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ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

BEFORE YOU START

Welcome to the module Electrical Machines III (EEM3701). This module is an essential part
of your studies in the field of electrical engineering. Please read the introductory part
thoroughly because it contains useful background information that will assist you in your
studies this year.

In this introduction we answer the following questions:

• Why do I have to study Electrical Machines III?

• What are the core learning outcomes of this module?

• What are the prerequisites for this module?

• How is the study guide compiled?

• What about a time schedule?

• How should I study the given material?

WHY DO I HAVE TO STUDY ELECTRICAL MACHINES III?

In the module Electrical Machines II, you were introduced to the field of electrical machines.
Electrical Machines III will broaden your knowledge of this vital area of electrical engineering.
Without a thorough knowledge of the contents of this module, a technician involved in the
maintenance or commissioning of electric motors will be at a serious disadvantage.

WHAT ARE THE CORE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE?

After you have completed this module, you should

• understand the basic principles of synchronous machines

• understand the basic principles of salient-pole synchronous machines

• understand the basic principles of induction motors

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WHAT ARE THE PREREQUISITES FOR THIS SUBJECT?

Students who have completed Electrical Machines II may enrol for Electrical Machines III.

HOW IS THE STUDY GUIDE COMPILED?

In order to simplify your studies, we have structured each chapter in the same way. Each
chapter starts with an explanation of the study objectives that will guide you through the
chapter. These objectives explain what you must be able to do after you have studied the
chapter. Carefully read through these objectives before studying the chapter.

WHAT ABOUT A TIME SCHEDULE?

You will study on your own most of the time, therefore it is very important that you should
follow a time schedule to ensure that you use your available study time efficiently.

The total time available for this course is approximately 28 weeks. The following schedule
will help you to work through all the chapters in time:

Chapter 1 3 weeks

Chapter 2 6 weeks

Assignment I 1 week

Chapter 3 4 weeks

Chapter 4 3 weeks

Chapter 5 4 weeks

Chapter 6 4 weeks

Chapter 7 4 weeks

Assignment II 1 week

As you can see, you have to complete two assignments during the study period. The due dates
for the assignments are provided in Tutorial Letter 101.

The compulsory laboratory work that forms part of this module is also discussed in the
tutorial letter.

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HOW SHOULD I STUDY THE MATERIAL?

Please keep the following in mind while you are studying this module.

• The author of this study guide have your best interests at heart.

• Study objectives are indicated at the beginning of each chapter. As soon as you have
completed a chapter, please make sure that you have achieved all the study objectives.

• Answer all the questions in the study guide. These questions are designed to make sure
that you achieve the study objectives.

If you take note of the above advice, you will definitely succeed in your studies this year.

You are now ready to start. Enjoy your studies!

PLEASE PROCEED TO CHAPTER 1.

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CHAPTER 1

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

CONTENTS

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES 2

1.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 2

1.2.1 Electrical and mechanical degrees 5

1.2.2 Two-layer lap winding 8

1.2.3 Single-layer winding 9

1.2.4 Concentric winding 10

1.2.5 Pole pitch 10

1.2.6 Winding factor 11

1.2.7 Coil span factor (pitch factor) 14

1.3 HARMONICS 14

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR 17

EXERCISE 1.1 32

1.5 BASIC SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODEL 35

1.6 THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC 43

1.7 REGULATION OF AN ALTERNATOR 44

1.8 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 44

1.8.1 No-load characteristics 45

1.8.2 Short-circuit characteristic 45

1.8.3 The synchronous method of determining the regulation 46

1.8.4 Rothert's simple MMF method 47

4
1.8.5 The short-circuit ratio 50

EXERCISE 1.2 64

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

 list the different types of synchronous machines

 list the types of rotors of synchronous machines

 explain the modes of operation of synchronous machines

 describe the methods of excitation of synchronous machines

 list the types of winding used in synchronous machines

 calculate the distribution factor, pitch factor and span factor of single-phase and three-

phase windings of synchronous machines

 calculate voltage regulation using the emf method and Rothert’s MMF method

 calculate the pitch factor of single-phase and three-phase windings

 describe the regulation of an alternator

1.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

In synchronous machines, the armature winding either exports AC power (synchronous

alternator) or imports AC power (synchronous motor), whereas the field winding is always
energised from a dc source. In other words, a synchronous machine is a doubly excited energy
conversion device. The generation of emf in general depends on the relative motion between
field flux and armature winding. In view of this, an ac generator, alternator or synchronous
generator may either have rotating field poles and a stationary armature, or a rotating armature

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and stationary field poles.

Synchronous machines, however, are invariably constructed with a high-power armature

winding on the stator and a low-power field winding on the rotor, although small synchronous
machines with the reverse arrangement may be built.

There are two types of synchronous machines, depending on the geometrical structure of the
rotor. These are the salient-pole (projecting or standing-out poles) and cylindrical-rotor
synchronous machines. The field winding on the salient-pole type is a concentrated winding,
meaning that it is wound on the pole in the form of a bobbin. In the case of the cylindrical-rotor
type, the field winding is a distributed winding housed in slots.

A further distinction between the two types is that salient-pole synchronous machines have a
non-uniform air gap. Under the pole centres the air gap is at a minimum and between the poles
the air gap is at a maximum. In cylindrical-rotor synchronous machines, the air gap is uniform
throughout, neglecting the slot openings.

The rotors of both types of machines are similar to the induction motor stator. In other words,
the synchronous machine consists of a cast-iron stator frame; a cylindrical, laminated and
uniformly slotted core; a polyphase distributed winding placed in stator slots; bearings; and a
base. As in the polyphase induction motor, the stator frame and end covers merely serve as a
mechanical support to the stator core and are not designed to carry the magnetic flux. The
frequency of the generated emf is

f = np

where n = the revolutions per second

and p = the number of pole pairs

Oil engines and hydraulic turbines operate best at relatively low speeds. Therefore, the
alternators driven by these prime movers must have a relatively large number of poles. For
accommodating a large number of poles, the rotor diameter must be comparatively increased.
From mechanical point of view, salient-pole construction has been found to be best suited for
low-speed prime movers.

The salient-pole rotor structure is also used for comparatively small synchronous machines.
For larger machines, the laminated salient-pole types are bolted to the spider keyed to the shaft.

6
Damper bars are usually inserted in the pole shoes to damp out the rotor oscillations. The pole
shoe of a salient-pole type is suitably shaped so as to obtain a sine wave for the radial flux
density in the gap. Commercially, the salient-pole machine synchronous alternators are called
hydro-alternators or hydro­generators.

Steam and gas turbines have the best operating characteristics at relatively high speeds.
Alternators driven by these turbines must therefore have fewer poles, say two to four. If salient-
pole construction is used for such high speeds, the rotor structure may not be able to withstand
the enormous centrifugal forces developed by the salient-pole machines. Therefore,
cylindrical-rotor machines would be better suited for this type of operation, considering the
mechanical restraints. Commercially, cylindrical-rotor synchronous alternators are called turbo
alternators. Synchronous motors, usually of the salient-pole type, are of the same general
construction as salient-pole alternators. Under steady state, the synchronous motors operate at
a constant speed as determined by the frequency and number of poles. In salient-pole motors,
the functions of the damper bars are to damp out the rotor oscillations and to start the
synchronous motor.

For synchronous machines of large sizes, adequate cooling arrangements must be incorporated
to dissipate the heat produced by the various losses. For relatively large sizes, closed circuit
cooling using air, water, hydrogen or helium is often used. A synchronous machine is usually
connected to an energy system, fed by other alternators. In a synchronous alternator, the
frequency of the generated emf depends on the rotational speed and poles. Thus, a synchronous
machine can be connected to an energy system only when frequency or the rotational speed of
the synchronous machine is equal to the frequency of the supply system.

In other words, for successful operation, the rotational speed of the synchronous machine must
synchronise with the frequency of the energy system. This is why it is called a synchronous
machine. A single synchronous machine may operate at any frequency or speed, since it is not
synchronised with any energy system. However, a single synchronous motor fed from an
energy system must synchronise its rotational speed with the system frequency.

1.2.1 Electrical and mechanical degrees

The emf induced in a conductor is given by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,

which can be expressed in many different forms. In one form, the generated emf is given by:

e = B.l.v

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Where: B = flux density in tesla (T)

l = length of the conductor in metres (m)

v = velocity in metres per second (m/s) perpendicular to the flux

If a conductor of constant length, £, moves at a constant velocity, v, the induced emf, e, in the
conductor has the waveform of the flux density variation. In other words, for a square flux
density wave, the emf wave is square. This is also true for a triangular and sinusoidal waveform.
In figure 1.1 it is assumed that one conductor rotates at a uniform angular velocity. When the
conductor is at point a, the conductor emf is zero, because B is zero at this point. At point b,
the induced emf is maximum because the flux is maximum. In one revolution, one cycle of
conductor emf is induced.

