along the organization’s lines of authority.
Formal channels of communication are intentionally defined and designed by the organization. They
represent the flow of communication within the formal organizational structure.

Advantage

1. It passes through line and authority and consequently ensures the maintenance of authority
as well as accountability of the executives’ in-charge.
2. It helps to develop intimate relations between immediate boss and his subordinates.
3. It keeps uniformity in the dissemination of information.
Typically, communication flows in four separate directions.
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal and
 Diagonal.

3.2.1 Downward Communication

Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the organizational
hierarchy is called vertical communication. It can involve a manager and a subordinate or can
involve several layers of the hierarchy. It can flow in a downward or an upward direction.

Formal messages that flow from managers and supervisors to subordinates are called downward
communication. Usually, this type of communication involves:

 Job directions
 Assignment of tasks and responsibilities
 Performance feedback
 Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.
 Speeches
 Policy and procedure manuals
 Employee handbooks
 Company leaflets
 Briefings on the organization’s mission and strategies
 Staff meetings and
 Job descriptions are all examples of downward communication.

Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:

 Job instructions: related to specific tasks: “Before pushing lever # 3, make sure that both levers 1
and 2 are securely locked into position”.
 Job rationales: explaining the relationship between a task and other organizational tasks: “if any of
these panels are more than 1/1000 of an inch over or undersized, the assembly crews will not be able
to get the perfect fit needed and will return the panels to us. And, as you know, once a panel has been
formed, it cannot be resized, so any returned panel ends up as scrap.”
 Policy and Procedures: practice of the organization or rules and regulations of the organization.
“All unused sick leaves will be converted into cash bonuses at the end of every year.”
1. Feedback: on employee performance appraisal/individual performance on assigned tasks: “You did
great on the last project, Selam”.
2. Motivational appeals: efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to the goals of the
organization. “If everyone will put in a little extra effort, we can become the number one producer of
X components.”

Downward communication across several levels is prone to considerable distortion. As much as 80%
of top management’s message may be lost by the time the message reaches five levels below. There
are usually three main reasons for the distortion.
i. Faulty message transmission may occur because of sender carelessness, poor communication
skills, and the difficulty of encoding a message that will be clearly understood by individuals at
multiple levels.
ii. Another is that managers tend to overuse one-way communication methods, such as, memos,
manuals, and newsletters, leaving little possibility for immediate feedback regarding receiver
understanding.
iii. Finally, some managers may intentionally or unintentionally filter communications by
withholding, screening, or manipulating information.
A major problem with managers and downward communication is their assumption that employees do
not need or want to know much about what is going on. Intentional filtering typically occurs when a
manager seeks to enhance personal power over subordinates by tightly controlling organizational
information.

3.2.2 Upward Communication

Formal messages also flow upward from subordinates to supervisors and managers. Without upward
communication, management would never know how their downward messages were received and
interpreted by the employees and would miss out on valuable ideas; workers would not get the chance
to be part of the company. To solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn
what’s going on in the organization. Because they can not be everywhere at once, executive depend on
lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate, timely reports on problems, emerging trends,
opportunities or improvements, etc.

The following types of messages are valuable when communicated upward.

1. What subordinates are doing: highlights of their work, achievements, progress, and future job
plan.
2. Outlines of unsolved work problems: on which subordinates now need aid or may require help
in the future.
3. Suggestions or ideas for improvements: within departments or in the organization as a whole.
4. How subordinates think and feel: about their jobs, their associates, and their organization.

Forms of upward communication include one-to-one meetings with one’s immediate supervisor, staff
meetings with supervisors, suggestion systems, grievance procedures, employee attitude survey,
progress reports, inquiries, etc.
The distortion that characterizes downward communication also plagues upward communication.
First, individuals are likely to be extremely selective about the information that they transmit upward.
Information favorable to the sender is very likely to be sent upward. In contrast, information that is
unfavorable to the sender will probably be blocked, even when it is important to the organization.
Subordinates are more likely to filter information when they do not trust their superiors, perceive that
their superiors have considerable influence over their careers, and have a strong desire to move up.
Second, managers do not expend sufficient effort in encouraging upward communication. Managers
often behave in manners that exacerbate the situation, usually through punishing the bearer of bad
news or allowing themselves to be isolated from subordinates at lower levels.

3.2.3 Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication involves exchange of information among individuals on the same

organizational level, such as across or within departments. Thus, it generally involves colleagues and
peers. Horizontal information informs, supports, and coordinates activities both interdepartmentally
and interdepartmentally. Considerable horizontal communication in organizations stems from staff
specialists, in areas such as engineering, accounting, and human resources management, who provide
advice to managers in various departments. Horizontal communication is especially important in an
organization for the following purposes:

1. To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on part of an
important project.
2. To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number of items
assembled each hour.
3. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new survey.
4. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.
5. To build rapport: peer support.
Three major factors tend to impede necessary, work-related horizontal communication.
i.First, rivalry among individuals or work units can influence individuals to hide information that is
potentially damaging to them or that may aid others.
ii.Second, specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the work of their own
unit and to have little appreciation for the work and communication needs of others. For example,
scientists in R and D unit that is focused on long-term projects may find it difficult to interrupt
their work to help with current customer problems identified by the sales department.
iii.Third, motivation may be lacking when subordinate horizontal communication is not encouraged or
rewarded.

3.2.4 Diagonal Communication

Some organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different functional areas,
even different levels of the hierarchy. When these individuals from different units and organizational
level communicate, it is diagonal communication. With more and more firms reducing the number of
management layers and increasing the use of self managed work teams, many workers are being
required to communicate with others in different departments and on different levels to solve problems
and coordinate work. For instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas (accounting,
marketing, operations, and human resources) to work on a specific product project to ensure that all
points of view are considered.

 Activity
Discuss the following flows of communication:
 Upward
 Downward
 Horizontal
 Diagonal
2. Informal Communication

It’s known that employees in the work place transmit much information or messages in their day
to day activity and these messages may not flow through a formal network. Instead, the workers
use an informal communication network that is mainly oral.
The grapevine is an informal communication network throughout the organization in which
messages are rapidly transmitted, usually orally on a one to one basis.
Rumors about company matters such as a proposed merger, reallocation of the headquarters
office or a cutback in the work force are often spread by means of the grapevine

Factor responsible for the grapevine phenomenon

1. Feeling of certainty or lack of direction when the organization is passing through a difficult
period.
2. Feeling of inadequacy or lack of self confidence on the part of employee, leading to the
formation of gaps.
3. Formation of a clique or favored group by the managers, giving other employees a feeling of
insecurity or isolation.

Forms of grapevine communication

A. Single chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’ who tells it to ‘C’ and so on it
goes down the line. This type of communication flows from one person to another person
through single chain or communication flows one by one. When ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’
who tells it to ‘C’ and so on. One interesting fact comes out from this type of communication
that when one person passes certain information to other and they treat the message as
confidential or secret which further communicated by another with same feeling of
confidentiality and secrecy.

A B C D E

Fig. 2.3a: Single Chain

B. Star chain: In this type of chain person speaks out and tells everyone the information he/ she
has obtained. This chain is often used when information or a message regarding an
interesting but non job related nature is being conveyed. Sometimes it also called gossip
chain.
C
E

B
D

Fig. 2.3b: Star Chain

A

C. Cluster chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to a few selected individuals who
gain inform a few selected individuals. And the information flows in similar manner to other
individual.

B E E E

C G H H
D

F
K I I

Fig. 2.3c: Cluster Chain P

D. Probability chain: The probability chain is a random process in which a transmission of the
information to other in accordance with the laws of probability and then these tell still others
in a similar manner. The chain may also be called random.
J I B F

C E
G
K D
E

Fig. 2.3d: Probability Chain

2.6 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

It is very difficult to suggest a comprehensive list of vital features of system of communication.

It will depend on the specific needs of the situation. The following guidelines or principles may
be followed to achieve effective communication:

1. Clarity of message: The basic principle in communication is clarity. The message must be
as clear as possible. No vagueness should creep into it. The message can be conveyed
properly only if it is clearly formulated in the mind of the both sender and receiver.
2. Speed: A good system of communication must ensure a speedy transmission of message.
The time taken to transmit a message to its destination and speed of the communication
system should be considered on the basis of the urgency of communicating the message. If
message not delivered at time it create problem for organization.
3. Two-way process: Communication is the two-way process that provides feedback to the
sender from the receiver. Feedback refers to transmission of information concerning the
effect of any act of communication.
4. Reliability: Communication starts on the basis of belief. This atmosphere is built by
performance on the part of the expert. The receiver must have confidence in the sender. He
must have a high regard for the source’s competence on the subject.
5. Completeness: Every Communication must be complete as adequate. Incomplete messages
create misunderstanding, keep the receiver guessing and delay action.
6. Content: The message must be meaningful for the receiver, and it must be compatible with
his value system. It must have significance for him. In general, people select those items or
information which promises them the greatest rewards. The content determines the response
of the audience.
7. Accuracy: The communication medium should ensure accuracy in the transmission of
messages. Whatever medium chooses by the sender should be accurate for that particular
kind of information which they want to send.
8. Capability: Communication must take into account the capability of the audience.
Communications are most effective when they required the least effort on the part of the
recipients. This includes factors like reading ability and receiver knowledge.
9. Economy: The communication system should be as much economical as possible. But
efficiency of the system should not be sacrificed to achieve economy.
10. Secrecy: The communication system should ensure secrecy and there should be no leakage
of information. It becomes more essential when messages are of confidential nature.

2.4 GATEWAYS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Developing and maintaining a system of communication is the key job of any manager. The
characteristics of a good communication system are discussed below:
1. Two-way channel: In communication, two parties are involved, namely, the sender or
transmitter, and the receiver of the message. An effective communication demands two-
way communication. It should be vertical, downward and upward. Therefore, a manager
should thus not only to inform, instruct and order but should also be prepared to listen,
understand and interprets.
2. Clarity of message: Clarity of facts, ideas, opinion in the mind of communicator should be
clear before communicating. According to Koontz and Donnell, “A communication
possesses clarity when it is expressed in a language and transmitted in a way that can be
comprehended by the receiver.”
3. Mutual trust: A communication system may be considered excellent when mutual trust or
understanding exists between sender and the receiver of the message. Existence of healthy
interpersonal relation between the seniors and their subordinates is also an indicator of an
adequate system of communication in any department or organization.
4. Timely message: Considerable attention should be given to the timeliness of
communication. Old information is worse than none at all.
5. Consistency of message: Consistency can be achieved if the communicator keeps in his
mind the objective, policies and program of the enterprise. It should not be conflicting with
the previous communications; otherwise, it would create confusion and anarchy in the
organization.
6. Good relations: The mode of communication should be chosen in such a manner that it
does not hurt the feelings of the receiver. It should create proper understanding in their
minds of the receiver which leads to develop and maintain the good relationship among the
receiver and the sender.
7. Feedback: Feedback provides proper understanding of the message to the receiver. It
helpful in making a two-way communication process. The sender must try to ascertain
whether or not receiver properly understood the message.
8. Flexibility: The communication system should be flexible enough to adjust to the changing
requirements. It should absorb new techniques of communication with little resistance.

 Activity
What are some of the disadvantages of informal communication ?

2.3 SEVEN Cs OF COMMUNICATION

2.5.1 Seven Cs of Written Communication

1. Clarity

Clarity of thought: It comes from a careful consideration of the objective, content and medium of
communication.
Clarity of Expression:

1. Use simple word, easy to understand words:

Avoid them Use them
 Compensate Pay
 Facilitate Help
 Utilize Use
2. Use Single words for long phrases:

Long Phrases Single Words

 At all times Always
 For the purpose of For
 Previous to Before
 On account of Because
3. Use verbs for nouns (its brings about simplicity and clarity):

Using Nouns Using Verbs

(Difficult) (Simple)
 Come to a conclusion Conclude
 Make a decision Decide
 Submit a proposal Propose
 Take into consideration Consider
4. Avoid double entry
Double entry Simple
 Actual fact Fact
 End result Result
 Period of one week One week
 Previous experience Experience

5. Avoid ambiguity: If your message can mean more than one ambiguous. Faulty
punctuation causes the ambiguity.
Go. slow work in progress
Go slow. work in progress
6. Use short sentences: Use one sentence to express only one idea. If a sentence runs beyond
30 words, it is better to break it up into two sentences.

2. Completeness

While answering a letter or in communication with other make it sure that you have answered the
all question. Checking for the five W’s questions.
 Who  Where
 What  Why
 When

3. Conciseness
 Include only relevant facts
 Avoid repetition
 Organize your message well
4. Consideration
 Adopt the you-attitude

We-attitude You-attitude
I want to express my Thank you for
Sincere thanks for your kind words.

The good words…..

 Avoid gender bias
Avoid Use
Chairman Chair person
Policeman Police Sir/Madam
5. Courtesy
In business we must create friendliness with all those to whom we write. Friendliness is
inseparable from courtesy.
 Answer the letters promptly.
 Omit irritating expressions.
(You neglected, you irresponsible, you are unaware).
 Apologies sincerely for an omission/thank enormously for a favor.

