SKELETAL

SYSTEM
1. Body Support - rigid, strong bone is well suited for bearing weight and is major supporting tissue of the body
Cartilage - provides firm yet flexible support with certain structure
Ligaments - strong band of fibrous connective tissue that hold bones together, allow some movement between bones but prevent excessive movement
2. Organ protection - bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds

FUNCTIONS OF
3. Body Movement - contraction of skeletal muscles moves the bones, producing body movement
Tendons - strong bands of connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone
Joints - formed when two or more bones come together, allow movement between bones
4. Mineral Storage
Calcium and Phosphorous - principal minerals stored, two minerals essential for many physiological processes
Adipose tissue - stored within bones cavities

THE SKELETAL
Lipids - used by other tissues asd source of energy
5. Blood Cell Production
Red bone marrow - produces blood cells and platelets
Yellow bone marrow - contains adipocytes or fat cells

SYSTEM
EXTRACELLUL AR
MATRIX
§ Ground substance and fibers that makes up our
skeletal connective tissues

1. Tendon and Ligaments

- Collagen Fibers
2. Cartilages
- Collagen fibers & Proteoglycans
3. Bone.
- 15% water
- 30% collagen fibers
- 55% crystalized mineral salts (Hydroxyapatite)
1. Tendon & Ligamnets
- Contains a lot of collagen fibers characterizing them as tough or rope like

2. Cartilages
- Contains collagen & proteoglycans cc results to a relatively rigid, slightly
bendable & compressible matter
- Makes an excellent shock absorber

3. Bone
- Collagen -> provides tensile strength (resistance to be stretched or torn
apart)
- Crystalized mineral salts -> compression strength

• Definition of terms:
Collagen: tough, rope like protein
Proteoglycans: large molecule that consists of polysaccharides (Carbs)
attaching and encircling a protein. Has the capability to attract and retain
water
MATRIX

– Organic material – about 35% ; collagen and proteoglycans

– Inorganic material – about 65% ; calcium phosphate crystal
[hydroxyapatite]

• The collagen and mineral components are responsible for the major
functional characteristics of bone. The collagen fibers lend flexible
strength to the matrix and the mineral components give the matrix
weight-bearing strength.
GENERAL
FEATURE OF A
BONE
STRUCTURES
OF A LONG BONE
1. Diaphysis
- Body/ shaft/ main portion of the bone
- Long and cylindrical

2. Epiphysis
- Proximal and distal end of the bone

3. Metaphysis
- Region between the diaphysis and piphysis
- Juvenile bone: (+) epiphyseal (growth) plate a layer of hyaline cartilage that
allows the diaphysis to grow in length.
- Adult bone: (+) epiphyseal line (F: 18 y/o; M: 21 y/o)

4. Articular cartilage
- Thin articular cartilage covering the epiphysis where bone forms an
articulation c another bone
- Decreases friction, absorbs shock
- Repair of damage is limited d/t lack of perichardium and blood supply
5. Periosteum
- Tough connective tissue sheath c it’s associated blood supply that surrounds
the bone surface
- II layer:
a) Outer layer (fibrous)
b) Inner osteogenic layer
- Fxns:
a) Protects the bone
b) Assist in fx repair
c) Helps nourish bone tissue
d) Attachment point of ligaments and tendons

6. Medullary cavity
- Hallow cylindrical space within the diaphysis cc contains fatty yellow bone
marrow and neumerous blood vessels in adult
- Minimizes the weight of the bone

7. Endosteum
- Thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity
HISTOLOGY OF
BONE
1. Osteoprogenitor cells
- Bone stem cells derived from the mesenchyme
- Only cells that undergoes cell division and forms Osteoblasts
- Found in the inner portions of the periosteum, endosteum & medullary
canal with in the bone

2. Osteoblasts
- Bone building cells
- Synthesizes and secrete collagen fibers and other organic components
needed to build extra cellular matrix
- Initiates calcification
- Surounds themselves c extra cellular matrix and becomes Osteocytes

3. Osteocytes
- Mature bone cells
- Main cell in bone tissue
- Helps maintain metabolism
4. Osteoclast
- Derives from fusion of monocytes and are concentrated in the endosteum
- The portion of the cell that faces the bone surface, plasma membrane is
deeply folded into ruffled border where it produces lysosomal enzyme &
acids that digest the protein and mineral components of the cellular matrix
(resorption)
COMPACT BONE
TISSUE
§ Compact bone tissue
- Composes ≈ 80% of skeletal system
- Located beneath the periosteum of all bone and makes up the bulk of the
diaphysis of long bones
- Provides protection and support.
- Resist stresses produced by weight and movement

1. Osteon/ Haversian system

- Repeated structural unit of a compact bone

2. Concentric Lamellae
- Mineralized extra cellular matrix of increasing diameter arranged around a
central canal/ harvasian canal

3. Harvasian canal/ central canal

- Small network of nerves and blood vessels are located in it

4. Lacunae
- Small spaces found in between the concentric lamellae cc contains
osteocytes
5. Canaliculi
- Branches out from a lacunae in all direction, contains the finger like processes
of the osteocytes
- Connects lacunaes c one another and c the central canal
- Forms an inter connected web like canals through out the bone to provide
many routes for nutrients and oxygen to reach the osteocytes and for waste
removal

6. Circumferential lamellae
- Developed during initial bone formation
a) Outer circumferential lamellae (connected to the periosteum)
b) Inner circumferential lamellae (line the medullary cavity)

7. Interstitial lamellae
- Present in areas between osteons
- Consists of fragments of older osteons that have been partially destroyed
during bone
rebuilding or growth.