θ
π 2π
N

ωτ S
π 2π

Figure 1.1 The waveforms

It is now assumed that the conductor is rotating in a four-pole machine, as shown in figure 1.2.
When the conductor is at a, the induced emf is maximum in one direction; at b it is maximum
but in the opposite direction; at c it is again maximum and in the same direction as a; and at d
it is maximum and in the same direction as b.

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Figure 1.2 Conductor rotating in a four pole machine

For one mechanical revolution, the emf therefore makes two electrical revolutions. From this
we can deduce that electrical degrees are equal to the mechanical degrees multiplied by the
number of pole pairs:

A three-phase winding consists of three sets of windings. These windings can be distributed
and are either corded or full-pitched. A distributed winding is housed in two or more slots. By
reversing the connections to one of the windings, a symmetrical supply can be obtained.

The lap winding is most commonly used. A single coil that spans the entire length of the pole
is known as a full-pitch coil. Thus, a full-pitch coil spans 180°. Both the pole pitch and coil
pitch can be expressed in the number of stator slots. A coil with a span of less than 180° is
known as a fractional-pitch coil. If the number of slots spanned by a pole is known, the angle
in electrical degrees between two slots can be determined. This is known as the slot span.

Since a coil usually spans a fraction of the pole, there are more than one coil in a given phase
under the pole. All these coils are connected in series to form a group that is known as a phase
group. A fractional-pitch winding has several advantages:

• It reduces the presence of harmonics by producing a truer sinusoidal wave form.

• It shortens the end of the windings and therefore reduces copper usage.

• The shorter coils can be conveniently managed, which reduces the build-up of end turns
on both sides of the stack. This reduces the overall length of the machine and minimises

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flux leakage.

The main disadvantage of the fractional-pitch winding is that the magnitude of the induced
voltage is smaller than the full-pitch winding. Thus, either a larger number of turns are needed,
or the flux produced by the field winding must be increased to compensate for the reduction in
voltage.

1.2.2 Two-layer lap winding

For a two-layer lap winding there are as many identical coils as there are slots in the stator.
One side of each coil is placed at the bottom half of the slot, while the other side of the same
coil fills up the top half of another slot. The bottom half of that slot already contains one side
of some other coil. The top of the stator slot is the region that is close to the air gap of the
machine. It is therefore evident that the coils have to be pre-wound on the winding forms and
inserted in the slot because each slot contains two different coils. Figure 1.6 shows a typical
arrangement of a two-layer lap winding in progress. Since a two-layer lap winding always has
two different coils sides in a slot, the coils must be properly insulated. For double-layer
windings, the total number of coils, C, is equal to the number of slots, S.

Bottom part of coil

A
Pitch of the coil (1 and 6)

Figure 1.3: Two-layer lap winding

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1.2.3 Single-layer winding

A single-layer winding arrangement requires only half the number of identical coils in
comparison with a two-layer lap winding. According to this winding technique, each slot only
contains one side of a coil, but each coil has twice as many conductors.

Since there are only half the number of coils to be wound, inserted, arranged in slots, connected
and taped, a single-layer lap winding arrangement is both easier and more economical. In this
case there is no need for in-between slot insulation. However, a single-layer lap winding may
not be feasible for all types of three-phase stators as it requires an even number of slots to be
spanned by each coil in addition to an even number of stator slots. A schematic development
is shown in figure 1.4:

Figure 1.4: Single-layer lap winding

1.2.4 Concentric winding

The concentric distribution of coils, although extensively utilised for single-phase induction
motors, is not uncommon for fractional and small-kilowatt polyphase stators. For such stators,
this arrangement of windings is rather preferred, particularly by an industry that makes both
kinds of stators.

The reason is that both single-phase and polyphase stators can be wound by making use of
automatic winding equipment. Depending on the number of slots available per pole per phase
(for symmetric winding the number must be an integer), a group of concentric coils may have
more than one individual coil. Each individual coil in a group spans a different number of slots
and therefore exhibits the effect of fractional pitch winding. Whenever there is more than one
coil in a group, the outermost coil spans the maximum number of slots and the inner-most slot
spans the minimum number of slots. The coils are said to be nested.

Most often the innermost coil is wound or inserted first as it spans a minimum number of teeth

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and has comparatively low end-turn build-up. This arrangement is followed by the next bigger
coil and so on until the outermost coil has been properly put in place. By arranging the coils in
this fashion, the coil build-up is kept to a minimum at either end of the stator. Figure 1.5 shows
a typical concentric winding arrangement with two coils in a phase group. Note that there is
only one coil side in each slot. The inner coil spans five teeth and the outer coil seven:

Figure 1.5: Concentric winding

1.2.5 Pole pitch

The peripheral distance between two adjacent poles is called the pole pitch ('tr).

The pole pitch is always expressed in electrical degrees rather than in mechanical degrees.
We can therefore conclude that pole pitch is always equal to 180° electrical degrees or 𝜋𝜋
electrical radians.

τp
N

Figure 1.6 The pole pitch

Advantages of using fractional pitch windings are as follows:

• A reduction in the copper required for overhang results in cheaper machines as less
copper is used.

• A reduction of harmonics in the generated emf wave renders the output emf wave almost
a sine wave.

𝜋𝜋
The use of short-pitched coils reduces the output voltage by a factor cos ( 2 ) . To compensate

12
for this reduction in output voltage, more turns (and therefore more copper) are essential. Since
the advantage of reducing the higher order harmonics in the emf wave is much more important
than the disadvantage of higher initial cost, the use of chorded coils is justified.

1.2.6 Winding factor

The product of the distribution factor k d and the pitch factor kp is referred to as the winding
factor kw:

In the case of three-phase alternators, the third harmonic emf can be suppressed by star or delta
connection, as in the case of three-phase transformers. Hence, at the time of winding design,
the attention is mainly directed at the attenuation of the 5th and 7th harmonic by adopting a
suitable angle. A chording angle of 30° is most useful since it gives the pitch factors of 0,966
for the fundamental; 0,707 for the third harmonic; 0,259 for the 5th and 7th harmonics; and
0,707 for the 9th harmonic.

Three-phase alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate the 3rd and 9th harmonics
(also called “triplen harmonics”) from line emfs. The 5th and 7th harmonic emfs of reduced
magnitude are however present in the lines.

1.2.7 Coil span factor (pitch factor)

The stator coils of a synchronous machine are usually corded. The length of the overhang as
well as the I2 R-losses are reduced. Certain harmonics are also eliminated with an improvement
in the wave form. A full-pitch coil is 180° (from the centre of the one pole to the centre of the
next pole) as shown in figure 1.7:

Figure 1.7

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For a corded coil, the coil span is less than the pole pitch, τp. ε is the number of electrical
degrees by which the coil is corded. Corded and full-pitched coils do not exist in the same
machine.

When a coil is full-pitched, the coil sides pass the north and south poles simultaneously. The
induced emfs in the coil sides Ea and Eb are therefore in phase. The resultant emf, Er, will be
the arithmetic sum of Ea and Eb. For corded coils, the emfs are no longer in phase. When the
rotor rotates clockwise (see figure 1.8), the emf Ea will lead the emf Eb by an angle ε. The
resulting emf Er will be the phasor sum of the emfs. The pitch factor may be defined as the
ratio of the emf of a corded coil to the emf of a full-pitched coil.

EA + EB

ER

ER
Q
EB
ε
O EA

Figure 1.8

E r2
kp = . Ea
E r1

= Eb

Both are induced by the same flux.

Since:

Ea= Eb

We have:

Er1 = Ea

And:

Er2 = (2)( OQ )

ε
= (2)(Ea)cos  
2

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(2)(E a ) cos ε 
2
And: kp =
(2)(E a )

ε
∴ kp = cos  
2

1.3 HARMONICS

Shown in figure 1.9 is a fundamental frequency containing a third harmonic. Note that the
harmonic completes three cycles for every one cycle of the fundamental frequency. In this case,
the angle of the harmonic is three times that of the fundamental frequency. So for an nth
harmonic, the electrical degrees will be times that of the fundamental frequency. For the nth
order harmonic, the pitch factor will be:

To eliminate a harmonic:

Kpn = 0

If there had been an nth harmonic, it would have been eliminated.

15
Figure 1.9: Harmonic effects on fundamental frequency
Example 1.1

Show that the output emf wave in an alternator contains no even harmonics.