6. Correctness
 Give correct facts.
 Send your message at the correct time.
 Send your message in the correct style.
7. Concreteness
 Always use specific fact and figures.
 Message should be definite and vivid.
 Avoid exaggeration.

2.5.2 Seven Cs of Oral Communication

According to Francis J. Bergin, a person engaged in oral communication must remember seven
Cs. And these are as follows:

1. Clear: An oral communication become effective when the message is clear for the audience
or receiver as the sender wants to convey. Oral messages are often misunderstood because
the speaker does not talk distinctly. So, for this purpose clear pronunciation is very much
required. To minimize this kind of problem a speaker tries to workout on different, lengthy
and unusual words for clear pronunciation.
2. Concise: Many people enjoy while talking and sometimes oral communication suffers from
the problem of over communication. But when the speaker keeps on talking for long, his/her
message will be distracted. So it will be advisable to speakers to try to keep the message as
brief as possible without changing the real message.
3. Complete: Like written communication in oral communication also, completeness
required. While communicating with other makes it sure that you have paid attention on
below questions. Checking for the five W’s questions.
4. Correct: In oral communication correctness means the source of information or from
where you get information is right or trustworthy source. Because if your source of
information is correct than the others generate faith on the speakers and listen them
carefully.
5. Concrete: For making oral communication effectively speakers should use specific fact
and ideas and also avoid exaggerating of any information. They try to choose appropriate
words which are not affecting a particular individual, society, culture or nation.
6. Courtesy: Courtesy involves you-attitude. Use polite words for oral communication. Tries
to avoid irritating expression, sincerely apologies for any mistake, do not use any
discriminatory expressions which are related to individual people, race, ethics, origin,
physical appearance etc.
7. Candid: When the speaker chooses the candid approaches, its mean that their message
should be straight, open, frank, outspoken. But not hurting particular individual.

Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your answer to any one of
the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific section again.

Number Can you Yes No

1 Describe the process of communication
2 Explain different types of communication barriers
3 Understand formal flows of communication
4 Explain Informal communication
5 Basic Principles of effective communication
Chapter II: Summary Questions

1. Which one of the semantic barrier refers to sender & receiver attribute difference meanings :

a. Interpretations of words
b. Bypassed instructions
c. Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums
d. Perception of Reality

2. Dealing with a person’s ability to encode a message:

a. Emotional State
b. Favorable or Unfavorable information
c. Closed mind
d. Credibility

3. Which type of communication flows along prescribed channels which all members desirous
of communicating with one another are obliged to follow:
a. Formal communication
b. Informal communication
4. One of the following could be advantage of formal communication :
a. It passes through line and authority and consequently ensures the maintenance of authority
as well as accountability of the executives’ in-charge.
b. It helps to develop intimate relations between immediate boss and his subordinates.
c. It keeps uniformity in the dissemination of information.
d. All
5. Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the
organizational hierarchy is called ___________________________.

a. Downward c. Horizontal and

b. Upward d. Diagonal.
6. Which type of information could be transmitted through downward communication :
a. Job directions
b. Assignment of tasks and responsibilities
c. Performance feedback
d. Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.
e. All
7. Which of the following could be the purposes of Horizontal Communication :
a. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new
survey.
b. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.
c. To build rapport: peer support.
d. All
8. __________________type of communication flows from one person to another person
through single chain or communication flows one by one.
a. Single Chain c. Cluster Chain
b. Star Chain d. Probability Chain
9. Including only relevant facts is all about :
a. Conciseness c. Completeness
b. Consideration d. Clarity
10. According to Francis J. Bergin, a person engaged in oral communication must remember :
a. Clear c. Complete
b. Concise d. All

Part one: Matching

A B
___1. The source of the message A. Clarity
___2. Is the carries of the message B. Capability
___3. Is also called the return message C. Channels
___4. Refers to communication in an D. Feed back
Unending process
___5. The message must be put in simple terms
The Process of interpretation of an encoded message
in to the understandable meaning. E. Sender
F. Receiver
G. Continuity

Part I: Multiple choices

1. D
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. E
7. D
8. A
9. A
10. D
MATHING
1. E
2. C
3. D
4. G
5. A
CHAPTER THREE
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

3.1 Objective
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Written Communication
3.3.1 Business Letter Writing
3.3.2 Business Report Writing
3.4 Oral Communication
3.4.1 Interview
3.4.2 Telephone Communication
3.4.3 Meeting
3.4.4 Active Listening
3.5 Summary
3.6 Review Questions

1.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
 Explain the importance of communication in Business
 understand nature and development of Communication
3.3 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication is best suited when the communicator and the receiver are beyond oral
communication medium. The executives in all organizations can maintain effective inter
departmental and intra departmental connection through messages by written words. The process
of communication involves sending message by written words. Written communication covers
all kinds of subject matter like notices, memorandums, reports, financial statements, business
letters etc. This type of communication simply means a process of reducing message into writing
which is extensively used in organizations. Formal communication must always be in writing
such as rules, orders, manuals, policy matter etc.

6.2 PURPOSE OF WRITING

The systematic filing of written communication is one of the important aspects of

communication. Filing along with indexing is necessary because of the poor retention power of
human being. The purpose of preserving written messages is to provide necessary information
readily and without any delay and when it is needed. However, the following gives the main
purpose of writing the messages.

1. Future references: The limitation of human mind and poor retention power cannot be
overlooked. Written messages can be preserved as records and reference sources. Various
media of communication can be filed for future reference. Thus, keeping records are essential
for continuous operation of the business.
2. Avoiding mistakes: In transmitting messages, earlier records help in reducing mistakes and
errors and also prevent the occurrence of fraud.
3. Legal requirements: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. That is why
some executives think that even if some messages have been transmitted orally, they should
later be confirmed in writing.
4. Wide access: Communication media having become very fast, written communication enjoy
a wide access. If the communicator and the receiver are far from each other, written
communication sent through post or e-mail is the cheapest and may be the only available
means of communication between them.
5. Effective decision-making: Old documents help effective decision-making in a great way.
Decision-making process becomes easier if old records are available. Because the messages
provide the necessary information for decision-making purpose.

6.3 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

1. Unity: Unity of writing implies a condition of being one. The principle of unity applies on
three levels. First, the individual sentences must be unified. Second, the individual paragraph
must be unified. Third, the totality of the message must be unified.
2. Coherence: To achieve clarity in a written communication the principle of coherence should
be there. Relation and clarity are two important aspects of coherence. The principle of
coherence applies to sentences, paragraphs and to the message as a whole.
3. Avoid jargon: As far as possible, the writer should avoid jargon. Jargon is a language which
is special to science, commerce, technology, trade or profession. In private language with
persons in the field, jargon may be incorporated. In other cases, jargon can be used, but the
only thing is that the words used must be clear to others as well.
4. Accuracy: The subject matter must be correct and accurate. The manner in which the
message is transmitted must be correct. Accuracy in writing can be achieved by careful
checking and editing.
5. Brevity: A writing should be shorter by using few words for many. Brevity not only saves
the time but also gives grace to the writing. Business communication must be brief and
direct.
6. 7 Cs of communication: Please refer to Chapter 2.
Written Communication

Merits
 Accurate
 Precise
 Permanent record
 Legal document
 Can reach a large number of people simultaneously
 Helps to fix responsibility.
Limitations

o Time consuming
o Expensive not in terms of postage but of the time of so many
people
o Quick clarification not possible.

6.4 WRITING TECHNIQUES

6.4.1 Adaptation and Selection of Words

Effective writing techniques gives stress on simplicity while using words, short sentences and
brief paragraphs and simplicity in terms of adaptation. Adaptation of words according to the
message addressing to the specific reader. All the readers do not have the same ability to
understand a message, they do not all have the same vocabulary, the same knowledge about the
subject. Thus, to communicate clearly we should know the person with whom we wish to
communicate. The message should fit the person’s mind. For this reasons it is advisable to adopt
following techniques during written communication.

o Use familiar words

Unfortunately, many business writers do not use familiar language enough instead; they tend to
change character when they begin to put their thoughts on paper.
Endeavour – Try
Ascertain – Find out
Terminate – End
Demonstrate – Show
Utilise – Use
 Choose the short over the long word. Generally, short words communicate better as a heavy
proportion of long words confuse the reader.

There are some long words such as hypnotize, hippopotamus and automobile are so well known
that they communicate easily. And some short words, such as vibes, vie (to complete), vex
(annoyed or upset), scab (worker) are understood by only a few. Thus you will be wise to use
long words with some caution. Further, you need to ensure that those you do use will be familiar
to your reader.
 Use technical words with caution.
All fields have technical words i.e., ‘jargon’, which becomes a part of our everyday working
vocabulary. In fact, so common will it appear in your mind that you may assume that people
outside the fields also know it. And in writing to those who is outside from your field you may
use these words, which leads to miscommunication.

6.4.2 Masculine Words

Sometimes the use of particular words can support unfair or untrue attitudes towards as particular
sex, usually women. For example using the pronoun ‘he’ to refer to a doctor, when you do not
know if they are male or female, might support the belief that it is not normal for women to be a
doctor.

Writing Effective Sentences

Clear writing is not limited to the words alone. It also means using clear sentences. Writing
simpler sentences largely means writing shorter sentences. The sentence can be a statement, a
question, a command or in the form of an exclamation. In writing, there is no hard and fast rule
for deciding upon the length of sentences but short sentences are simple because they are easy to
understand. They do not create problem by presenting complicated structure. Short sentences
should be framed as longer sentences have greater changes of having grammatical errors.
Efficient authors manipulate and experiment with the combinations and number of short and
long sentences for various purpose in mind as per the requirement of the text.
Characteristics of Effective Sentences

1. Unity: A sentence containing one idea at a time with all its parts contributing to strengthen
the main idea is called the unity of a sentence.
2. Coherence: How the various parts of a sentence are sticking together with no words
inappropriate. The sentences should also be in logical order.
3. Variety: The idea can be creatively expressed in a variety of sentences as the same kind of
thought or idea creates monotony.
4. Economy: The effectiveness of a sentence is judged by the number of words used to make a
sentence take its shape. Concise expressions increase the effectiveness of a sentence.
5. Proper selection: Precise selection and appropriate choice of words not only makes
sentences more connotative but also generates an impact on the reader of the text.
6. Simplicity: The choice of words, their consistency and the simplicity in choice of pattern
give a sentence an overall simple look.

BUSINESS LETTERS AND REPORT WRITING

NEED OF A BUSINESS LETTER

We need to write a business letter to maintain contacts with the external world including other
businessmen, customers and government departments. And also for the internal purpose like
office orders, circulars, memorandums etc. A letter writing may be less important for a small
business establishment, but it is has its own importance. There is also some other means of
communication, like telephone, telegraph etc. but they can make only a temporary impression on
the receiver’s mind. The message communicated through these media is less likely to be kept in
memory for a long time.
FUNCTIONS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

 A business letter serves as a record for future reference.

Back references are quite frequent in business communication. Knowledge of the past
transactions, agreements etc. with customers, suppliers and the like can be had easily, quickly
and correctly only when they have been preserved in writing.
 It leaves a more durable impression on the receiver’s mind than an oral message.
 Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the area of operations.
 It is used as a legal document.
 It is used to build goodwill.

Types of Letter

Personal letters are informal and are written to exchange news or to seek favor; letters to
relatives and friends are personal letters. Personal letters are written in a friendly, informal style.
And the nonpersonal letters are used for the business purpose, it should be written in the formal
style. The particular style depends upon the concerned company. There are some classifications
of non-personal or business letters:

Following are generally used in the organization as on broad aspect:

1. Official letters are written to government or semi-government bodies.

2. Demi-official letters (D.O.) are official in purpose but are addressed to a person by name.
D.O. letters may be written if the matter requires personal attention of the addresses, the
matter is of confidential nature, or the matter is urgent and requires immediate disposal.
3. Internal letters or memos are used both in government offices and business houses for
internal communication.
4. Form letters are used for correspondence of recurring or routine nature. They are used in case
of acknowledgements, reminders, interviews, notice, appointment, etc. relevant details filled
in this letter.

Exhibit: 7.1 Sales Letters

Dear Sir,

With summer approaching, you must be thinking of how to keep your office cool, so that
you and your colleagues can continue to work efficiently. To meet your needs, we have
produced AC of different capacities. The detailed specifications are given in the
Exhibit:
The7.3 Status
Rohini & Enquiry
Software Letter
Company
K-.09 main road,Adama

Gentlemen

This is to inform you that The Rohini Software Company is now open and is located at
K-09,main road, Adama. Our store offers a complete and diverse line of computer
software packages for both personal; and business applications. Our team includes
finance and engineering professionals along with the software experts. Our package are
therefore, developed with the thorough understanding of the relevant work process.
Enclosed, for your review, is a partial list of the items we currently have available. We
hope that you will come and visit us soon.