*osteon n compact bone are aligned in same direction & parallel to the length
of the diaphysis. Resulting to the shaft of the bone to resists bending or fxing
SPONGY BONE
TISSUE
§ Spongy bone tissue
- Aka: Trabecular or cancellous bone tissue
- (-) Osteons
- Consists of ≈ 20% of skeletal bone
- Found in the interior of the bone (short, flat, sesamoid, and irregular shaped
bone), protected by covering of compact bone

1. Trabeculae
- Lamellae that are arranged in an irregular pattern of thin column
- There are spaces between the trabeculae that contains yellow bone marrow or
red bone marrow
- Each trabeculae consists of lamellae, lacunae, & canaliculi

• Characteristics of spongy bone:

a) Light cc reduces the overall weight of the body
b) Support and protect the red bone marrow

*In long bone spongy bone forms the core of the epiphysis and forms the
variable narrow rim of the medullary cavity of the diaphysis

*No blood vessel penetrates the trabeculae and no central canal. Nutrients exit
the vessels in the marrow & pass by diffusion through canaliculi to the
osteocytes
SPONGY BONE AND COMPACT BONE
*the organization of osteon is not static it follows the line of stress of the
bone. Line of stress changes depending on the physical demand of the bone

*trabeculaes are oriented long the line of stress to help bone resist stress
and transfer force s breaking
BLOOD AND
NERVE SUPPLY
OF THE BONE
1. Periosteal Arteries
- Enter diaphysis through perforating (volkman’s) canal
- Accompanied by the Periosteal vein
- Supplies:
a) Periostium
b) Outer part of compact bone

2. Nutrient Artery
- Enter compact bone through (Nutrient Foramen)
- Divides into proximal and distal branches as it reaches the medullary cavity
- Accompanied by the Nutrient vein
- Supplies:
a) Inner part of the compact bone tissue of the diaphysis
b) Spongy bone
c) As far as the epiphyseal plate (line)

3. Metaphyseal Artery
- Accompanied by the metaphyseal veins
- Supplies the metaphysis
4. Epiphyseal Artery
- Accompanied by the epiphyseal veins
- Supplies the epiphysis

*Periosteum is rich in sensory nn. Nn are sensitive to learning/ tension

BONE
FORMATION
O S S I F I C AT I O N / O S T E O G E N E S I S
qFOUR PRINCIPLES

1)Initial formation of bones in embryo and fetus

2)Growth of bone during infancy, childhood and
adolescence
3)Remodelling of bone
4)Repair of fx
INITIAL
F O R M AT I O N
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
Intramembranous ossification: bone forms directly within mesenchyme,
which is arranged in sheetlike layers that resembles membranes.

• Bones that form by this process

1. Flat bone of skull
2. Most f facial bone
3. Mandible (lower jaw)
4. Medial part of clavicle
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
ENDROCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
BONE GROWTH
GROWTH IN BONE LENGTH
• 2 major events:
1. Interstitial growth of the cartilage in the epiphyseal side
2. Endochondral ossification of the cartilage in the diaphyseal side

• Zones of the epiphyseal (growth) plate

1. Zone of resting cartilage
2. Zone of proliferating cartilage
3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage
4. Zone of calcified cartilage
GROWTH IN BONE WIDTH
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH

1. Minerals
2. Vitamins
3. Hormones
4. Age
BONE
REMODELLING
- On going replacement of old bone tissue by
new bone tissue

•Bone Resorption
- removal of minerals and collagen fibres
from bone by osteoclast
•Bone Deposition
- addition of minerals and collagen fibres
into the bone by the osteoblast
O RT H O D O N T I C S

is the branch of
dentistry concerned
with the prevention
and correction of
poorly aligned
teeth.
B O N E R E PA I R
• Fx
- Any break in the continuity of the bone

• Stress Fx
- Series of microscopic fissures in the bone that forms s any
evidence of injury to the tissues
- 25% of stress fractures involve the tibia

§ Phases of bone Fx repair

1. Reactive Phase
2. Reperative Phase: Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation
3. Reperative Phase: Bony Callus formation
4. Bone remodeling Phase
CALCIUM
HOMEOSTASIS
- Major Ca reservoir (99%)
- Normal: 9 to 11 mg/100mL

• the heart may stop (cardiac arrest) if

the concentration goes too high, or
breathing may cease (respiratory
arrest) if the level falls too low

↓ Ca level in the blood → PTH

↑ Ca level in the blood → Calcitonin
EXERCISE AND
BONE TISSUE
Within limits, bone tissue has the ability to alter its
strength in response to changes in mechanical
stress. When placed under stress, bone tissue
becomes stronger through increased deposition of
mineral salts and production of collagen fibers by
osteoblasts.

“Wollf’s Law”
- High impact intermittent strains more
strongly influences bone deposition
compared c lower impact constant strain

- Main mechanical stresses of the bone is:

1. Pull of the mm
2. Pull of gravity

- Weight bearing activity such as walking and

moderate weight lifting helps build and retain
bone mass
AGING AND
BONE TISSUE
§ 2 principles effecting bone tissue by age:
1. Demineralization
2. ↓ rate of protein synthesis

• Birth to Adolescence
Bone production > Bone resorption
• Young adult
Bone production = Bone resorption
• Middle aged (esp. women p menopause)
Bone production < Bone resorption

- p 30y/o (F)
8% loss of total bone mass/ 10yrs
30% loss of bone mass @ 70y/o
- p 60y/o (M)
3% loss of total bone mass/ 10yrs
REFERENCES:

• Seeley's essentials of anatomy & physiology (2019)

• Gerard J. Tortora-Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
14th Edition