Solution

φ φm1
Fundamental frequency
φm2
Second harmonic

a a’
Space angle

a a’

A B
Figure 1.10

The fundamental component of the flux wave induced maximum emf in coil sides a and a',
since these are cutting the maximum (φm) flux. If the rms value of the emf in each coil side
is E, then the resultant emf of the fundamental frequency across the coil ends. A and B is
2E 1. The second harmonic component of the field flux wave also induces maximum emfs
in coil sides a and a', because they are cutting maximum flux φm2 at the instant shown.

The directions of the second harmonic emfs are shown by the arrows in the lower diagram.
The resultant of the second harmonic emf between the coil terminals A and B is seen to

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be zero, since the two second harmonic emfs are opposing each other in the coil circuit.
This shows that the second harmonic emfs, or general even harmonic emfs, cannot be
generated in an alternator. Consequently, the output emf wave is free from even harmonics.
This example demonstrates that even if the field flux wave contains a second harmonic
component, the output wave is free from second harmonic emfs. Note, however, that the
field flux is symmetrical; that is, the field wave has equal positive and negative half cycles.
Since the field flux wave has identical positive and negative half cycles, it cannot contain
even field space harmonics and, consequently, no even harmonics can be generated. Hence,
the output emf is free from even harmonics.
In the case where even harmonics are present in the field flux wave, the positive and
negative half cycles will not be identical. However, this is never the case in rotating
electrical machines.

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

Let g' be the number of slots per pole per phase. Consider a winding where g' = 3 slots per
pole per phase (slots/pole/phase, sometimes called “slots/pole and phase”). The phase spread
α = g' ψ. If the coil is concentrated, all the flux will cut the conductors of the coil side
simultaneously. The emfs will all be in phase and can be summed arithmetically. On the other

hand, if the coil is distributed, the rotor flux will cut coil side A and ψ0 later B and

another ψ0 later it will cut coil side C, which means a phase shift of ψ0 between coil
sides. The breadth factor, kb, is defined as the ratio of the voltage in a distributed winding
to that of a full-pitched coil. See figure 1.11:

Figure 1.11: Complexor diagram of slot emfs

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The breadth factor (figure 1.12) is:

phasor sum of all the coil side emfs

kd =
arithmetic sum of all the emfs

ER
=
E a + E b + E c + ...

ER
∴ kd =
g ' .E a

For the fundamental frequency:

( )
sin
g'.ψ
2

g .sin ( )
kd = ψ
'
2

And for the nth harmonic:

sin ( )n.g'.ψ
2

g .sin ( )
kd = n.ψ
'
2

Where:

g’ ≡ number of slots/pole/phase wound

ψ ≡ angle in electrical degrees between adjacent slots

n ≡ the order of the harmonic

A 0

Figure 1.12: Phasor diagram of slot emfs

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All the slots in a three-phase machine are usually wound, but in some single-phase
machines, some slots are not wound. Thus for calculating g' the wound slots must be used,
but for calculating \If the total number of slots must be used.

The product α= g' ψ represents the electrical angle over which the conductors of one phase
are spread under any one pole and is referred to as the phase spread. In a three-phase, single-
layer winding, each phase has two phase spreads under each pole pair. Thus for a single-
layer three-phase winding:

360
g’.ψ =
(2)(3)

= 60 °e

Clearly, the highest value that the distribution factor can have is unity, which corresponds
to a situation where there is one coil per pair and phase. A lower limit for the value of
kd also exists. Thus, if the number of separate slots g' in the phase spread g' ψ is considered
to increase without limit, then

ψ →0

and sin ψ → ψ .
2 2

A three-phase winding with a phase spread of 60ᵒe is said to be narrow spread:

3
g’.ψ =π

A winding having this limiting condition is called a uniform winding. In such a winding,
the phase spreads may be thought of as current sheets with the effect of the slotting
eliminated. The lower limit of k d for a narrow-spread winding, corresponding to a very
large number of slots per pole and phase, shows that the distribution of the winding will
have little effect on the magnitude of the fundamental emf per phase.

Example 1.2
Calculate the distribution factor for a three-phase, four-pole winding with 36 slots.

19
Solution

g’ = number of slots per pole per phase

36
=
(3)(4)

=3

ψ is the angle between adjacent slots in electrical degrees. In this case, there are
36 slots in the stator. This means that there are 36 slots in 360°:

Figure 1.13

This angle can be measured from the beginning of one slot to the beginning of the
next slot, or from the centre of one slot to the centre of the next slot.

Thus:

360°
ψm =
36

= 10 °m

The footnote m denotes mechanical degrees:

= (2)(10)
= 20°
E

p = number of pole pairs

20
g ' .ψ
sin 2
kd =
g ' sin ψ2

(3)( 20°)
sin 2
=
3. sin 202 °

= 0,9598

Example 1.3

Calculate the distribution factor for a single-phase alternator with six slots per pole when

(a) all the slots are wound

(b) only four adjacent slots per pole are wound, the rest being unwound

Solution

(a) g = number of slots per pole per phase

=6

There are six slots per pole, which means there are six slots between a north pole and a south
pole, that is 180:

180°
ψ=
6

= 30ᵒ

g ' .ψ
sin 2
∴ kd =
g ' sin ψ2

( 6 )(30°)
sin 2
=
( )
(6) sin 302°

= 0,64395

(b) g = number of slots per pole per phase

4
= -

21
1
= 4

ψ remains at 30°.

Because of the number of slots in the stator, this is being fixed by construction:

'
sin g 2.
ψ
kd =
g ' sin ψ2

( 4 )(30°)
sin 2
=
( )
(4) sin 302°

= 0,83652

It follows from the above values of kd that if the number of conductors per slot
remains the same:

emf with all slots wound (6)(0,644)

=
emf with four adjacent slots wound (4)(0,837)

= 1,15

This means that a 50% increase in the number of conductors only increases the emf by 15%.
When g' = 4 in (b) and g' = 6 in (a), it means a 50% increase – from 2�3 of the slots being
wound to all the slots being wound.

This is why it is customary to wind only about two-thirds of the slots in a single­phase
alternator.

Self-test 1.1

Calculate the distribution factor of a three-phase stator that has 72 slots and six poles.

The waveform of the resultant emf generated in an alternator may be improved by making the
coil pitch less than a pole pitch. This practice is only possible with a two-layer winding.

ε
Kp = cos(2)

22
Example 1.4

An alternator has nine slots per pole. If each coil spans eight slot pitches, determine the pitch
factor.

Solution

180°
ψe =
9

= 20°

In this case ε =ψ, because the coil is corded by one slot.

𝜀𝜀
kp = cos(2)

= 0,985

If the coil is corded by two slots:

g =2ψ
= (2)(20)
= 40°
40
kp =cos ( 2 )

= 0,9397

Self-test 1.2

Determine the pitch factor for the winding in self-test 1.1 if it is chorded by
(a) one slot
(b) two slots

Example 1.5

The stator of a three-phase machine has nine slots per pole and carries a balanced three-
phase, double-layer winding. The coils are short-pitched and the coil pitch is 7/9. Determine
the winding factor.

23
Solution
180
ψe =
slots / pole

180°
=
9

= 20°

7
coil-pitch =   (180°)
9

= 140°

The coil is short-pitched by:

ε = 180° − 140°

= 40°

S
g’ =
2.p.m

9
=
3

=3

( )
sin
n .g '.ψ
2
g . sin ( )
kd = ' n .ψ
2

=
sin 2
(( )( ) )
3 20°

( )
3.sin 202 °

= 0,9598

ε
kp = cos  
2

= cos 20°

= 0,9397

kw = kd.kp

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= (0,9598)(0,9397)

= 0,9019

Because of distribution and short-pitching, the winding voltage will be less by a factor of
0,9019.

Example 1.6

An eight-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous alternator has 96 stator slots

and a 9/12 corded winding. The air gap flux density shows that third and fifth harmonics are
present, and are of amplitude 30% and 15% of the fundamental respectively. Determine the
ratio of the line and phase voltages.