Cordially yours
Feyisa Tolera

Exhibit: 7.2 Circular Letter

Biftu Radio Corporation

K-04 DERARTU Street, Adama

th
25 August 2007
Jos& Bros.Ltd.
Main road
Adama
Confidential
Dear Sirs,
The firm named below wishes to open an account with us for birr.50,000, 3 months and
has given your name as a credit reference. Any information you may furnish us will be
treated as strictly confidential. We shall appreciate an early reply and assure you of our
willingness to reciprocate at any time. A stamped, addresses envelope is enclosed for
your convenience.

Yours faithfully
Mr. Fekadu Alemu
Credit Manager
Exhibit: 7.3 Status & Enquiry Letter

Ayu Hospital,
Adama.
29th April, 2008
The Managing Director
Quest Consultancy
Tesema Belachew
Adama
Exhibit: 7.4 Resignation Letter

July 22, 2008

Dear Sir
Re: Ch. Number 714526 of 15th July, 2008 for Rs.5000.

Please suspend payment of the cheque referred to above drawn by me favour of ‘self’,
as it appears to have been lost.
Since it happens to be bearer cheque, I have to request you to take immediate steps
toensure that, if presented for payment, it is duly dishonoured.

Kindly confirm.
Yours truly

Exhibit: 7.5 Bank Correspondences

7.1.2 Structure of Business Letter

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE OR PARTS OF A LETTER
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Reference
4. Inside address
5. Attention lines
6. Salutation
7. Subject
8. Body
9. Complimentary close
10. Signature
11. Identification marks
12. Enclosure
13. Copy to
14. Postscript
1. Heading ............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
2. Date ..................................................................................................................... ............
3. Your Reference.................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
4. Inside Address .................................................................................................................
5. Attention ................................................................................................................ ...........
........................................................................................................................................
6. Salutation ............................................................................................................... ..........
........................................................................................................................................
7. Subject .............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
8. Body ................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
9. Complimentary close .......................................................................................................
10. Signature ..........................................................................................................................
11. Identification Marks..........................................................................................................
12. Enclosure .........................................................................................................................
13. C.C ..................................................................................................................................
14. Post Script .......................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................

Fig. 7.3: Elements of Business Letter

1. Heading: Most business organizations use their printed letterheads for the
correspondence with others. The letter head contains the name, the address, the telephone
number and the telegraph address if any. Generally, the name and address are printed on
the top middle of the page and any other information is indicated in the margins.

Jonson Academy
Adama, Main Road, Derartu Street.
Telephone: Fax:
\

Exhibit: 7.6
2. Date: Some letterhead contain, a printed line indicating where the date should be typed, in
others, the typist chooses the right place for it. It should be typed two spaces below the last
line of the letterhead. The date, month and year should be indicated in the upper right hand
corner as;

2 August, 2001
August 2, 2001
2nd August, 2001
(First and second option is correct among the three)

Note: Names of the months and year are written in full and no suffix and as ‘nd’ or ‘th’.
3. Reference: Some letterheads contain two lines to indicate references:

Telegraphs: Telephone
Jonson Academy
Adama, Main Road, Derartu Street.
Your Reference:
Our Reference:

If you are replying, gives the correspondent’s reference number against the first and your
reference number against the second line. Some companies prefer to indicate the reference
number of the correspondent in the body of letters:
Thank you for your letter Number AB/ 46/P497 of August 2, 2001

4. Inside address: The full address of the person or organization you are addressing, should be
written two spaces below the date and two spaces above the attention line, or if there is no
attention line, two spaces above the salutation. The names of persons, firms, streets, roads
etc. should be written as indicated in the source you got the address from. These details
should not be abbreviated. Like Mr. Melaku Leul Tadese does not write Mr.M.L. Melaku or
Mr.Melaku L. Tadese or Mr. M. Leu Tadese.
It is bad business manners to do so. Special care should be taken to spell the addresses name
correctly. Misspelling his name may give him the impression that you have little respect for
him.
Many companies have a separate dispatch section. This section reproduces on the envelope
what you write as the inside address. If you have not properly mentioned inside address, than
your letter may not reach its destination.
The Bahir Trading Company
Hospital Marg, Agra-282002
The General Manager
Hindustan Co-operative Bank Limited
Baroda House, Mumbai – 400001
(In case of limited company)
5. Attention line: To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter which is addressed to a firm
or company is marked to particular officer in that organization. This is done by writing an
attention line two spaces below the inside address and two spaces above the salutation.
This line is generally underlined:
Attention: The Sales Manager
Attention: Mr. AKiya Zelalem
6. Salutation: The salutation in a letter, an essential ingredient, is like greeting a person when
you meet him. It is placed two spaces below the attention line or if there is no such line, two
spaces below the inside address. The choice of salutation depends upon the personal
relationship between the writer and the reader, and on the firm of the inside address. If you
are addressing a firm, a company, a board, a club, a society and association, an agency use
“Dear Sir’s”. Always remember that the attention line does not alter the salutation. If you
write a letter to an officer by name the salutation will be “Dear Sir” or ‘Dear Mss.’ or ‘Dear
Madam’ followed by his or her surname, use the second part of the name after the salutation.

Dear Mr. Alemayehu

Dear Mss. Alemitu

The following salutations are a little less formal than those give above:
My dear Mr. Tesema
My dear Mss. Chaltu

If the correspondent is a close friend of you’re, may address him or her by first name:
My dear Alex
My dear Simegn
7. Subject: The purpose of the subject line is to let reader know immediately what the message
is about. Like attention and reference lines, it saves time.
The usual practice is to type this line in a double space between the salutation and the
first line of the body of the letter. There are, however, some organizations which prefer to
have the subject line between the attention line and the salutation.

(a) The Rathore Trading Company

04 Subways, New Market
Jupiter- 201001
Attention: The Sales Manager
Dear Sirs,
Subject: Supply of Packing Boxes.
(b) The Navneet Steel Corporation
443, Derartu Street
Aklesia–361001
Attention: Mr. Alemayehu
Subject: Payment of Bill Number N/543 of August 2008
Dear Sirs,
8. Body: The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message and the main purpose of the
message is to produce a suitable response in the reader. This is done mainly through the body
of the letter. It is, therefore, important to organize and arrange the material very carefully. In
the first paragraph, reference, to any correspondence which has already taken place should be
given and in the second the main message should be stated. In the closing paragraph you
must state clearly what action you will expect the reader to take, or you may end the letter
indicating your expectations, wishes or intentions. The paragraphs are not given any headings
unless the letter is very long and deals with several important points.
9. Complimentary close: The complimentary close is a courteous leave taking polite way of
ending a letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the body of the letter. The
complimentary close must agree with the salutation as shown below:

The salutation The complimentary close

1. Sir, Yours faithfully or

Yours obediently
Yours respectfully
2. Dear sirs, yours faithfully

Sir, or
Madams, yours truly
Madam,
3. Dear Mr. Kebede Yours Sincerely

My Dear Smhar
4. Dear Shewaye Yours Sincerely or

My Dear Amit Yours ever

Dear Lata
5. Dear Member Yours Sincerely

Dear Customer/ Reader/

Subscriber

10. Signature: The signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below the
complimentary close. The name of the writer is generally typed four spaces below the closing
line, providing enough space for the signature.
(i) Yours faithfully
(G.M. Misra)
(ii) Yours faithfully
(Mss. Misra Nure)
Sales Executive

11. Identification marks: These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist of the letter,
one or two spaces below the signature. Usually, the initials of the officer who dedicated the
letter are put first.

Ex: If the letter has been dictated by Mr .Taye Belihu and typed by Ato .Alemayehu
SPS/PG
SPS: PG
PG
Pg
12. Enclosure: If there is anything attached to the letter, it must be indicated against the
enclosure line which is typed two spaces below the identification marks. Generally, the
abbreviated from Encl. is typed against which the number of enclosures is indicated.

Encl. 2
If however, the documents attached are important they are specified:
Encls: 1. Agreement dated 1 October, 2007.
2. Cheque Number p 35672 of 4 October 2007
13. Copy distributions: Sometimes copies of a letter have to be sent to some people other than
the addressee also. In such cases, the names of these persons should be typed just below the
reference initials or the enclosure notation, if any. The names of the person should be
arranged either in order of importance or alphabetically.
14. Postscript: Postscript is something written after the letter is closed. Writing a postscript (P.S.)
indicated that the writer had forgotten to include something important in the body of the
letter or he had not planned his letters properly. From the view point of a good business P.S.
and it should preferably be avoided.

7.1.3 Form of Layout

1. Stationary: White papers should be preferred as the letters stand out clearly or it makes
easy reading. The standard size of the paper used for business letters is 18 ½ by 11
inches. Other sizes used as 8*10 inches, 5*10 inches, 5 ½*8½ inches and 7 ¼*8 ½
inches.
2. Typing: Most business letters are typed. There are two reasons for it. Typing saves time
and gives a tidy appearance to the letter. Care should, however, be taken to get the letters
neatly typed.
3. Margins: Margins in a letter add to its attractiveness. Generally, a 1 inch margin is left
on the sides and 1 ½ inches left on the top and the bottom in a standard size letter.
4. Envelope: Envelope should be chosen to suit the size of the paper on which the letter is
typed. If a window envelope is used, the letter should be folded such that the inside
address will be displayed. The number of folds should be minimum as per as possible.

7.1.4 Style of Presentation/Form of Letters

1. Indented form: This is the oldest style and is now outdated. In this form, the inside address
is in intended style, and every paragraph being 3 to 5 space away from the left margin. The
indention causes the letter to look uneven at the left margin. Besides, it takes more time to
type because of the indenting. This style is not used today.
Name of the Company & Addresses
Inside Name.................
Date..................
Inside Address.................
.......................................
Salutation................................
Subject.....................................
..............................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................................................
....................................................
................................................... Body of Letter
.......................................................................................
Complimentary
Fig 7.4: Indented Form Close
Signature & Designation
2. Full blocked form: This is the most modern style. All parts of the letters, except the printed
letterhead, are aligned with left margin. A letter in this form saves more time because
indentation is not required for any part. But some correspondents do not like it because it
appears imbalances and heavy on the left side.

Name & Address of the Company

Date: .................................
Inside Name & Address.................................
Salutation........................
Subject.............................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
....................................................... Body of Letter
.....................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.5: Full Blocked Form

3. Modified blocked form: This style is a modification of the full block form. It eliminates the
shortcoming of the full block style by keeping the date and complimentary close on the right
in their usual position. The entire paragraph being at the left margin, and there is double
space between the paragraph. This is the most popular form, as it has many of the advantage
of the full form without its advantages.

Name & Address of the Company

Ref. Number....................
Date…………………….....
Inside Name & Address.................................
Salutation.........................
.............................................................................................................................................
................................................. Body of Letter ...................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.6: Modified Form

4. Semi-intended/Semi-blocked form: This is like the block style except that the paragraphs
of the letter are intended. Those who use it say that it is easier to read paragraph which be-
gins with an indented line because one is used to seeing this style in print.

Name & Address of the Company

Date:......................
Inside Name & Address.................................
.....................................................................
Salutation.....................................................
Subject............................. ............................
........................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
................................................. Body of Letter...................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.7: Semi Indented Form

5. Hanging indention form: This style is like the block except that the first line of each
paragraph is aligned with the left margin whereas, all other lines in each paragraph are
intended four or five spaces. Its appearance is unusual and may perhaps catch attention
quickly but this fact could be a disadvantage as well. It may distract the reader by focusing
his attention on the form rather the message of the letter. This style was not popular in the
world of business.
Name & Address of the Company
Date:......................
Inside Name & Address.................................
........................................................................
Salutation........................................................
Subject............................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................... Body of Letter ...................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.8: Hanging Indention Form

6. NOMA form: This is the most recent experiment in layout style. It is recommended by
National Office Management Association of America (NOMA). It has been accepted in the
UK also. It has most of the features of full block form. All lines begin at the left margin and
the inside address in the block form. The special features of this form are:
(i) It has no solution and no complimentary close;
(ii) The subject line is in capitals, 3 lines below the inside address;
(iii) Numbered items of a list begin at the left margin but if there is no number, the items are
indented 5 spaces. There is no full-stop at the end of items.
(iv) The writer name and title are typed in capitals in one line below the space for signature.
(v) The typist initials are in the left bottom corner.

Name & Address of the Company

Date ......................
Inside Name & Address .................................
........................................................................
Subject ............................................................
...........................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
.......
......................................................................................................................................
.......
......................................................... Body of Letter
...........................................................
......................................................................................................................................
.......
Signature & Designation

1.2 MEMORANDUMS
A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an organization to communicate
within the organization. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a note to assist the
memory. A memorandum is used for internal communication between executives and
subordinates. It is never sent outside the organization.
7.2.1 Purpose of Writing Memorandums
Memorandum (memos) may be used for any official communication. Usually, memos are used:-
1. For conveying schedule message.
2. For submitting periodical reports.
3. For communicating changes in organization.
4. For issuing instruction to the staff.
5. For conforming a decision made at phone.
6. For asking certain special information.
7. For writing suggestions.

ADVANTAGES OF MEMORANDUMS

1. Inexpensive: Because of its hand to hand circulation within the organization, it is inexpensive
means of communication.
2. Convenient: It is convenient to write and read memo, as all heading like data, person etc. are
usually printed in standardized format. Memos take comparatively less time for writing,
transmission and reading than letters.
3. Future reference: Memos are usually stored in office files or computer’s discs. As a result,
they can be used for future reference.
4. Quick: Memos ensure quick and smooth flow of information in all directions. With
exchanges of memos, the busy executives and employees can interact with each other
without disturbing their routine.
5. Fixing accountability: As memos are records of facts and decisions, they establish
accountability. Therefore, some organizations prefer to use memos even for small events and
request than telephone/verbal communication.

1.2.2 The Memorandum Format

The memo format is different from that of a letter. Since a memo moves from one department to
another or from one employee to another, it is essential to write the name of the person sending
the memo and the name of the recipient and the designation or department of both the persons. It
must also have reference numbers. The words ‘From’ and ‘To’ are invariably used in memo.
There is no salutation and the writer’s signature is put without writing the subscription or
complimentary close. The memo is properly dated, is written in a direct style and is as brief as
possible. The three factors to be kept in mind while considering the tone are:

1. Who is going to read the memo?

2. The subject-matter of the memo, and
3. The company in house style.

The tone of a memo need not be very formal, nor should it be so informal that it loses all
seriousness.

Company Name
Inter-Officer/Memo
Date: ...............................
Ref. No. ..........................
To: .................................
From...............................
Sub: .....................................................................................
1. ...............................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
2. ...............................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................

Copies to
............................
............................

Fig. 7.10: Memo Format

ABC Motors Pvt. Ltd.
Lucknow
Date: ……....…
Office Memorandum
Ref. Number: 592/20…..
To: Debebe Ayalew
Administration

From: Alemayehu Demeke, D.G.M.

Subject: Reading newspapers and magazines in office hours.

I appreciate your interest in the rapidly changing political scene in the country. But would
you please confine your reading of newspapers and magazine before, or after office hours
sitting in the comfort of your drawing room?
You will agree that maintaining office decorum is of utmost importance for the welfare of the
organization.

7.3 REPORT WRITING

A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event, progress of

action or some business activity. It is a written statement of results, events, qualities, conditions,
progress or interpretation of records. A report is a basic management tool used in decision-
making. A report carries information from someone who has it someone who need it.

ORAL AND WRITTEN REPORTS

An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may consist in the communication of an
impression or an observation. But written report is always preferred because:

1. An oral report can be denied at any time. But written report is a permanent record.
2. An oral report tends to be vague. In written report, the writer tries to be accurate and
precise.
3. A written report can be referred to again and again.
4. Distortion during transmission reduces.
7.3.1 Types of Business Reports
 On the basis of legal formalities
1. Informal reports: It is written in the form of a letter from one person to another. Informal
reports typically do not follow any prescribed form or procedure. They do not have any
uniform structure. They are prepared according to the convenience and requirements of the
organization. These reports may be informative or recommendatory.
2. Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is
presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority.
 Statutory: A report prepared according to the form & procedure laid down by law is
called statutory report.
 Non-statutory: Formal reports which are not required under any law but which are
prepared to help management in framing policies or taking other important decision are
called non-statutory report.

❖ On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.

1. Periodic or routine reports: They are prepared and presented at regular prescribed
intervals in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted daily. Branch Manager of
banks submits periodic reports to the Head office on the quantum of business transacted
during a particular period.
2. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the
desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular branch are
special reports. Special reports deal with non- recurrent problems.
 On the basis of functions a report can be informative. If a report merely presents
facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is informative. On the other hand, if it
analyses the facts, draw conclusions and make recommendations, it may be
described as analytical or interpretative or investigative.
 On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have a
 Problem-determining report
 Fact-finding report
 Performance report
 Technical report etc.
 On the basis of the number of persons interested with the drafting of reports, we
can have :
o Reports by individuals
o Reports by committees or sub-committees.

7.3.2 Characteristics and Purpose of a Good Report

Characteristics of a good report

• Precise and brief • Relevant
• Accuracy • Reader-oriented
• Clarity

PURPOSE OF BUSINESS REPORT

1. It presents factual information to management.
2. It records fact and results of investigation or survey for future references.
3. It provides useful information to shareholders, customers, creditors and general public.
4. It makes recommendation for future use.

7.3.3 Guiding Principles of Writing a Report

1. The report should be addressed to some definite authority, i.e. the Managing Director or
Board of Directors.
2. It should contain a short and clear title to know about the report at a glance.
3. As the report is generally drafted on the advice or request of some reader, it should quote the
term of reference so that it should be clear why the report is required.
4. The body of the report should be planned and should be logical in sequence preferably with
headed paragraph.
5. The recommendations, if any, should be boldly marked so as to invite immediate attention.

It may be signed by the officer responsible for it and it should be dated.

7.3.4 Preparing a Report

The following five steps are suggested to write a report.

 Investigating the source of  Analyzing the data
information  Making an outline; and
 Taking notes  Writing the report
7.3.5 Structure of a Report

1. Letter form: For informal reports, letter form is recommended. Its main part is heading or
the title, data, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close and signature.

The body of the letter is further divided into:

(i) Introduction: It presents the terms of reference and the subject of study. (It states
problem with the term of reference and relevant circumstances).
(ii) Findings: The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.
(iii) Recommendation: It logically follows the findings given in the last paragraph of the
body.
2. Memorandum: It is simplest than letter form. The date is mentioned at the top. It is
followed by the name of the person to whom the report is addressed, the name of the writer
and the subject of the report. Next follows the actual text and the conclusion. As in the letter
form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with heading and sub-heading.

MEMORANDUM
Date...
To: ............................
From: ........................
Subject: ....................
Body of
Letter....................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...

Exhibit: 7.11 Format of Memo for Report Writing

3. Letter-text combination form: Long reports are usually written in the letter text combination
form. A complete report in this form is divided into three major parts:-
(I) Introductory Parts
 Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
 Cover page

3.2 ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication is the communication where the message or information exchanges by

spoken words. It can be done by both face to face and also through mechanical devices. And
definitely both will take place an important position in the organization. In an organization face
to face communication can be done through conference, seminar, group discussion, personal
interview, etc. Mechanical devices play an important role in modern business communication
process which include signals, telephone, mobile, e-mail, fax etc.

3.2.1 Advantages of Oral Communication

2. Speed: Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag between the
transmission and reception of massage.
3. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener: You might spend hours drafting a
memorandum, letter or report only to have recipient scan if superficially or not read it at all.
In a personal contact, however, you have much more command over the receiver’s attention.
4. It saves time: Where action is required to be taken immediately, it is advisable to
communicate orally.
5. It saves money: At one time you can communicate with more then one person and it saves
money as compared to the written communication when it is within the organization.
6. It allows instantaneous feedback: When you speak directly to one or more listeners, you
can respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can revise quickly if you have used the
wrong word and offended or confused your audience.
7. Supplemented by non-verbal clues: The person receiving oral communication can combine
it with the expressions and other non-verbal clues around the speaker, the message can be
better understood.
8. It is extremely useful while communicating with groups at meetings, assemblies, etc.

3.2.2 Limitations of Oral Communication

Although it has many advantages, oral communication is not always the best approach. It suffers
from the following disadvantages:

1. No evidence: There is no documentary proof of oral communication and as such the

impact of oral communication is purely temporary.
2. The lengthy messages are not suitable for such type of communication, because of poor
retention power of human being.
3. Expensive and time consuming when the communicator and receiver are far removed
from each other or when the people who need to communicate are separated by longer
distance, personal contact is expensive and time consuming. Even a cross-town trip for a
half-hour meeting can take most of the morning or afternoon, depending upon traffic or
weather.
4. Not appropriate when the matter is controversial.
5. Serious deliberation is not possible: A serious thought is not possible on the subject
because the receiver has to take an immediate decision in response to the communication
received.
6. More prone to physical noise: An oral message has more probability of getting distorted
because of physical noise of speech, somebody interfering in between, and likewise.
7. Oral massages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a part of
permanent record.
3.2.3 TWO SIDES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

The sender and the receiver are the two sides of oral communication. As sender, what are the
different methods for making oral communication effectively are described in other section of
chapter but as the receiver oral evaluation may include both positive comments and areas for
improvement. Like feedback on any assignment, it is helpful to offer constructive criticism
without personally attacking the character of the speaker. Let us suggest the following to
receivers for providing oral or written feedback to oral presentations:

 Be descriptive. Describe what you observed the speaker doing rather than passing
judgment, e.g. say “I did not hear a concluding statement” rather than “That was a stupid
way to end your presentation.”
 Be specific. Give the speaker enough information so that she/he can improve for the next
presentation, e.g. say “I would increase the font size on your PowerPoint slides because I
had trouble reading the slides” rather than “Your visual aids were ineffective.”
 Be positive. “Sandwich” comments such that you begin with a positive comment, then
offer suggestions for improvement, and end with a positive comment.
 Be constructive. Give specific suggestions for improvement rather than simply telling the
speaker what they did wrong.
 Be sensitive. Use tactful language in giving feedback rather than offering blunt suggestions
or comments, e.g. say “Speak a bit louder so those in the back of the room can hear you”
rather than “I couldn’t hear a word you said—speak up!”
 Be realistic. Give the speaker feedback about things that he/she can actually change.
Telling a speaker that she/he is too short is not helpful.

3.2.4 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

For making oral communication effective a speaker should take care of their body language,
paralanguage, presentation style, time, place, etc. for details please refer the Seven Cs of oral
communication and also refer about Effective presentation.
3.2.5 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of words. A
verbal contact, therefore, suggests an oral contact and verbal evidence denotes oral evidence.
Non-verbal communication refers to the type of communication that does not use words. Non-
verbal communication is closely associated with the power of observation. The receiver of the
communication should be in a position to see, hear and even feel the communicator. The receiver
of the communication should be in a position to clearly see the face, the gesture, the tone, the
dress, the appearance and also hear the voice of the communicator. Since it is through
observation, non-verbal communication may be both intended and unintended. It is intended
when the communicator tries to convey certain messages to the target group through conscious
gesture, postures and other forms of body language. Non-verbal communication is unintended
when the body language, posture or appearance of the communicator is interpreted by the
receiver, even though it is not done consciously. A sloppy posture or a causal attire (cloths) may
be interpreted as lack of seriousness, although the speaker may be quite intent.

Importance of Non-verbal Communication

1. For conveying ideas related to geography, maps, charts, graphs etc. At a glance, the receiver
can understand the matter, because non-verbal methods can present a large amount of data in
a compact form.
2. For traffic signs and signals, non-verbal communication is absolutely essential because there
must be instant response from the drivers or pedestrians.
3. Every human being normally responds quickly to colours, pictures or sounds than to any
language.
4. The only method to convey illiterate people through non-verbal symbols.
Body Language

Body language means the changes that occur in the body position and movements that shows
what the person is feeling or thinking. Much of it is involuntary and unconscious most persons
are not aware of their body language. But it makes powerful impact on others. Body language
can be divided into conscious and unconscious:
1. Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habit and cultural customs are as
follows:
Biological: Certain body shapes, skin colour and features cause persons to have some kinds
of gestures, expressions and postures. Besides, we constantly try to adjust and adapt our body to
our environment which we may or may not find comfortable.
Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habit in the process of adapting
oneself to the environment. They also arise from one’s occupation which requires constant
posture or movement of certain kinds. Certain speaking styles and phrases are also occupational
habits.
Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking straight in the eye
of elder or senior are culture specific. Customs of receiving guests, introduction, social conduct
also include some gestures.
2. Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used. Actors are
specially trained for this, skilled communicators, especially good presenters also make
conscious use of body language.