Solution
S
g’ =
2.p.m

96
=
(2)(4)(3)
= 4 slots/pole/phase

180°
ψe =
(3)(4)
= 15°

ε = 3.ψ

= (3)(15°)

= 45°

sin( ) n .g '.ψ
2

g . sin ( )
kd = n .ψ
'
2

(
sin
( )( )
)
4 15°
2

(4)sin ( )
= ( 4 )(15°)
2

= 0,9577

25
sin( )n .g '.ψ
2

g . sin ( )
kd3 = n .ψ
'
2

sin (( )( )( ) )
3 4 15°
2

(4)sin ( )
= ( )( )
3 15°
2

= 0,6533

sin( )n .g '.ψ
2

g . sin ( )
kd5 = n .ψ
'
2

(
sin
( )( )( )
5 4 15°
2
)
(4)sin ( )
= ( )( )
5 15°
2

= 0,2053

The pitch factors are as follows:

ε
kp = cos  
2

 45° 
= cos  
 2 

= 0,9239

 3.ε 
kp3 = cos  
 2 

 (3)(45° ) 
= cos  
 2 

= 0,3827

 5.ε 
kp5 = cos  
 2 

 (5)(45° ) 
= cos  
 2 

26
= − 0,3827

The winding factors are as follows:

kw1 = kd1.kp1

= (0,9577)(0,9239)

= 0,8848

kw3 = kd3.kp3

= (0,6533)(0,3827)

= 0,25

kw5 = kd5.kp5

= (0,2053)(– 0,3827)

= – 0,0786

The rms fundamental voltages are as follows:

E1 ∝ B1max.kw1

∝ (k)(1)(0,8848)

∝ 0,8848 k

E3 ∝ B3 max.kw3

∝ (k)(0,3)(0,25)

∝ 0,075 k

E5 ∝ B5 max.kw5

∝ (k)(0,15)(– 0,0786)

∝ – 0,0118 k

27
The phase voltage is as follows:

ELN = k( E 12 + E 32 + E 52 + ...)0,5

= k[(0,8848)2 + (0,075)2 + (0,0118)2 + ...]0,5

= 0,8881 k

EL = 3 .ELN

= ( 3 ) (0,8881 k)

E ph
E =
EL

=
( 3 )(0,8848)
0,8881

= ( 3 ) (0,9963)
Note that the line voltage is slightly lower than √3 times the phase voltage because of the
absence of the third harmonic voltages in the line-line voltage.

EXERCISE 1.1

(1) Calculate the value of the distribution factor for a three-phase alternator having 12 slots
per pole.

(0,958)

(2) The stator of a three-phase, eight-pole, 750 r/min alternator has 72 slots, each of which
contains ten conductors. Calculate the value of the emf per phase if the flux is 0,1 Wb,
sinusoidally distributed. Assume full-pitch coils.

(2560 V)

(3) A three-phase, four-pole alternator has a single-layer winding with eight conductors per

28
slot. The armature has 36 slots. Calculate the distribution factor.

(0,960)

(4) A four-pole, single-phase alternator has 24 slots, 16 of which are wound. The machine
has a flux of about 0,02 Wb/pole and the speed of the machine is 1500 r/min. Calculate
the number of conductors per slot in order that the generated emf may be 410 V.
Assume full-pitch coils and that all the conductors are connected in series.

(14)

(5) A certain alternator has six slots per pole and the coils are short-pitched by one slot.
Calculate the pitch factor.

(0,966)

(6) A 50 Hz alternator has a flux of 0,1 Wb/pole, sinusoidally distributed. Calculate the rms
value of the emf generated in one turn that spans 3/4 of a pole pitch.

(20,51)

(7) A 10 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase, star-connected alternator is driven at 300 r/min.
The winding is housed in 360 slots and has six conductors per slot, the coils spanning 5/6 of a
pole pitch. Calculate the sinusoidally distributed flux per pole required to give a line voltage
of 11 kV on open circuit and the full-load current per conductor.

(0,862 Wb; 525 A)

(8) A 72-slot, three-phase, eight-pole, 750 r/min alternator has ten conductors per slot.
Calculate the rms value of the induced emf per phase if the flux per pole is 0,1 Wb.
Assume the waveform to be sinusoidal, and the winding factor to be 0,96 and full­pitch
coils.

(2557,4 V/ph)

(9) An eight-pole, synchronous machine has a three-phase winding housed in 72 slots. The
coils are corded by two slots. Calculate the fundamental frequency pitch factor.

(0,939)

(10) A three-phase stator has four slots per pole per phase. The coils are corded by one slot.

29
Calculate the fundamental frequency pitch factor if there are eight poles.

(0,991)

(11) A three-phase stator has three slots per pole per phase. The synchronous speed at 50 Hz
is 1000 r/min. The induced emf per coil is 20 V with full-pitched coils. Calculate:

(a) the angle between adjacent slots

(b) the fundamental distribution factor

(c) the induced emf per coil if the winding is corded by two slots

(20°e; 0,959; 18,78)

(12) A three-phase winding is housed in four slots per pole per phase and is corded by two
slots. Calculate the winding factor of the third harmonic.

(0,4617)

(13) A three-phase winding is housed in three slots per pole per phase. The winding is
corded by two slots. Calculate the coil span factor for the following:

(a) the fundamental frequency

(b) the third harmonic

(c) the sixth harmonic

(0,959; 0,5; –0,5)

1.5 BASIC SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODEL

The cylindrical-rotor machine offers constant permanence to mmf waves irrespective of the
mechanical position of the rotor. Figure 1.14 shows a cross­sectional view of a two-pole,
cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine. Multipolar structures are merely a cyclic repetition of
the two-pole structure in terms of the electrical angle.

30
Figure 1.14: Cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine

The rotor has distributed windings that produce an approximate sinusoidally distributed mmf
wave in space, rotating at synchronous speed ωs (rad/s) or ns (r/s), along with the rotor.

This mmf wave is represented by the space vector Ff in the diagram that, at the instant

shown, makes an angle ∝ = ωs t with the axis of coil aa' on the stator. Coil aa' represents the
phase "a".

The peak value of the vector Ff = Ff. As a consequence of the uniform air gap, the mmf
wave Ff produces a sinusoidally distributed flux density wave Bf in space with it. Figure
1.15 is a developed diagram depicting the space–phase relationship between Bf and Ff.

As the rotor rotates at synchronous speed ωs, the Bf wave causes the sinusoidally varying
flux Φ to link with coil aa'.The maximum value of this flux linkage is Φf, that is the flux
per pole.

Axis of field Axis of coil aa’

α = ωs.t

ωs a a’ a
Stator

ωs Rotor
N S
Mmf wave, Ff

Flux density wave, Bf

Figure 1.15: Developed diagram showing mmf, air gap flux density and coil aa'
of the stator

31
Considering the time reference when Fr lies along the axis of coil aa', this is a
co­sinusoidal variation, that is: φ = Φf.cos ωs.t
Where: ωs = 2.π.f

We can therefore see that the flux linking the coil aa' is a sinusoidal time variation and it can be
represented as the time phasor Φf, which will be referred to as the flux phasor. Consider now
the space vector Ff as seen from the coil aa' on the stator. As Ff rotates at synchronous speed,
it appears to be sinusoidally time-varying at ωs = 2.π.f electrical radians per second. This is
evident from the developed diagram in figure 1.15. Furthermore, when the maximum positive
value of the space wave Ff is directed along the axis of coil aa', the flux linkages of the coil
have a maximum positive value.

We may consider that the rotating space vector Ff as seen from the stator is a time phasor Ff

that is in phase with the flux phasor Φf , as shown in figure 1.16. The magnitude relationship

between Φf and Ff will be governed by the magnetisation curve. This will be linear if the iron

is assumed to be infinitely permeable, in which case Φf = L Ff, where L is the permeance per

pole.

Axis of the field

Φf

Ff

Ef Axis of phase a

Figure 1.16

The emf induced in the coil aa' of N turns is given by Faraday's law:

dx
eaf = −N
dt

32
d
= −N (Φ f cos ωs t )
dt

= N.ωs.Φf.sin ωs.t

The positive direction of the emf is indicated on the coil aa'. This is also verified by
the flux- cutting rule when conductor a lies under the influence of a north pole of the
rotor and conductor a' lies under the influence of a south pole of the rotor.
From φ = Φf cos ωs.t and eaf = N ωsΦf sin ωst, it can be seen that the emf eaf represented as a
time phasor, E f , lags behind the mmf phasor, Ff , and the flux phasor, Φf, by 90° as shown
in figure 1.16.

The relative location of the field axis and the axis of phase a can also be seen where the
axis of phase 'a' is 90° behind the rotor field axis. The rotor field axis is known as the direct
axis. The axis at 90° electrical from it is known as the quadrature axis The rms value of the
induced emf in coil aa' is:

Ef = 2 .π. f.N.Φ f

Ef = 2,22. f.N.Φf

Where: Φ f = Φ f (Ff) or Φ f (If) flux per pole

And: If = the direct current in the rotor field.

Φ f (If) is the relation between the flux per pole and the field current, and is the magnetisation

characteristic. If the winding that produces Er is short-pitched and distributed, the emf becomes

Ef = 2 .π.k w .f.N ph .Φ f

Ef = 2,22.kd.kp.Φ.f.Zph.

The emfs produced in the other phases of the stator progressively differ in the time phase by
120°. Whenever a magnetic structure of a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is subjected
to a rotating mmf vector, it is seen as an mmf phasor from the stator with its flux phasor in
phase with it, while the phasor representing the phase mmf induced lags behind both these
phasors by 90°.