No one can gain full control of one’s body language, but it is possible to enlarge one’s awareness
of one’s body and gain a good deal of control on one’s posture, movements and voice
modulation. If we develop increased sensitivity to our own body language, our ability to read
other’ body language is increased.
a) APPEARANCE

A person’s general appearance depends on several things. Two of the important factors that
contribute to appearance are grooming and personal hygiene. Care of skin, nails, feet and hair are
expected standards. A person who neglects these aspects makes an unpleasant impression.
Appearance makes the first impression, lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness in grooming,
clumsy clothes make a negative impression. Poor health is easily reflected in the appearance.

b) FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

It is said that the face is the index of the mind. The thoughts of the mind and the feeling of the
heart often find expression on the face. A cheerful or appreciative smile, displeased frown, a look
of surprise and several other expressions of the face can convey, with or without words, the
attitude, feelings and reaction of the communicators. There are people who are good at reading
facial expressions. Good communicators, be they speaker or listener, learn to read and interpret
facial expressions.

c) EYE CONTACT

An eye movement is a key part of facial behaviour, directing other’s attention or showing
surprise or happiness and other emotional displays. Eye contact between speaker and listener is
necessary for indicating that both are interested in the communication. While making an oral
presentation it is important to create rapport with the audience with eye contact. Presenters make
it a point to take in the whole audience with a sweep of the eye, making brief eye contact with as
many as possible. The comfort level for eye contact is three to five seconds, if eye contact is held
more than 3 to 5 seconds it can cause discomfort to the other person. It is commonly believed
that avoiding eye contact indicates that the speaker is lying, yet some liars may hold unblinking
eye contact and watch to see your reaction. Persons who lack self-confidence also generally
avoid eye contact. However, the rules and customs of culture influence how people use their face
and eyes.
d) SMILE

A smile is a very potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to communication. A
natural, pleasant smile carries great significance in establishing and sustaining human
relationships. The significance of smile is beautifully brought out in the saying, “You are never
fully dressed unless you wear a smile.”

e) POSTURE (BODY POSITION)

Posture refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The position of hands and legs and other
parts of the body reveals not only an individual’s state of mind whether he is vibrant, alive and
dynamic, nervous and jittery, confident and self assured etc. but also his grip on the subject
matter of communication. An efficient speaker stands tall, feet together with the weight directly
over the instep keeping his chin on a line parallel to the floor or at right angles to the backbone.
Standing in this posture before a group is essential for successful speaking. A speaker with a
drooping shoulder and a postruding stomach seems to be tired and worn out. The sitting posture
also shows your personality. In a group discussion a participant when takes a turn to speak
changes his posture. However, different situations demand different postures.
One may keep ones back straight from the waist up, both the feet may be on the floor, one
slightly in front of the other. The walking posture may convey how confident or diffident,
energetic or withdrawn a speaker is. For gracefully a speaker should remember to move his or
her legs freely from the hips, lift to move his or her feet from the floor, walk in straight line, and
avoid stride or taking tiny steps. For effective speaking, naturally one should cultivate how to
shift his or her posture, how to shift the weight of the body on the legs while speaking and to
learn where to place his or her hands.

f) GESTURES

Gestures play a significant role in making the intent of the communication effective and content
productive. The gestures like playing with the ring, twisting a key chain or clasping one’s hand
tightly may indicate the state of mind of the speaker affecting both the encoding and decoding of
his/her message in communication. An efficient speaker learns to inculcate appropriate gestures
by practising the same in front of mirror. He/she also seeks the guidance, in this regard, from
his/her friends and colleagues. However, in the use of gestures one should be constantly self-
evaluating judging and using the right gesture for the right impact. It is also true that on making
gestures one should be careful and cautious about the cultural limitations, sexual implications,
and moral bindings. Gestures do add meaning to the message but they may turn awkward if not
used keeping time, place and person in the communication. Some
example are handshake, sitting position, thumbs up, hand to face, head nod, collar pull, thumb
and finger rub, eye signals, wink of the eye etc.

g) CLOTHING AND ACCESSORIES

Clothing is very important aspect of body language. It requires judgement to make a subtle
impression by what you wear. The colour, design, cut and fitting, combine to make up the dress.
In India we have several choices as it is acceptable to wear clothing of national style or of
western style. Appropriateness for the occasion is essential, the formality of the occasion, the
time of the day, the season, the cultural background of the people who will be present and the
conventions of your own organization should provide good guidance. Accessories like tie,
footwear, jewellery need careful selection and should be comfortable to wear. Handbag or
briefcase is included in accessories. Whatever you carry on your hands ought to look
comfortable and gracefully carried, otherwise, it will convey a poor image.

h) ENERGY

Energy and enthusiasm as an aspect of body language is hard to describe, but most people have
experienced the impact of a person with a high level of energy. State of physical and mental
health play a large part in body language, a healthy person is energetic and maintains a certain
level of enthusiasm in work. A person’s enthusiasm is reflected in the style, it is usually
infectious and make listeners also feel enthusiastic.
i) TIME (CHRONEMICS)

Time given to listen or to speak to people creates a sense of self-esteem in them. It is equated
with care and concern. On the other hand, a person who uses one’s own time and other people’s
time wastefully creates an impression of being inefficient and disorganised. A sense of timing in
conducting meetings, in conveying good or bad news, in making a presentation, generates
respect and goodwill.

j) SPACE DISTANCE (PROXEMICS)

Each communicator has a personal zone and territory built or constructed around himself or
herself which he or she does not allow to invade during communication unless the relationship
between the speaker and the listener is intimate. Edward T. Hall has described human
relationship in terms of four kinds of distance as:

1. Intimate–Physical contact to 18 inches.

2. Personal–18 inches to 4 feet.
3. Social–4 feet to 12 feet.
4. Public –12 feet to range of eyesight and hearing.

Paragraph Language

The non-verbal aspects of the spoken words are known as paragraph language. It includes the
qualities of the voice, the way we use our voice, as well as the sounds we make without uttering
of the words. It is possible to control and use paragraph language effectively, becoming aware of
it and playing attention to one’s voice and speech.
VOICE: Voice has characteristics like
 Tone is the quality of the voice.
 Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the number of the
persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and the listener. Speaking too
loud shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature.
 Pitch is the high or low note on the scale. A high pitched voice is often unpleasant, and
suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance; a frightened person speaks in a high pitched
voice. It is better to begin softly, in a low pitch and raise the volume pitch as required.
SPEED: Speed is factor of speech. Rapid speech indicates excitement. We increase speed of
speaking to tell an interesting story and reduce speed to explain a difficult idea.

PRONUNCIATION: Pronunciation means the accepted standard of the way in which a word is
said. Correct and clear pronunciation is important and indicates that the speaker is careful and
has consideration for the audience.

ACCENT
Accent is the way a person pronounces the sound of the language. Every language has its own
accent or way of forming the sounds; we carry out mother tongue accent to other language. Good
accent in a new language is learnt by listening to native speakers of the language.

STRESS
Stress on a particular word in a sentence can change the meaning and implication. Try reading
the sentence, ‘what you did in last meeting?’ by stressing a different word each time and note the
difference in the implies meaning. Sometimes when the speaker hesitates to speak certain word
then they stress the word like Mmmmmm! Ouch! Huh! etc.
SILENCE

Silence can be very effective way of communication. Silence is a difficult method of

communication to use as it takes a good deal of self-control and self-confidence to be able to
hold one’s tongue. Short silences or pauses are very effective in giving emphasis to words. A
pause before or after certain words makes the words stand out from the rest. A skilfully placed
pause has the power to make the listener more alert. But some of it creates barrier for
communication like when conversation through telephone the silence may not be effective
because the other person cannot see the facial expression of the other person.

3.2.6 INTERVIEW

The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight between’. It suggests a meeting between
two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other, or for knowing each other or we can
say that it is the interaction between interviewer and interviewee. An interview is a means of
two-way communication.
3.2.7 Types of Interview
1. Promotion interview: Persons due for promotion are interviewed even if there is no
competition. This type of interview is more informal and serves as induction for new
responsibilities and duties. And if there, is competition for promotion, the interview helps in
the selection process and may also serve as an opportunity for a discussion of career
opportunities for candidate.
2. Appraisal or Assessment interview: An appraisal interview is one of the methods of
periodical assessment of employees. Annual appraisal interview is the best method for
judging employees performance. A face-to-face confidential talk is an opportunity for both
they discuss on several issues which are related to job. This interview is more a discussion
rather than question-answer. The focus is on the career development, shortcomings, areas
which need improvement, training, opportunities for promotion etc.
3. Exit interview: An exit interview is given to an employee who has resigned or leaving the
organization. The organization can—
• Find out the precise reason for the employee decision to leave.
• Give information about PF, group insurance and how and when’s the dues will be paid.
• Get feedback on employee’s opinion about the organization’s policies.
• Give the final pay cheque or information about when it will be ready and how it will be
handed over.
• Check that all books, manuals, tools, equipments which were issued to the employee have
been returned as same.
4. Problem interview: Problem interview basically meant for those employees who create
problem. An employee whose performance or behaviour is unsatisfactory in spite of warning
represents a problem. An interview is more likely to suggest a solution than warnings and
notices. The reason for the employee’s poor performance can be found out in a face-to-face
talk, it may be domestic problems, health problem, lack of training or dissatisfaction with
job, environment problem, hierarchy problem etc. Many organizations have facilities for
counseling staff, the employee may be offered a session with the counselor.
5. Stress interview: A stress interview puts the candidates into difficult situations in order to
test her/his reaction to stress. This method is used for selection for positions in which the
person must be able to face difficult situations without getting upset. A stress interview tests
such qualities as courage, tact, cool temper, and self-command, on candidates which is
needed when confronted by other individual or groups.
6. Selection interview: The most important objective of the selection interviews is to measure
the suitability of the candidates for specific jobs. Employment interviews are usually taken
by a panel of interviewer. An interview may take time from 10 minutes to 45 minutes or even
longer. Interviewers spend more time on good candidates. They have to gather enough
information about the candidates to be able to assess their suitability to join the organization.
The candidates too must find out about the organization, its employee policies and culture,
what it expects the recruits to do and what opportunities for career development it offers.
3.2.8 Candidate’s Preparation

In interview not only information and knowledge of the candidate assessed but the whole
personality is assessed. The candidate must be physically, mentally and psychologically prepared
for the interview.
PHYSICAL PREPARATION

1. The candidate is likely to be properly groomed and formally dressed. Clean and well-cut
nails, properly combed hair, well-fitting clothes, neat footwear and a suitable handbag or
brief case are the normal requirements of formal appearance.
2. Posture. The way a candidate carries him while standing, walking, sitting reveals a good deal
about him. Self-confidence, nervousness or over-confidence, are all reflected in the posture
and bearing of the candidate. Note your body movements, and take care to stop any bad
habitual movements.
3. Good etiquette is necessary for interview. The candidate must know what the suitable
greetings are for the day on a particular time.
• Do not offer to shake hands unless it is offered by an interviewer.
• Do not sit until you are asked to sit down. If you are not asked to sit then take permission
from interviewer to sit.
• Take care, while handling the chair. It should not be dragged noisily. Sit comfortably and
with good posture.
• If you have large briefcase, put it down on the floor near the chair. If you have small one
• Then keep it on your lap. Be comfortable and well practiced in handling your bag.
• Do not put elbows or hand on the table. Practice keeping hands comfortably when you are
not using them.
• Maintain comfortable posture throughout the interview.
• At the end of the interview, remember to thank the interviewers and wish them Good day.

MENTAL PREPARATION

1. It is advisable to new job-seekers, that they revise concern subjects. Knowledge in the field
of specialization must be up-to-date, take a look at your bio-data and be prepared to give
more information about your interest.
2. Important current issues in the country and in the world will be asked at the time of
interview. Regular reading of newspapers, listening to TV news and discussion on current
issues are suggested.
3. Information about the company where you go for interview, its owners/boards of directors,
its product or services, its turnover, share capitals, market value etc. are available in the
company’s annual report or it is also available at the internet. The candidate must find out
such information as possible about the company whose employment he seeks.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION

1. Honesty and openness in answering questions is the best policy. Dishonesty generally makes
a bad impression in the mind of the interviewers. It is better to admit inability to answer a
question than to pretend and guess answer.
2. Inability to discuss a topic makes a bad impression. If there is any topic that seems too
embarrassing to talk about, it is useful to read up information on it and talk about it
objectively to a few friends for practice.
3. Salary is a topic that must be discussed at the time of interview. It is important to talk about
the compensation package without appearing to be bargaining, or being driven or defeated.
4. A candidate must have the clarity of purpose and determination to want to know her/his
prospects in the organization. Information about the nature of duties, working time,
deduction, future prospects, other benefits and any of the desired information must be
received before leaving.

SELF EVALUATION

1. Anyone who wants to be successful in life must make a good self-evaluation. Knowledge of
one’s strengths and weaknesses is very useful in gaining self confidence.
2. It takes time and should be done carefully and patiently by candidates.
3. Parents and close friends can help in pointing out faults or limitation and in correcting them
and also in finding out strong points and strengthening them.
4. Coming to terms with oneself, knowing how to deal with one’s faults, and how to make good
use of one’s talents and skills is excellent preparation for an interview. It adds a great deal of
self confidence and poise to the personality.
3.2.9 Interviewer Preparation

1. Preparation for the interview has to be made well in advance. The received application are
sorted and scrutinized and qualified candidates are selected for interviewing.
2. A panel of interviewers is selected on the basis of requirements of the job and the assessment
which has to be made at interview.
3. A date for the interview is fixed, and the interviewers as well as his selected candidates are
sent letters informing them of the date, time and place of the interview.
4. On the day of the interview, the room in which the interview is to be conducted is suitably
arranged. Another room near the interview room is also arranged for the candidates to be
seating while waiting to be interviewed.
5. A senior office staff and a peon attend to the needs of the waiting candidates. Each panel
member has to examine the bio-data of candidates and prepare questions based on the bio-
data for each candidate.
6. Develop rapport to encourage the candidate to be involved. A candidate is more willing to
speak openly if the interview show respect and understanding of his/her needs.

At the time of interview the interviewer must consider the following points:

1. A relaxed atmosphere can be created by interviewer having a brief conversation unrelated to

the interview and by using the candidate’s name.
2. Friendly responses to what the candidate says make the candidate comfortable and encourage
him to speak.
3. A candidate must never be humiliated even if it is obvious that he is unsuitable.
4. If the interviewer conducted a stress interview than after the interview candidate should be
told that it was stress interviewing and that he need not feel anxious about it.
5. Leave taking must be pleasant and sociable, with response to the candidate’s wishing.
3.2.10 Interview Do’s and Don’ts

With the requirements of the position in mind, the interviewer will search for your strong and
weak points and evaluate your intellect and the abilities that you have developed as a result of
your education and past experience. They will also be interested in personal characteristics such
as your motivation and the way you present yourself.

THE “DO’S”

• DO follow the interviewer’s leads and prompts, reading whether your answer is going to be
too long or if further information is required to explain on a point made.
• DO make sure that you highlight your strengths to the interviewer in a factual, sincere
manner. Provide specific examples of your abilities that demonstrate positive outcomes or
achievements.
• DO realise that the interviewer will ask you questions about your skills that relate to the
selection criteria or the requirements of the position. If the position requires technical orM
special knowledge, you can expect to be asked a question that involves applying theory to
solve a problem.
• DO make sure you leave the impression that you are more interested in the activities
involved in the job than the promotional opportunities or benefits that the organization may
offer.
• DO always indicate your interest in the job for which you’re being interviewed. Never close
the door on an opportunity. It is better to be offered the position so you can consider it in
relation to other jobs for which you are applying than to not have a choice.
• DO ask questions when given the opportunity.
• DO take advantage of the opportunity to add anything else in your favour if asked.
THE “DON’TS”

• DON’T answer questions with a simple “yes” or “no”. Give good responses and explain
yourse lf whenever possible by referring to relevant examples from your experiences.
• DON’T respond in a general, vague, or hesitant manner. Keep in mind that you alone can
sell yourself to an interviewer. Project a sense of purpose and direction.
• DON’T ‘over answer’ questions. The interviewer may steer the conversation into politics or
economics. It is best to answer the questions honestly, and say no more than is necessary.
• DON’T ever make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers.
• DON’T enquire about salary, holidays, bonuses or retirement at the initial interview.
However, you should know your market value and be prepared to specify your required
salary range if asked.
• DON’T lie. Answer questions truthfully, frankly and as close ‘to the point’ as possible.
• DON’T focus on negatives: emphasis positive outcomes and learning experiences.
Negative factors frequently assessed during an interview that most often lead to rejection
include:
• Lack of responsibility taken for actions.
• Lack of interest and enthusiasm.
• Lack of preparation, failure to obtain information about the job and organization.
• Inability to express thoughts clearly, poor diction or grammar, and lack of poise.
• Lack of career planning, purpose or goals.
• Lack of tact, maturity, courtesy or professionalism.
• Evasive – making excuses for poor academic record or other unfavourable factors.
• Overbearing, aggressive, arrogant or conceited.
• Over-emphasis on money – interested only in remuneration.
• Persistent attitude of “What can you do for me?”
• Failure to ask pertinent questions about the job or the organization.
Make sure these negative factors do not apply to you on your interview. And try to overcome
these factors so you should better present yourself in the interview.
Telephone communication

Despite the heavy reliance on e-mail, the telephone is still an extremely important piece of
equipment in offices. With the addition of today’s wireless technology, it doesn’t matter whether
you are in or out of the office. You can always be reached by phone. As a business
communicator, you can be more productive, efficient, and professional by following some
simple suggestions. In this chapter we’ll focus on traditional telephone techniques as well as cell
phone use and voice mail efficiency.

Making Telephone Calls Efficiently and Professionally

Before making a telephone call, decide whether the intended call is really necessary. Could you
find the information yourself? If you wait a while, would the problem re- solve itself? Perhaps
your message could be delivered more efficiently by some other means. Some companies have
found that telephone calls are often less important than the work they interrupted. Alternatives to
telephone calls include instant messaging, e-mail, memos, or calls to voice mail systems. If you
must make a telephone call, consider using the following suggestions to make it fully productive:

• Plan a mini-agenda. Have you ever been embarrassed when you had to make a second
telephone call because you forgot an important item the first time? Be- fore placing a call, jot
down notes regarding all the topics you need to discuss.

Following an agenda guarantees not only a complete call but also a quick one. You’ll be less
likely to wander from the business at hand while rummaging through your mind trying to
remember everything.
• Use a three-point introduction. When placing a call, immediately (1) name the person you are
calling, (2) identify yourself and your affiliation, and (3) give a brief explanation of your
reason for calling. For example: May I speak to Jeremy Johnson? This is Paula Soltani of
Coughlin and Associates, and I’m seeking in- formation about a software program called
ZoneAlarm Internet Security. This kind of introduction enables the receiving individual to
respond immediately without asking further questions.
• Be brisk if you are rushed. For business calls when your time is limited, avoid questions such
as how are you? Instead, say, Lauren, I knew you’d be the only one who could answer these
two questions for me. Another efficient strategy is to set a “contract” with the caller: Look,
Lauren, I have only ten minutes, but I really wanted to get back to you.
• Be cheerful and accurate. Let your voice show the same kind of animation that you radiate
when you greet people in person. In your mind try to envision the in- dividual answering the
telephone. A smile can certainly affect the tone of your voice; therefore, even though the
individual can’t see you, smile at that person. Speak with a tone that is enthusiastic,
respectful, and attentive. Moreover, be ac- curate about what you say. Hang on a second; I’ll
be right back rarely is true. It’s better to say, It may take me two or three minutes to get that
information. Would you prefer to hold or have me call you back?
• Be professional and courteous. Remember that you’re representing yourself and your
company when you make phone calls. Use professional vocabulary and courteous language.
Say thank you and please during your conversations. Don’t eat, drink, or chew gum while
talking on the phone, which can often be heard on the other end. Articulate your words
clearly so that the receiver can under- stand you. Avoid doing other work during the phone
call so that you can focus entirely on the conversation.
• Bring it to a close. The responsibility for ending a call lies with the caller. This is sometimes
difficult to do if the other person rambles on. You may need to use suggestive closing
language, such as the following: (1) I’ve certainly enjoyed talking with you, (2) I’ve learned
what I needed to know, and now I can proceed with my work, (3) Thanks for your help, (4) I
must go now, but may I call you again in the future if I need . . .? or (5) Should we talk again
in a few weeks?
• Avoid telephone tag. If you call someone who’s not in, ask when it would be best for you to
call again. State that you will call at a specific time—and do it. If you ask a person to call
you, give a time when you can be reached—and then be sure you are in at that time.
• Leave complete voice mail messages. Remember that there’s no rush when you leave a voice
mail message. Always enunciate clearly. And be sure to provide a complete message,
including your name, telephone number, and the time and date of your call. Explain your
purpose so that the receiver can be ready with the required information when returning your
call.
Receiving Telephone Calls Professionally

With a little forethought you can project a professional image and make your tele- phone a
productive, efficient work tool. Developing good telephone manners also reflects well on you
and on your organization.

• Answer promptly and courteously. Try to answer the phone on the first or second ring if
possible. Smile as you pick up the phone.
• Identify yourself immediately. In answering your telephone or someone else’s, provide your
name, title or affiliation, and a greeting. For example, Juan Salinas, Digital Imaging
Corporation. How may I help you? Force yourself to speak clearly and slowly. Remember
that the caller may be unfamiliar with what you are saying and fail to recognize slurred
syllables.
• Be responsive and helpful. If you are in a support role, be sympathetic to callers’ needs and
show that you understand their situations. Instead of I don’t know, try that’s a good question;
let me investigate. Instead of we can’t do that, try that’s a tough one; let’s see what we can
do. Avoid No at the beginning of a sentence. It sounds especially abrasive and displeasing
because it suggests total rejection.
• Be cautious when answering calls for others. Be courteous and helpful, but don’t give out
confidential information. It’s better to say, she’s away from her desk or He’s out of the office
than to report a colleague’s exact whereabouts.

Also be tight lipped about sharing company information with strangers. Security experts insist
that employees answering telephones must become guardians of company information.

• Take messages carefully. Few things are as frustrating as receiving a potentially important
phone message that is illegible. Repeat the spelling of names and verify telephone numbers.
Write messages legibly and record their time and date. Promise to give the messages to
intended recipients, but don’t guarantee return calls.
• Leave the line respectfully. If you must put a call on hold, let the caller know and give an
estimate of how long you expect the call to be on hold. Give the caller the option of holding.
Say Would you prefer to hold, or would you like me to call you back? If the caller is on hold
for a long period of time, check back periodically so that the caller doesn’t think that he or
she has been forgotten or that the call has been disconnected.
• Explain what you’re doing when transferring calls. Give a reason for transferring, and
identify the extension to which you are directing the call in case the caller is disconnected.

Using Cell Phones for Business

Cell phones enable you to conduct business from virtually anywhere at any time. More than a
plaything or a mere convenience, the cell phone has become an essential part of communication
in today’s workplace. The U.S. government reported that in late 2004, for the first time, the
number of U.S. cell phone users surpassed the number of landline telephone users, and the
number of cell phone users has con- tinued to grow.

Today’s smart cell phones are used for much more than making and receiving calls. High-end
cell phones can be used to store contact information, make to-do lists, keep track of
appointments and important dates, send and receive e-mail, send and receive text and multimedia
messages, get news and stock quotes from the Internet, take pictures and videos, synchronize
with Outlook and other soft- ware applications, and many other functions. With so many people
using cell phones, it’s important to understand proper use and etiquette. How are they best used?
When is it acceptable to take calls? Where calls should be made? Most of us have experienced
thoughtless and rude cell phone behavior. To avoid offending, smart business communicators
practice cell phone eti- quette. In projecting a professional image, they are care-ful about
location, time, and volume in relation to their cell phone calls.

a. LOCATION

Use good judgment in placing or accepting cell phone calls. Some places are dangerous or
inappropriate for cell phone use. Turn off your cell phone when entering a conference room,
interview, theater, place of worship, or any other place where it could be distracting or disruptive
to others. Taking a call in a crowded room or bar makes it difficult to hear and reflects poorly on
you as a professional. Taking a call while driving can be dangerous, leading some states to ban
cell phone use while driving. A bad connection also makes a bad impression. Static or dropped
signals create frustration and miscommunication. Don’t sacrifice professionalism for the sake of
a garbled phone call. It’s smarter to turn off your phone in an area where the signal is weak and
when you are likely to have in- terference. Use voice mail and return the call when conditions are
better. Also be careful about using your cell phone to discuss private or confidential company
information.

Business communicators find cell phones to be enormously convenient and real time-savers. But
rude users have generated a backlash against inconsiderate callers. Here are specific suggestions
for using cell phones safely and responsibly:

• Be courteous to those around you. Don’t force those near you to hear your business. Don’t step
up to a service counter, such as at a restaurant, bank, or post office, while talking on your cell
phone. Don’t carry on a cell phone conversation while someone is waiting on you. Think first of
those in close proximity instead of those on the other end of the phone. Apologize and make
amends gracefully for occasional cell phone blunders.
• Observe wireless-free quiet areas. Don’t allow your cell phone to ring in theaters, restaurants,
museums, class rooms, important meetings, and similar places. Use the cell phone’s
silent/vibrating ring option. A majority of travelers prefer that cell phone conversations not be
held on most forms of public transportation.
• Speak in low, conversational tones. Microphones on cell phones are quite sensitive, thus
making it unnecessary to talk loudly. Avoid “cell yell.”
• Take only urgent calls. Make full use of your cell phone’s caller ID feature to screen incoming
calls. Let voice mail take those calls that are not pressing.
• Drive now, talk later. Pull over if you must make a call. Talking while driving increases the
chance of accidents four-fold, about the same as driving while intoxicated. Some companies are
implementing cell phone policies that prohibit employees from using cell phones while driving
for company business.
• Choose a professional ringtone. These days you can download a variety of ringtones, from
classical to rap to the Star Wars theme. Choose a ringtone that will sound professional.

b. TIME

Often what you are doing is more important than whatever may come over the air waves to you
on your phone. For example, when you are having an important dis-cussion with a business
partner, customer, or superior, it is rude to allow yourself to be interrupted by an incoming call.
It’s also poor manners to practice multitasking while on the phone. What’s more, it’s dangerous.
Although you might be able to read and print out e-mail messages, deal with a customer at the
counter, and talk on your cell phone simultaneously, it’s impolite and risky. Lack of attention
results in errors. If a phone call is important enough to accept, then it’s important enough to stop
what you are doing and attend to the conversation.

c. VOLUME

Many people raise their voices when using their cell phones. “Cell yell” results, much to the
annoyance of anyone nearby. Raising your voice is unnecessary since most phones have
excellent microphones that can pick up even a whisper. If the connection is bad, louder volume
will not improve the sound quality. As in face-to-face conversations, a low, modulated voice
sounds professional and projects the proper image.