EA = Vrms.sin ωt

33
EB = Vrms.sin (ωt + 120°)

EC = Vrms.sin (ωt – 120°)

EB

120°
120° EA
120°

EC

Figure 1.17

If the windings are connected as shown in figure 1.18(a), the phasor diagram will be as
shown in figure 1.18(b):

a1 b1 c1

60°
a2 b2 c2 60°

(a) (b)

Figure 1.18

Therefore, one of the phases has to be swapped around, as shown in figure 1.19:

Figure 1.19

Then only does a 120° phase shift occur between voltages. When a three-phase stator supplies
a balanced load, it sets up its own mmf vector Far, called the armature reaction, and rotates
at synchronous speed in the same direction as the rotor. The magnetic circuit is not subject

34
to two rotating mmf vectors Ff and Far, which both rotate at the same speed with a certain
angle between them. In the generator mode, the emf and the current have the same positive
direction.

Consider the case when the current Ia supplied by the coil aa' is in phase with the coil emf
Ef. It means that at the time instant when the emf is maximum positive in the coil aa', its
current also has maximum positive value.

The emf in coil aa' will be maximum positive when the field mmf vector, Ff , is 90° ahead
of the coil axis, as shown in figure 1.20. Simultaneously, Far is directed along the axis of
coil aa', which has maximum positive current at this instant. From this we can see that
Ff is 90° ahead of Far when Ef and Ia are in phase. The resultant mmf vector for Fr is the
vector sum. Thus

- - -
Fr = Ff + Far.

Figure 1.20: Synchronous machine on load, generating IA in phase with Ef

- -
Fr lags Ff by an angle δ. The corresponding phasor diagram is given in figure
1.21, where the phasor equation corresponds to the vector diagram. From the phasor

diagram we can see that Ia and Far are in phase because Far is produced by

Ia and is proportional to Ia.

35
Field axis
ωs T
Φf Φr
Far
Ff Fr

Far Ia Ef
Axis of phase ‘a’
δ

Er

Figure 1.21: Phasor diagram for synchronous machine on load, generating IA

in phase with Ef

The resultant mmf vector Fr produces a resultant air gap flux phasor Φr, which in turn induces
an emf Er in phase a, lagging 90° behind Fr .

The phase emf Er is known as the air gap emf and it lags behind Ef (emf induced by Ff
acting alone) by an angle δ. Ef is known as the excitation emf. If Ia lags Ef by angle ψ, the
diagram will change to the one shown in figure 1.22:

Field axis
ωs T
Ff Φr
Far

Fr

δ
Ef
Axis of phase ‘a’
Ψ δ
φ
Er
Ia

Figure 1.22: Synchronous machine on load – Ia lags Ef by ψ (generator action)

The phase angle between Er and Ia ( a n d indicated by φ) is the power factor angle, provided
that the armature is assumed to have zero resistance and leakage reactance, such that the
machine terminal voltage Vt is equal to Er.

36
Φr
Far Field axis

Ff

Er
-Ia
δ
Far δ Ef
φ Axis of phase ‘a’
Ψ

Ia

Axis of phase 'a'

Figure 1.23: Synchronous machine on load (motoring action)

During the motoring action of the synchronous machine, positive current flows opposite to
the induced emf. Since the phasor diagrams above have been drawn with the connection of
generating current (i.e. current in the direction of the emf), the armature reaction phasor Far
can now be located by phase-reversing the motoring current for consistency of convention.

A realistic synchronous machine will have resistance ra and leakage reactance xl per armature
phase, which can be assumed to be lumped in series between the terminal voltage Vt and the
air gap between emf Er for each machine phase.

If Ia

+ ra x
Field Er Vt
−

Figure 1.24

1.6 THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTIC

(a) Circuit model (b) Phasor diagram

Figure 1.25

37
Since the armature circuit is assumed to be purely inductive, the short-circuit current lags
the air gap voltage Er by 90°, so that the armature reaction mmf phasor Far is in direct
opposition to Ff ; that is, the armature reaction is fully demagnetising in effect.

1.7 REGULATION OF AN ALTERNATOR

The percentage voltage regulation of a generator is defined as the ratio of the change in
voltage between no load and full load. The field current, speed and temperature of the
machine must be held constant. The calculations can be carried out in line or phase values:

E−V
εReg =
V

εReg = ε(E – 1)

Generally, the lowest values of Zs, obtained from the largest possible short-circuit current, is
used for determining the voltage regulation.

1.8 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

In this section the operating characteristics will be considered. The operating characteristics
are the no-load, short-circuit and load characteristics, because it is important to know the
capabilities of the machine when it runs under various modes of operation.

1.8.1 No-load characteristics

The no-load characteristic is the variation of the output voltage as a function of the excitation
current when the generator operates at its rated synchronous speed with open-circuit armature
terminals, as shown in figure 1.26.

38
Figure 1.26 Diagram for open-circuit test

1.8.2 Short-circuit characteristic

The short-circuit characteristic of a synchronous generator shows the variation of the armature
current as a function of the excitation current when the generator operates at its rated
synchronous speed with the armature terminals shorted. The short-circuit characteristic
provides information about the current capabilities of the generator. A graph is drawn for
excitation current, If, against short-circuit current, lsc. The graph is linear except for very high
values of excitation where saturation of the magnetic circuit occurs, as shown in figure 1.27.

Open-circuit

emf (phase) Open-circuit

characteristic

Field excitation, If (A)

Figure 1.27: Open-circuit characteristic

1.8.3 The synchronous method of determining the regulation

The two graphs are used to determine Zs, the synchronous impedance of the machine. Behn
Ehnschenberg defines impedance as the ratio of the open­circuit voltage to the short-circuit
current for any given excitation. The value of the excitation that would circulate full-load
current can be used to determine the open-circuit emf. The synchronous impedance is not
constant, but varies with excitation, due to magnetic saturation, as shown in figure 1.28.

39
Figure 1.28: (a) Diagram for short-circuit test

Open-circuit

emf (phase) Short-circuit

characteristic

Field excitation, If
Figure 1.28 (b) Short-circuit characteristic

Before saturation occurs, the graph is linear; that is, Zs is constant and is called the unsaturated
synchronous impedance. Once saturation has commenced, the impedance is then called the
saturated synchronous impedance. Since the impedance is not constant, it is difficult to
determine the regulation. In general, it is determined at the excitation that circulates full-load
current. If this current is unknown, it must be specified at which excitation the regulation is
calculated.

1.8.4 Rothert's simple mmf method

This method also needs the open-circuit and short-circuit curves. The full-load current is
determined by using the formula S = .√3 VL IL. The resistance voltage drop and the terminal
voltage can be added phasorially to get the so-called Rothert voltage, E', as shown in figure
1.29.

40
Figure 1.29: Method of finding Zs from the open-circuit and short-
circuit characteristics

E ' = V + IR

The excitation F', to give the voltage E', can be read from the graph. Use the short-circuit
graph to determine the excitation, FFL, which is necessary to circulate full-load current under
short-circuit conditions. The two exciting currents are now added to give the resultant
excitation FR:

FR .= F ' .+ FFL

Where:
FR = the rotor mmf

At zero power factor lagging, FFL is in direct phase opposition with F' and the rotor has to
supply the excitation FR. At zero power factor leading, F' and FFL is in phase, and the rotor
excitation is the difference between F' and FFL. The value of FR is used to determine E from
the open-circuit graph (see figure 1.19) and the regulation is:
E−V
εReg = .
V

FRES

FROTH FSC

41
Figure 1.30 (a): Zero power factor lagging

FROTH

FSC FRES
Figure 1.30 (b): Zero power factor leading

FRES
FSC
φ

Lagging power factor

FROTH

FRES
FSC

Unity power factor

FROTH

FSC
FRES φ

Leading power factor

FROTH

Figure 1.30 (c): Mmf phasor diagram for Rothert’s method

1.8.5 The short-circuit ratio

The short-circuit ratio is the ratio of the excitation to give rated voltage on no load to the
excitation necessary to circulate full-load current on short-circuit. Thus:

42
Frvnl
rsc =
FFL

It is a measure of the relative strength of the field mmf and the full-load armature mmf, and is
the reciprocal of the per unit value of the synchronous reactance.

Example 1.7

The effective resistance of a 3 300 V, 300 A, 50 Hz, three-phase, star-connected alternator is

0,4 Ω per phase. On short-circuit, the field current necessary to produce full-load current was
20 A. The emf on open-circuit with the same excitation was 1 905 V per phase. Calculate the
regulation of the alternator for a power factor 0,8 lagging.