1.2.9 MEETINGS
Meetings are the most popular method of interactive communication. It facilitates direct, face-to-
face communication and essential at various levels in all organization. They serve as channels of
oral communication among the members of the meeting. However, they are supported by written
communication like notices to bring people together, agenda to structure the meeting, minutes to
record the proceedings and report to pass information to the higher authorities.

10.1.1 Meaning, Objectives and Types of Meeting

WHAT IS A MEETING?

A meeting is get-together of a group of persons to discuss ways and means to deal with a specific
time bound task assigned. The members of the group share common experience, common
concern and common interest. According to W.H. Newman, ‘A committee of a group of people
specially designated to perform some administrative acts. It functions only as a group and
requires the free interchange of ideas among its members.’
Hicks and Gullet defines the term, ‘A committee is a group of people who meet by plan to
discuss or make a decision for a particular subject. Because committee meets by plan, we do not
include group that occur spontaneously or informally in the definition of a committee.’
A meeting is formally arranged gathering for the purpose of discussing an issue concerning a
large number of persons.
OBJECTIVES OF MEETING

A meeting may have any of the following objectives:

• To inform and explain the information to the members.
• To understand the situation.
• To get feedback from the members.
• To exchange ideas and experience among the members.
• To persuade members to accept changes.
• To resolve conflicts and confusions.
• To take decisions of matters affecting the group or the organization.
• To generate a positive attitude among the participants.

TYPES OF MEETING

 On the basis of function:

1. For giving information: This type of meetings is conducted for sharing information and
gathering views and opinions of the participants or members on that information.
2. For consultation: The consultative meetings are held to consult the members for their
views and opinions to reach an effective decision.
3. For execution of ideas: This type of meetings is held to gather new ideas or suggestions
for the execution of a task. When the cooperation of the members is required for the
effective dealing with a task such meetings are held.

 On the basis of their formality:

1. Structured meeting: Like parliament, state assemblies, company shareholder’s
meetings, management-union negotiations, university senate, councils and executives
bodies.
2. Semi-structured meeting: Like committees, managing councils and general bodies of
voluntary organizations, briefing sessions, advisory bodies and management meetings.
3. Unstructured meeting: Like group discussions, ad hoc meetings of task groups and
brainstorming sessions.
Procedure of Convening A Meeting

NOTICE

The word ‘notice’ is derived from the Latin word meaning knowledge. The term in relation to a
meeting signifies the bringing of knowledge of the meeting to the person concerned. A meeting
is to be properly held only when notice of meeting is served to the concerned persons. The notice
informs the members as to the date, time and place of the meeting, the issue to be discussed in
the meeting and if possible, respective contribution expected from different participants of the
meeting.
AGENDA
An agenda is a list of topics covered in a meeting. A well prepared agenda will assist
Chairperson in directing the business of the meeting and ensuring that decisions are reached in
an efficient manner.
A copy of the agenda must be sent to the members along with the agenda of the meeting. All the
items included in the agenda must be serially arranged. If any change is to be done in the order,
the approval of the members is needed. Preparing agenda is very useful practice:

1. If it is circulated in advance, it helps the members to come prepared for the meeting.
2. Since agenda has a set order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting smoothly.
3. It ensures that only matters relevant to that particular meeting are discussed.
4. It ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion.
5. It facilitates the preparation of the minutes.

The following points should be kept in the mind while drafting the agenda:

1. It should be clear and explicit.

2. It should be in a summary form.
3. The routine items should be put first and the other matters later.
4. All the matters of similar or allied character should be placed near each other on the agenda.
5. All the items included in the agenda must be within the scope of the meeting.
6. All the items included in agenda must be written the scope of the notice calling the meeting.

AKIYA Motors Ltd.

ADAMA

Notice is hereby given to all the members that the next quarterly meeting of
the Board of Directors will be held on Tuesday, 12th August, 2008 at
11:30a.m. in the Board room.
Agenda
1. Conformation of Minutes of the last meeting.
2. Matters arising from the minutes.
3. Financial irregularities in Mekele Branch.
4. To appoint a committee for employees’ welfare.
5. Any other matter with the permission of the chair.
6. Date of next meeting.
Secretary

MINUTES OF MEETING

During the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in the agenda are discussed serially one
by one. All the participants express their views/opinions and discuss amongst themselves the
pros and cons of each item of agenda. Finally, they arrive at some conclusions or decisions,
which are always kept on official records. We call them as minutes of a meeting.
Thus minutes are the official records of the proceedings of the meeting. In other words, these are
the brief of discussions held and decisions taken at the meeting. It is the duty of an authorized
person to retain all such discussions, deliberations and decisions in writing specifically.

The purpose of writing minutes is:

1. To serve as the formal record of discussion.

2. To serve as a background for future discussions.
The minutes of a meeting must contain:

1. Date and the number of meeting.

2. A list of name of those who attended the meeting.
3. A list of those who did not attend and from whom apologies were received.
4. The record of conformation of the previous minutes and any amendments agreed to by
the committee.
5. The essential, relevant background to the topic under discussions.
6. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/resolution, and if appropriate, of
those individuals/bodies responsible for taking subsequent action.
7. Where discussion of a specific case leads to a policy issue, it is important that a separate
minute be written on the policy issue.

TYPES OF MINUTES

1. Minutes of resolutions. In this type of minutes, only the resolutions passed at a meeting are
recorded and no reference is made to any discussion preceding the resolutions.
• Decisions, which are within the power of the committee, are introduced by the
words...............‘it was resolved that............’
• Sometimes the members of the meeting are not empowered to take decision on the given
subject. They can only recommend their opinion to the higher authority who can take
decision. Such recommendations, which needs to be referred to an officer or others for
approval, are introduced by the words...............It was resolved to recommend...............’
Examples
• It was resolved that ATO Asfaw be and hereby appointed as the Deputy Manager of the
company with effect from 01/08/2008, at a consolidated salary of Birr 30,000 per month and
other benefits as per rules of the company.
• Since the changes are required to be approved by the Managing Director, it was resolved to
recommend omitting clause 7 of the employment contract of the Managing Director.
2. Minutes of narration. Minutes of narration are somewhat similar to a report. Here, in addition
to the resolutions passed, a brief account of the discussion and the voting pattern is also
included.

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Head Office: 13, Addis Ababa,
Gotera -220987 2 August, 2008

NOTICE
Notice is hereby given that the Fourth Meeting of the Board of Directors will be held at the head
office of the company, Gotera at 3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20th August 2008.
The agenda is attached.
Mamo
Secretary
To Members of the
Board of Directors

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Head Office: 13, Addis Ababa,
Gotera -220987 2 August, 2008
NOTICE
Agenda of the Fourth Meeting of the Board of
Directors held at the Head office of the company
(13, Gotera, Addis Ababa) at
3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20 August, 2008
th

4.01 Conformation of the minutes of the last meeting.

4.02 Conformation of the appointment of Directors.
4.03 Appointment of the Managing Director of the company.
4.04 Accommodation for the branch office at Adama
4.05 Date for the next meeting.
4.06 Any other matter with the permission of the Chairman.

Mamo
Secretary
4.01 Conformation of the Minutes of the last Meeting

The minutes of the meeting held on April 10 , 2008 were approved by the Board and signed by
the Chairman.

4.02 Conformation of the Appointment of Directors

The Secretary reported that all the Directors present had accepted the office and signed the
agreement to take the required number of qualified shares. He also stated that these documents
had been filled with the Registrar of Companies, Uttar Pradesh State.

4.03 Appointment of the Managing Director of the Company

It was resolved that Ato Mamo be appointed Managing Director of the company.
4.04 Accommodation for the Branch Office at Adama

The Secretary reported that five rooms in Awash Building, Lucknow were available at rent of
Rs.10, 000 per month. The Branch Manager had examined and found them suitable for our
purposes. He had proposed that these be rented. The proposal of the Branch manager was
approved.

4.05 Date for the Next Meeting

The secretary was directed to call the next meeting of the Board on 10th December, 2008.

W/ro Alemitu Bogale Ato Birhanu

Chairman Secretary
23rd August, 2008.

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Minutes of the Fourth Meeting of the Board of
Directors held at the Head office of the company
(13, Gotera, Addis Ababa) at
3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20 August, 2008
th

Present: W/ro Alemitu Bogale Chairman

Ato Geremew W/Michael
Ato Behailu Chala
Ato Aregawi T/Birhan
Ato mamo Nigusie

Absent: Wt. Chaltu Ayele

Ato Ayalew Gobeze

3.5 INTERVIEW

The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight between’. It suggests a meeting between
two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other, or for knowing each other or we can
say that it is the interaction between interviewer and interviewee. An interview is a means of
two-way communication.
3.5.1 Types of Interview

1. Promotion interview: Persons due for promotion are interviewed even if there is no
competition. This type of interview is more informal and serves as induction for new
responsibilities and duties. And if there, is competition for promotion, the interview helps in
the selection process and may also serve as an opportunity for a discussion of career
opportunities for candidate.
2. Appraisal or Assessment interview: An appraisal interview is one of the methods of
periodical assessment of employees. Annual appraisal interview is the best method for
judging employees performance. A face-to-face confidential talk is an opportunity for both
they discuss on several issues which are related to job. This interview is more a discussion
rather than question-answer. The focus is on the career development, shortcomings, areas
which need improvement, training, opportunities for promotion etc.
3. Exit interview: An exit interview is given to an employee who has resigned or leaving the
organization. The organization can:-
• Find out the precise reason for the employee decision to leave.
• Give information about PF, group insurance and how and when’s the dues will be paid.
• Get feedback on employee’s opinion about the organization’s policies.
• Give the final pay cheque or information about when it will be ready and how it will be
handed over.
• Check that all books, manuals, tools, equipments which were issued to the employee have
been returned as same.
4. Problem interview: Problem interview basically meant for those employees who create
problem. An employee whose performance or behaviour is unsatisfactory in spite of warning
represents a problem. An interview is more likely to suggest a solution than warnings and
notices. The reason for the employee’s poor performance can be found out in a face-to-face
talk, it may be domestic problems, health problem, lack of training or dissatisfaction with
job, environment problem, hierarchy problem etc. Many organizations have facilities for
counseling staff, the employee may be offered a session with the counselor.
5. Stress interview: A stress interview puts the candidates into difficult situations in order to
test her/his reaction to stress. This method is used for selection for positions in which the
person must be able to face difficult situations without getting upset. A stress interview tests
such qualities as courage, tact, cool temper, and self-command, on candidates which is
needed when confronted by other individual or groups.
6. Selection interview: The most important objective of the selection interviews is to measure
the suitability of the candidates for specific jobs. Employment interviews are usually taken
by a panel of interviewer. An interview may take time from 10 minutes to 45 minutes or even
longer. Interviewers spend more time on good candidates. They have to gather enough
information about the candidates to be able to assess their suitability to join the organization.
The candidates too must find out about the organization, its employee policies and culture,
what it expects the recruits to do and what opportunities for career development it offers.

3.5.2 Candidate’s Preparation

In interview not only information and knowledge of the candidate assessed but the whole
personality is assessed. The candidate must be physically, mentally and psychologically prepared
for the interview.

PHYSICAL PREPARATION

1. The candidate is likely to be properly groomed and formally dressed. Clean and well-cut
nails, properly combed hair, well-fitting clothes, neat footwear and a suitable handbag or
brief case are the normal requirements of formal appearance.
2. Posture. The way a candidate carries him while standing, walking, sitting reveals a good deal
about him. Self-confidence, nervousness or over-confidence, are all reflected in the posture
and bearing of the candidate. Note your body movements, and take care to stop any bad
habitual movements.
3. Good etiquette is necessary for interview. The candidate must know what the suitable
greetings are for the day on a particular time.
• Do not offer to shake hands unless it is offered by an interviewer.
• Do not sit until you are asked to sit down. If you are not asked to sit then take permission
from interviewer to sit.
• Take care, while handling the chair. It should not be dragged noisily. Sit comfortably and
with good posture.
• If you have large briefcase, put it down on the floor near the chair. If you have small one
• Then keep it on your lap. Be comfortable and well practiced in handling your bag.
• Do not put elbows or hand on the table. Practice keeping hands comfortably when youb are
not using them.
• Maintain comfortable posture throughout the interview.
• At the end of the interview, remember to thank the interviewers and wish them Good day.