Solution
Voc
Zs =
I sc

1905
=
300

= 6,35 Ω

 0,4 
β = cos-1  
 6,35 

= 86,39°

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠(β – φ)

= (1905∠0°) + [(300)(6,35)∠(86,39° – 36,87°)]

= 3459,75 V

E−V
εVR =
V

3459,75 − 1905
=
1905

= 0,816 pu

Example 1.8

43
The following data were obtained for a 10 MVA, 14 kV, star-connected, three­phase
synchronous machine:

Ir Open-circuit Air gap voltage Short-circuit

(A) voltage (kV) (kV) current (A)
100 9,0

150 12,0

200 14,0 18 490

250 15,3

300 15,9

350 16,4

The armature resistance is 0,07 ohms/phase. Determine:

(a) the unsaturated and saturated values of the synchronous reactance in ohms and also in pu

(b) the field current required if the synchronous generator is connected to an infinite bus and
delivers rated MVA at 0,8 lagging power factor

(c) the terminal voltage if the generator, operating as in (b), is disconnected from the infinite
bus without changing the field current.

Solution

(a) The data are plotted in figure 1.31. The base voltage is:

= 8 083 V/phase

The base current is:

412,41 A

44
The base impedance is:

8083
Zb =
412,41

= 19,6 Ω

Figure 1.31

18 x 10 3
Z s unsat =
( 3 )(490)
= 21,21 Ω

X s unsat = (21,21) 2 − (0,07) 2

= 21,2 Ω

21,2
=
19,6

= 1,08 pu

45
14 x 10 3
Z ssat =
( 3 )(490)
= 16,5 Ω

= [ X s2sat + (0,07)2]½

X ssat ≈ 16,5 Ω

16,5
=
19,6

= 0,84 pu

b) Vt = 1∠0° pu

cos φ = 0,8

= cos 36,9°

Ia = 1∠–36,9° pu

Zs = 0,84∠tan-1 ( )
16,5
0, 07

= 0,84∠89,8° pu

Ef = Vt + Ia.Ra + Ia.jXs

= Vt + Ia.Zs

= 1∠0° + (1∠–36,9°)(0,85∠89,8°)

= 1∠0° + 0,84∠52,9°

= 1,649∠24° pu

∴ Ef= (1,649)(14∠24°)

= 23,09∠24° kV

Note that δ = 24° and is positive, as it should be for generator operation. The required field
current from the modified air gap line is:

46
If = (1,649)(200)
= 329.8 A

(c) From the open-circuit data (figure 1.20) at Ir = 329.8 A, the terminal voltage is:

Vt = 16,25 kV (line-to-line)
Example 1.9
A 220 V, 50 Hz, six-pole, star-connected alternator with an ohmic resistance of 0,06 Ω/phase gave
the following data for OCT and SCT. Determine the voltage regulation for a power factor of
0,8 lagging by means of the

(a) emf method

(b) Rothert's method
IF (A) 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,0 1,4 1,8 2,2 2,6 3,0 3,4
E (V) 29 58 87 116 146 172 194 232 261,5 284 300 310
lsc (A) 6,6 13,2 20 26,5 32,4 40 46,3 59

Solution

The values given are line values, so they must be converted to phase values. Use values for a
field current of 1,8 A. Assume a full-load current of 40 A.

V
(a) Zs =
I

134
=
59

= 2,27 Ω

r
φ = cos–1
Z

= 88,49°

∴ Z = 2,27∠88,49° Ω

E = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 127,02∠0° + [(40)2,27∠(88,49° – 36,87°)]

= 196,705∠21,24° V

47
196,705 − 127
% VR =
127

= 54,9%

(b) E’ = V + Iara
= 127∟0ᵒ + (40)(0,06)∟(–36,87ᵒ + 90ᵒ)
= 128,5∟0,9ᵒ V

200

Air gap
160

128,5

120
Phase Voltage (V)

Isc

80 80

40 40

0
FSC 1,0 FROTH 2,0 3,0 4,0 If

Figure 1.32
From figure 1.32:

E' = 128,5 V, Fr = 1,69A

48
=1,2L0° + 1,69∟(90° – 36,87°)
= 2,594∟31,4° A
Fr = 1,2 A, obtained using the zero-power factor method.

From the graph for an excitation of 2,59 A, the induced voltage is 163,5 V.

163,5 − 127
% VR =
127

= 28,74%

Example 1.10

A 6,6 kV, three-phase, 50 Hz star-connected alternator gave the test data shown in
the table for OCT and SCT. The phase armature resistance is 0,2 Ω. Calculate, for
a full-load current of 500 A at a lagging power factor of 0,8, the voltage regulation
by means of the

(a) emf method

(b) Rothert's method

IF (A) 3,2 5,00 7,5 10 14

E(kV) 3,10 4,9 6,6 7,5 8,24
Isc (A) 500 778 1170

Solution
V
(a) Zs =
I

3810
=
1170

= 3,26 Ω

R
φ = cos-1
Z

= 86,48°

49
E∠0° = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 3810∠0° + [(500)3,26∠(86,48° – 36,87°)]

= 5,022∠14,31° V

5022 − 3810
% VR =
3810

= 31,8%

(b) E’ = V + IR cos φ
= 3810∟0ᵒ + (500)(0,2)(0,8)
= 3890∟0ᵒ V

Figure 1.33

From figure 1.32:

FROTH = 7,5 A

FRES = FROTH∠0˚ + FSC∠(90˚ – φ)

= 7,8∠0˚ + 3,2∠(90˚ – 37,87˚)

= 10,05∠14,8˚ A

50
From this value of excitation:

E = 4 700 V

4700 − 3810
∴ % VR =
3810

= 23,36%

Example 1.11
A three-phase, 600 kV alternator has a rated terminal voltage of 3 300 V. The stator is star-
connected and has a resistance of 0,37 Ω/phase and a synchronous impedance of 4,3 Ω/phase.
(a) Calculate the voltage regulation for a power factor of
(i) unity
(ii) 0,8 lagging
(iii) 0,8 leading
(b) Draw phasor diagrams for (i) to (iii) above.

Solution

(a)(i) S = 3 .VL .I L

600 x 103 = ( 3 )(3300)(IL)

∴ IL = 104,973 A

R
β = cos-1
Z

 0,37 
= cos-1  
 4,3 

= 85,1°

VL
Vp =
3

3 300
=
3

= 1 905,26 V

51
E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 1 905,26∠0° + [(104,973)4,3∠(85,1° – 0°)]

= 1 995,16∠13,03° V

= 3 455,73 V line

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 1 905,26∠0° + [(104,973)4,3∠(85,1° – 36,87°)]

= 2 231,49∠8,7° V

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 1 905,26∠0° + [(104,973)4,3∠(85,1° + 36,87°)]

= 1 709,7∠12,94° V

3 455,73 − 1 905,26
% VR =
1 905,26

= 81,38%

2 231,49 − 1 905,26
(a)(ii) % VR =
1 905,26

= 17,12%

1 709,7 − 1 905,26
(a)(iii) % VR =
1 905,26

= 10,26%

(b)

52
V

I.Z I.X
δ

Ia E I.R

I.Z
I.X
δ
φ E
Ia I.R

V
I.X
Ia I.Z
φ δ
I.R
E
Figure 1.3

Conclusions to be drawn from these phasor diagrams:

• When the power factor is lagging, V > E. From this it is clear that the
machine is overexcited.
• When the power factor is leading, V < E . From this it is clear that the
machine is underexcited.

Self-test 1.3

(a) A single-phase alternator has a rated output of 500 kVA at a terminal voltage
of 3300 V. The stator winding has a resistance of 0,6 Ω and a synchronous
reactance of 4 Ω. Calculate the percentage voltage regulation for a power factor
of
(i) unity
(ii) 0,8 lagging
(iii) 0,8 leading
(b) Draw a phasor diagram for (i) to (iii) above.

EXERCISE 1.2

(1) A single-phase alternator has a synchronous reactance of 5,5 Ω and a resistance of

0,6 Ω. The load current is 100 A. Calculate the induced emf in the stator winding if the

53
terminal voltage is 2000 V and the power factor is 0,8 lagging. Draw a string diagram
for the alternator.

(2 412L9,6° V)
(2) Determine the regulation of a single-phase, 500 kVA, 3 300 V alternator for power
factors of 1; 0,8 lagging; and 0,8 leading. The synchronous reactance is 4 Ω and the
resistance is 0,7 Ω.

(4,84%; 14,37%; –6,95%)

(3) The information in the table pertains to a three-phase, 9 kVA, 380 V synchronous
machine. The excitation current to circulate full-load current is 1,9 A and the armature
resistance is 0,83 Ω/phase. Determine:
(a) the regulation at a power factor of 0,9 lagging (use Rothert's method) and
sketch the string phasor diagram
(b) the synchronous impedance at the given excitation and the regulation (use the
synchronous impedance method) and sketch the voltage phasor diagram

(amperes)
lp 0,5 0,75 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0
Emf (volts/phase) 100 150 185 270 320 345

(0,455 pu; 0,915 pu)

(4) During an open-circuit test on a 50 kVA, 380 V synchronous machine, the terminal
voltage was 356 V at an excitation of 5 A. On short circuit, full load circulated for an
excitation of 6 A. Determine the synchronous impedance at 5 A.

(3,25 Q/ph)

Note that Rothert’s method is optimistic, while the synchronous impedance method
is pessimistic. The true regulation lies somewhere between these values.

(5) The measured resistance between the stator terminals of a 1 MVA, star-connected,
3,3 kV cylindrical-rotor alternator is 1,2 Ω. An excitation current of 2,5 A gives a line
voltage of 3031 V and a full-load short-circuit current. Rated voltage and Rothert

54
voltage were with excitation currents of 3 A and 3,15 A respectively. Calculate:

(a) the pu synchronous impedance

(b) the Rothert voltage
(c) the approximate excitation for full load at a power factor of 0,8 lagging
(d) the voltage regulation by means of the synchronous impedance method, normal
excitation

(0,918 pu; 1 990,2 V, 5,06L23,21o A; 39,78%)

(6) The excitation for the Rothert voltage in a 1 MV A, three-phase, star-connected,

3,3 kVA alternator was 13,5 A. The excitation current was 18. A was necessary to
circulate full-load current on short-circuit. If the short-circuit ratio is 0,67 and the graphs
are linear in the operating area, calculate the pu regulation at unity power factor.

(0,867 pu)
Remember

• For synchronous machines, normal excitation means that the power factor is one.
• Pu excitation means that E = V.
• Overexcitation in a motor means that E < V and a leading power factor; for
underexcitation it is vice versa.
• Overexcitation in a generator means that E > V and a lagging power factor; for
underexcitation it is vice versa.

55
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701
CHAPTER 2

POWER

CONTENTS
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
2.2 ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS
2.2.1 Star connection
2.2.2 Delta connection
2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DEVELOPMENT
2.4 POWER RELATIONSHIPS
2.4.1 Power flow equations
2.4.2 Efficiency and the power flow diagram
2.4.3 Approximate power relationships
2.4.4 Per unit and percentage values
2.4.5 Power in terms of the phase angle β and load angle δ

EXERCISE 2.1
2.5 NO-LOAD SYNCHRONISING
2.5.1 Conditions to be met before synchronising
2.6 METHODS OF SYNCHRONISING
2.6.1 Lamps dark method
2.6.2 Lamps in sequence method
2.6.3 Synchroscope
2.7 HUNTING
2.7.1 Disadvantages of hunting
2.7.2 Causes of hunting
2.7.3 Methods of minimising hunting
2.8 SYNCHRONISING POWER AND TORQUE

EXERCISE 2.2
2.9 TWO MACHINES IN PARALLEL
2.9.1 Advantages of parallel operation
58
2.9.2 Effect of changing the mechanical torque
2.9.3 Effect of changing the excitation
2.9.4 Load sharing of two machines in parallel

EXERCISE 2.3

2.9.5 Effect of changing the power input to two machines in parallel

2. 10 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

2.10.1 Power supplied by each machine
2.11 GENERATOR MODE
2.12 ISOLATED MACHINES
2.13 MACHINES CONNECTED TO AN INFINITE SYSTEM
2.14 CONSTANT LOAD WITH VARIABLE EXCITATION
2.15 MINIMUM EXCITATION
2.16 LOADING CAPABILITY DIAGRAM
2.16.1 Constant excitation
2.16.2 Constant armature current
2.16.3 Constant power
2.16.4 Constant reactive power
2.16.5 Constant power factor
2.17 GENERAL LOAD DIAGRAMS

EXERCISE 2.4

2.18 TIME PERIOD OF OSCILLATION

EXERCISE 2.5

2.19 ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSIENT STABILITY

EXERCISE 2.6

2.20 PROTECTION

59
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• use the star or delta connections method to connect an alternator

• draw a power flow diagram of an alternator
• identify the conditions that are required for synchronising motors
• discuss the conditions that must be considered when connecting alternators in
parallel
• explain how real and reactive power can be controlled to prevent the alternator
from malfunctioning
• draw a scaled circle diagram
• explain the failures that can cause an alternator to malfunction

2.2 ALTERNATOR CONNECTIONS

An alternator can be connected either in star or in delta.

2.2.1 Star connection

In the case of a star connection, the line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage, and
the line current is equal to the phase current:

IL = Iph

c B

Figure 2.1: Star connection

60
2.2.2 Delta connection
In the case of delta connection, the line voltage and phase voltage are the same.

For balanced loads, the line current is .J3 times the phase current:

VL = Vph

IL = √3Iph

Figure 2.2: Delta connection

Consider the voltage phasor diagram for a star-connected system in figure 2.3. The line
voltages must be calculated using this diagram:

Figure 2.3: Voltage phasor diagram

vAB = VAN + VNB

=VAN – VBN
= Vph ∟0° + Vph ∟60°
1,732 Vph∟30°
61
VL∟30° v

VBC = VBN – VCN

=VBN – VNC
= Vph∟– 120° + Vph∟ – 60°
= 1,732 Vph∟– 90°
= VL∟– 90° v

VCA = VCN – VAN

= VCN – VNA
= Vph ∟120° + Vph ∟180°
= 1,732 Vph ∟150°

=VL∟150° v
From this we can see that the voltages are the same in magnitude and displaced 120°
apart. These are the conditions for a balanced three-phase system. Alternators are always
supposed to generate a balanced three-phase voltage.

Example 2.1
A three-phase synchronous generator has 16 poles and 144 slots that are wound with
coils of 10 turns using double- layer winding. The rotor is driven by a dc motor at a
speed of 600 r/min . The rotor flux per pole is 0,025 Wb.

Determine:

(a) the frequency of the induced voltage

(b) the induced voltage per phase
(c) the open-circuit line voltage for a star connection

Solution

(a) ƒ = n.p

(600)(8)
=
60

62
= 80 Hz

(b) Z = number of conductors per phase

(144)(10)
=
3

= 480 conductors per phase

g = number of slots per pole per phase

144
=
(16)(3)

=3

(360)(8)
ψ e =
144

= 20 e

kd =
( )
sin g ' ψ
2
g' sin ( ) ψ
2

sin 60
2
=
(3) sin 10°

= 0,96

Since there are nine slots per pole and three coils per phase grouped, it is found ( with
the help of a developed diagram) that each coil must span seven slots. Thus, the
coil span is 7 x 20° = 140°. This means the coil is corded by two slots.

ε = 2ψ

= 40°

kp = cos ( 2ε )
= 0,94

63
kw = kp.kd

= (0,94)(0,96)

= 0,9024

Since there is no mention of winding connections, it is assumed that all phase groups
are connected in series for each of the three phases; that is, all are connected in
series and the effective number of conductors per phase is

Z = (2)(480)(0,9024)

= 866,304

≈ 868 conductors

(c) E = 2,22.kd.kp.Φ. f.Z

= (2,22)(0,025)(80)(434)(2)

= 3 853,92 V

If it is star-connected:

= 6 675,185 v

Example 2.2

A 440 V, star-connected, three-phase alternator supplies rated voltage at 1 800 r/min

and a field current of 0,9 A. If the speed of the prime mover decreases to 1 200
r/min, what must the field current be to produce rated voltage?

Solution

Let the voltage be E 1 and E2 at 1 800 r/min and 1 200 r/min respectively. Then:

However, the flux is proportional to the field current under linear conditions.

64
Thus:

Since the frequency is proportional to the rated speed, the ratio of the frequencies
is equal to the ratio of the speeds:

f1 N1
=
f2 N2

E1 I f1 .N 1
∴ =
E2 I f 2 .N 2

But: E1 = E2

∴ I f1 .N1 = I f 2 .N2

(0,9)(1 800)
And: I f2 =
1 200

= 1,35 A

2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DEVELOPMENT

An equivalent circuit under steady-state conditions, as shown in figure 2.4, can

represent a synchronous alternator:

R1 jX1

R1 jX1

R1 jX1

Figure 2.4: Equivalent circuit under steady-state conditions

65
It is shown that the stator has three identical phases t ha t are internally connected in
star. Each phase has its own winding resistance R1. Whenever there is a current flow
in a phase winding, it produces its own flux. A part of this flux links with the winding
and a part is lost as leakage flux. This leakage flux can be modelled by introducing
a leakage reactance Xe in series with the resistance R. The remaining flux crosses the
air gap and tends to lose the flux set up by the rotor.