MENTAL PREPARATION

• It is advisable to new job-seekers, that they revise concern subjects. Knowledge in the field
of specialization must be up-to-date, take a look at your bio-data and be prepared to give
more information about your interest.
• Important current issues in the country and in the world will be asked at the time of
interview. Regular reading of newspapers, listening to TV news and discussion on current
issues are suggested.
• Information about the company where you go for interview, its owners/boards of directors,
its product or services, its turnover, share capitals, market value etc. are available in the
company’s annual report or it is also available at the internet. The candidate must find out
such information as possible about the company whose employment he seeks.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION

1. Honesty and openness in answering questions is the best policy. Dishonesty generally makes
a bad impression in the mind of the interviewers. It is better to admit inability to answer a
question than to pretend and guess answer.
2. Inability to discuss a topic makes a bad impression. If there is any topic that seems too
embarrassing to talk about, it is useful to read up information on it and talk about it
objectively to a few friends for practice.
3. Salary is a topic that must be discussed at the time of interview. It is important to talk about
the compensation package without appearing to be bargaining, or being driven or defeated.
4. A candidate must have the clarity of purpose and determination to want to know her/his
prospects in the organization. Information about the nature of duties, working time,
deduction, future prospects, other benefits and any of the desired information must be
received before leaving.

SELF EVALUATION

 Anyone who wants to be successful in life must make a good self-evaluation. Knowledge of
one’s strengths and weaknesses is very useful in gaining self confidence.
 It takes time and should be done carefully and patiently by candidates.
 Parents and close friends can help in pointing out faults or limitation and in correcting them
and also in finding out strong points and strengthening them.
 Coming to terms with oneself, knowing how to deal with one’s faults, and how to make good
use of one’s talents and skills is excellent preparation for an interview. It adds a great deal of
self confidence and poise to the personality.
1. Interviewer Preparation

• Preparation for the interview has to be made well in advance. The received application are
sorted and scrutinized and qualified candidates are selected for interviewing.
• A panel of interviewers is selected on the basis of requirements of the job and the assessment
which has to be made at interview.
• A date for the interview is fixed, and the interviewers as well as his selected candidates are
sent letters informing them of the date, time and place of the interview.
• On the day of the interview, the room in which the interview is to be conducted is suitably
arranged. Another room near the interview room is also arranged for the candidates to be
seating while waiting to be interviewed.
• A senior office staff and a peon attend to the needs of the waiting candidates. Each panel
member has to examine the bio-data of candidates and prepare questions based on the bio-
data for each candidate.
• Develop rapport to encourage the candidate to be involved. A candidate is more willing to
speak openly if the interview show respect and understanding of his/her needs.

At the time of interview the interviewer must consider the following points:

• A relaxed atmosphere can be created by interviewer having a brief conversation unrelated to

the interview and by using the candidate’s name.
• Friendly responses to what the candidate says make the candidate comfortable and encourage
him to speak.
• A candidate must never be humiliated even if it is obvious that he is unsuitable.
• If the interviewer conducted a stress interview than after the interview candidate should be
told that it was stress interviewing and that he need not feel anxious about it.
• Leave taking must be pleasant and sociable, with response to the candidate’s wishing.

2. Interview Do’s and Don’ts

With the requirements of the position in mind, the interviewer will search for your strong and
weak points and evaluate your intellect and the abilities that you have developed as a result of
your education and past experience. They will also be interested in personal characteristics such
as your motivation and the way you present yourself.

THE “DO’S”

• DO follow the interviewer’s leads and prompts, reading whether your answer is going to be
too long or if further information is required to explain on a point made.
• DO make sure that you highlight your strengths to the interviewer in a factual, sincere
manner. Provide specific examples of your abilities that demonstrate positive outcomes or
achievements.
• DO realise that the interviewer will ask you questions about your skills that relate to the
selection criteria or the requirements of the position. If the position requires technical orM
special knowledge, you can expect to be asked a question that involves applying theory to
solve a problem.
• DO make sure you leave the impression that you are more interested in the activities
involved in the job than the promotional opportunities or benefits that the organization may
offer.
• DO always indicate your interest in the job for which you’re being interviewed. Never close
the door on an opportunity. It is better to be offered the position so you can consider it in
relation to other jobs for which you are applying than to not have a choice.
• DO ask questions when given the opportunity.
• DO take advantage of the opportunity to add anything else in your favour if asked.

THE “DON’TS”

• DON’T answer questions with a simple “yes” or “no”. Give good responses and explain
yourse lf whenever possible by referring to relevant examples from your experiences.
• DON’T respond in a general, vague, or hesitant manner. Keep in mind that you alone can
sell yourself to an interviewer. Project a sense of purpose and direction.
• DON’T ‘over answer’ questions. The interviewer may steer the conversation into politics or
economics. It is best to answer the questions honestly, and say no more than is necessary.
• DON’T ever make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers.
• DON’T enquire about salary, holidays, bonuses or retirement at the initial interview.
However, you should know your market value and be prepared to specify your required
salary range if asked.
• DON’T lie. Answer questions truthfully, frankly and as close ‘to the point’ as possible.
• DON’T focus on negatives: emphasis positive outcomes and learning experiences.
Negative factors frequently assessed during an interview that most often lead to rejection
include:
• Lack of responsibility taken for actions.
• Lack of interest and enthusiasm.
• Lack of preparation, failure to obtain information about the job and organization.
• Inability to express thoughts clearly, poor diction or grammar, and lack of poise.
• Lack of career planning, purpose or goals.
• Lack of tact, maturity, courtesy or professionalism.
• Evasive – making excuses for poor academic record or other unfavourable factors.
• Overbearing, aggressive, arrogant or conceited.
• Over-emphasis on money – interested only in remuneration.
• Persistent attitude of “What can you do for me?”
• Failure to ask pertinent questions about the job or the organization.
Make sure these negative factors do not apply to you on your interview. And try to overcome
these factors so you should better present yourself in the interview.

3.4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING

Listening is the receiver’s activity in oral communication. As the speaker has the responsibility
to make effort to be understood, so the listener has the responsibility to be attentive and to make
effort to understand the meaning of the speaker. Of all skills of communication, listening is the
most important of all. The higher your position in an organization, the greater is your listening
responsibility.

Johnson: The ability to understand and respond effectively to oral communication.

M.V. Rodriques: Listening is a process of receiving, interpreting and reacting to the message
received from the sender.
Leland Brown: Listening is an activity that can be turned on and off consciously and
unconsciously. It starts with the receiver’s becoming aware that they should listen and become
attentive to what is being said.

LISTENING PROCESS

Stage I: At this stage, the listener simply paid attention to the speaker to hear the message. If you
can repeat the speaker’s words, you have heard the message.
Stage II: This depends on the listener’s vocabulary, knowledge, experience and so on. If the
listener fails to interpret the words correctly the message is misunderstood.
Stage III. At this stage the listener decides what to do with the received information. When you
are listening to a marketing talk, you may choose to believe or not to believe what you hear. The
judgements you make at this stage of evaluation are crucial to the listening process.
Stage IV. The listener’s response to the message may be in words or in body language. The
response lets the speaker know whether the listener has got the message and what his/her
reaction is.

HEARING

INTERPRETA
TION

EVALUATION

RESPONSE

Fig. 3.1: Listening Process

ADVANTAGES

1. Listening helps to know the organization.

2. Listening helps to make better policies.
3. Listening mollify the complaining employees.
4. Listening is important for the success of the open-door policy.
5. Listening helps to spot sensitive areas before they become explosive.

Guidelines for Effective Listening

1. Eye contact: When one of the audience does not look at the speaker, it means, he is not
interested in listening. A listener must exhibit a behaviour of making eye contact. It
encourages the speaker.
2. Bodily exhibitions: A listener must show himself that he is interested in listening. Nonverbal
signs can be used to exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions, eye
contact etc., convey certain things to the speaker.
3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures: Looking at one’s own watch, shuffle papers, playing
with pencil, reading newspaper or letters and other distracting activities should not be
practised.
4. Ask question: An effective listener always asks questions, clarifies doubts, seeks
explanation and ensure clear understanding. This makes the speaker realise that he is really
listening.
5. Put the speaker at ease: By your attitude, help the speaker become relaxed and aware of
willing listener. Be not only seen to listen, but felt to listen.
6. Avoid premature arguments: Don’t interrupt to question or argue about facts, ‘That is not
so…….’, ‘prove it…..’ Good listener interprets the speaker after completing his speech.
7. Listen patiently: The speaker is entitled to be heard, even if you feel his approach is wrong.
8. No personal bias: It is always desirable to drop personal biases and attitudes about a speaker
and his views. This one is the wrong habit and sometime for this reason speaker feel uneasy.
9. Observe non-verbal cues: Search out the main points. Observe the non-verbal cues like tone
pitch, physical gesture etc., which too convey meaning to the message. A listener may note
them down as these will help in revealing if the speaker appears to be sincere in his views.
10. Avoid fake attention: Many listeners develop the habit of faking attention. They steadfastly
fix their eyes on the speaker and try to project themselves as good listeners. They usually
miss out many important points made by the speaker.
Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your answer to any one of
the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific section again.

Number Can you Yes No

1 Elaborate Purpose of writing
2 List down Principles of effective writing
3 Discuss types of letters
4 Explain structure of business letter
5 Basic Principles of effective communication
6 Describe advantages of Oral communication
7 List down some of limitations of Oral communications
8 Explain significance of Non-verbal communication
9 Explain Meeting, Interview & Telephone Conversations

Chapter III: Summary Questions

1. The main purpose of writing the messages.

a. Future reference
b. Legal Requirements
c.Wide Access
d. All
2. Which Principle of Effective Writing deals with “writing should be shorter by using few
words for many”
a. Unity
b. Coherence
c.Brevity
d. Accuracy
3. Written communication is important ,except :
a. Time consuming
b. Precise
c.Permanent record
d. Legal document
4. A sentence containing one idea at a time with all its parts contributing to strengthen the
main idea is called ________________________.
a. Unity
b. Coherence
c.Variety
d. Economy
5. _________________is like greeting a person when you meet him. It is placed two spaces
below the attention line or if there is no such line, two spaces below the inside address.
a. Salutation
b. Attention Line
c.Inside Address
d. Reference

6. _________________ is a courteous leave taking polite way of ending a letter.

a. Complementary Close
b. Body of a letter
c. Subject
d. Signature
7. ____________________ is the oldest style form of Letter.
a. Indent Form
b. Full Blocked form
c. Modified Blocked form
d. Semi-Blocked form
8. Which one of the following could be the use of Memorandums :

a. For conveying schedule message.

b. For submitting periodical reports.
c. For communicating changes in organization.
d. All
9. All can be Characteristics of a good report, except.
a. Precise and brief c. Relevant
b. Reader-oriented d. None
10. Which one can be limitation of Oral communication :
a. Speed d. Supplemented by non-Verbal
b. It saves money clues
c. No evidence
11. Which one could be part of body language :
a. Appearance c. Eye Contact
b. Facial Expression d. All
12. “Proxemics” is also called :
a. Space distance
b. Energy
c. Chronemics
d. All
13. Which type of Interview is conducted when an employee resigned or leaving the
organization :
a. Promotion Interview c. Exit interview
b. Appraisal Interview d. Problem Interview

14. “parliament Meeting ” can be :

a. Semi-structured meeting c. Unstructured Meeting
b. Structured Meeting d. None
15. Which type of interview is conducted for judging employees performance?
a. Promotion Interview c. Stress Interview
b. Appraisal Interview d. Selection Interview
16. The First Stage in Listening Process is :
a. Interpretation c. Evaluation
b. Hearing d. Response
17. One of the advantage of effective Listening is :
a. To know the Organization
b. Make better Policies
c. To mollify the complaining employees
d. All

18. Which Principle of effective listening deals with “a listener must show himself that he
is interested in listening”
a. Eye Contact
b. Body exhibition
c. Ask question
d. Avoid gestures
Answer Key
Multiple choice Questions

1. D 10. C
2. C 11. D
3. A 12. A
4. A 13. C
5. A 14. B
6. A 15. B
7. A 16. B
8. D 17. D
9. D 18. B
Rift Valley University College

Center for Distance Education

Assignment on Business Communication

1. What are the different forms of communication? Write detailed notes on the
importance,advantage and limitation of any two of them.
2. Define formal communication. Discuss its merits and demerits also.
3. What are the different types of formal communication? Briefly explain any two of them.
4. What are the merits and demerits of consensus?
5. Write a short note on informal communication.
6. What are the different forms of grapevine? Explain with examples.
7. Write notes on:
(i) Downward communication
(ii) Upward communication
(iii) Horizontal communication
(iv) Consensus
(v) Grapevine
8. Discuss the importance of informal communication in business organization.
9. Write explanatory notes on formal communication channel in business organization.
10. Distinguish between the upward and downward communication with examples.
11. What are the barriers to effective communication in an organization?
12. Discuss the semantic barriers to effective communication and how it will be overcome.
13. What are the different socio-psychological barriers to communication?
14. Explain how the wrong choice of a medium acts as a barrier to effective communication.
15. What physical factors cause barrier to communication?
16. Explain the general principles of effective communication.