Since all three phases are identical, it is common practice to draw an equiva le nt
circuit on a per phase basis. Such a simple circuit, which takes into account the
winding resistance and the leakage reactance, is shown in figure 2.5:

Figure 2.5
This circuit is an exact equivalent circuit as long as we ignore the effect of armature
reaction.

The current in the phase windings on the stator causes the armature reaction in
synchronous machines. Consider a single full-pitch coil representing a phase. The flux
produced by the rotor induces a maximum voltage when the magnetic axis of the
rotor field is 90° to the magnetic axis of the coil, because this is the condition in
which the coil experiences maximum change in the flux linkages. The induced
voltage Eφ would be lagging the flux φ p <l>r by 90°, as shown in figure 2.6:

Figure 2.6
66
Under no-load condition, the induced voltage would appear as the terminal voltage.
Assume a resistive load is connected to the terminals and a current is flowing in the
phase winding. This current sets up its own magnetic field, φ ar, which induces a

voltage of its own in the stator winding, Ear. The induced voltage Ear must lag φ ar by

90°. Since φ ar is produced by 11, they must be in phase. The sum of the flux set up
by the rotor φ p and φ ar results in the net flux in the windings in the air gap of the
machine, which is responsible for the net induced voltage.

E1, which lags φ 1 by 90°

φ1 = φp + φar

E1 = Eφ + Ear

From the discussion it is clear that Ear is directly proportional to 11. Therefore we
can say that:

Where: Xm = the constant of proportionality

In synchronous machines, Xm is known as the reactance of the armature reaction or

simply the magnetising reactance. It is rather difficult to separate one reactance from
the other. Therefore, the reactances are represented by one reactance, namely the
synchronous reactance Xs.
Thus:

The exact equivalent circuit can now be represented in terms of its synchrono us
reactance Xs, as shown in figure 2.7:

67
Figure 2.7

Thus:
E = Vt + I.Z

Example 2.3

A 10 kW, 440 V, delta-connected, three-phase synchronous alternator has a stator

resistance of one ohm per phase and synchronous reactance of 10,0 per phase.
Determine the induced emf when the alternator is delivering full load at a lagging power
factor of 0,8.

Solution
P
IL =
( 3 )(VL )(cos φ)

10000
=
( 3 )(440)(0,8)

= 16,402 A

= 9,47 A per phase

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 440∠0° + (9,47)(1 + j10)∠–36,87°

= 509,24∠7,91°

Thus, the line voltage is 509,24 V at full load.

2.4 POWER RELATIONSHIPS

The rotor of the synchronous machine is connected to a prime mover, which may be
a dc motor, a steam turbine or a diesel engine, in order to rotate the shaft of the field
68
winding at its synchronous speed.

2.4.1 Power flow equations

A synchronous machine is normally connected to a fixed-voltage bus and operates at
a constant speed. There is a limit on the power that a generator can deliver to the
infinite bus and the torque that can be applied to the synchronous motor without losing
synchronism. Analytical expressions for the steady-state power transfer between the
machine and the constant-voltage bus or the torque developed by the machine, are
shown in terms of bus voltage, machine voltage and machine parameters.

The per-phase equivalent circuit is shown in figure 2.8, where V is the terminal
voltage and is considered the reference phasor.

Let:
v = V∟0°
E = E∟δ

Zs = R + jXs
= Z∟β

The complex power per phase, S, at the terminals is:

Figure 2.8 (a): Equivalent circuit for a synchronous generator

IX

Figure 2.8 (b): Phasor diagram for a simple generator

For a generator:

E∠σ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

69
β+φ ≡ leading power factor
β −φ ≡ lagging power factor

The conjugate of the current phasor I is used to conform with the convention that
lagging reactive power is considered to be positive and leading reactive power is
considered to be negative:

E−V
I a FL =
Zs FL

E FL VFL
= −
Z s FL Z s FL

E∠ − δ V∠0
= −
Zs ∠ − β Zs ∠ − β

E V
= ∠(β − δ ) − ∠β
Zs Zs

Therefore, the complex power, in VA/phase, can be written as:

V.E V2
S = ∠(β − δ ) − ∠β ……….
Zs Zs

The real and reactive powers per phase are:

V.E V2
P = cos(β − δ ) − cos β ……
Zs Zs

V.E V2
Q = sin (β − δ ) − sin β ……….
Zs Zs

For a very large machine, R is zero and β is 90°. Thus, for a three-phase machine:

P = Pmax.sin δ …

3.V.E 3.V 2
and Q = cos δ − ……….
Zs Zs

70
Example 2.4

A three-phase, 5 kVA, 208 V, four-pole, 50 Hz synchronous machine has a stator

reactance of 8 Ω/phase. The machine is operated as an alternator.

(a) Determine the induced emf and power factor when the machine is deliver i n g
rated kVA at a lagging power factor of 0,8; and draw the phasor diagram.

(b) If the field excitation is now increased by 20% (without changing the prime
mover power), find the current, power factor and reactive power supplied by the
machine.

(c) With the field current as in (a), the prime mover power is slowly increased.

(i) What is the steady-state stability limit?

(ii) What are the corresponding values of the stator current, power factor
and reactive power at this maximum power transfer condition?

Solution

S
(a) Ia =
3.VL

5000
=
( 3 )(208)
= 13,9 A

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠(β – φ)

= 120∠0° + (13,9)(8)∠(90° – 36,87°)

= 206,9∠25,5° V

(b) The new excitation is:

E = (1,2)(206,9)

= 248,28 V

Because the power transfer remains the same:

71
E.V E ' .V
. sin δ = . sin δ '
Xs Xs

E
sin δ’ = sin δ
E'

sin 25,5°
=
1,2

∴δ = 21°

The stator current is:

E−V
Ia =
Xs

248,28∠21° − 120∠0°
=
8∠90°

= 17,86∠– 51,5° A

The power factor is:

cos φ = cos 51,5°

= 0,62 lagging

Q = 3.V.I.sin φ

= (3)(120)(17,86)(sin 51,5°)

= 5,03 kVAr

3.V.E 3.V 2
Or: Q = cos δ −
Xs Xs

3(120 )(248,28) 3(120 )2

= . cos 21° −
8 8

= 5,03 kVAr

(c) The maximum power transfer occurs when the load angle is 90°:

72
3.V.E
Pmax =
Xs

3(120 )(206,9 )
=
8

= 9,32 kW

E−V
Ia =
Xs

206,9∠90° − 120∠0°
=
8∠90°

= 29,9∠30,1° A

cos φ = cos 30,1°

= 0,865 leading

If Ts is the available torque at the shaft and ω s is the rotating speed, the mechanica l
input to the synchronous machine will be Tsωs. In addition, the dc power supplied

to the field winding is VfIf. Thus the total power input is:

Since the power input is mostly mechanical in nature, the rotational losses must
also be taken care of. The remaining mechanical power is converted into electrical
power. From this developed power, all the electrical losses must now be subtracted
to obtain the power output:

Most often the prime mover is directly coupled to the shaft of the rotor and there
is no way to measure the torque. The input power is expressed in terms of output
and losses such that:

Pin = Pout+ Pelec +Prot

73
If the alternator is rotating at a fixed speed, the rotational losses will become
constant. Also, for the constant flux in the machine, the power lost in the field
winding is constant. In this case the losses are:

Fixed, i.e.: P c = P rot+ Vflf

Variable, i.e.: P c = 3I 1 2 R1

2.4.2 Efficiency and the power flow diagram

The electromagnetic power is the difference between the input power from the
prime mover, and the mechanical and excitation losses. The power is transmitted
to the stator via the air gap. The power changes from magnetic to electrical in the
air gap. The stator has copper and iron losses. If this is subtracted from the
electrical power input, the output power will be obtained (see figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9: Power flow diagram: generator mode

δ = load angle
φ = power factor angle
E = induced emf
V = terminal voltage

P out = VIcosφ watts/single phase

74
= VFIFcosφ watts/phase

Pem = EFIFcos (δ ± φ)
+ = lagging
- = leading

Stator losses (armature losses)

P sg = I2R + P i watts/phase

Example 2.5
A 100 kVA, 440 V, three-phase, 50 Hz star-connected alternator has the following
data:

Friction and wind loss: 340 W

Open-circuit core loss: 480 W
Field winding resistance: 180 Ω at 75 °C
Effective armature resistance: 0,02 Ω

The voltage applied to the field winding is 220 V. Calculate the efficiency of the
alternator at a power factor of 0,8 at

(a) half of full load

(b) full load

Solution

S
(a) Ia =
3.VL

100000
=
( 3 )(440)

= 131,22 A

PaCu = 3.I a2 .R a

 0,02 
= (3)(131,22)2  
 2 

= 516,56 N

75
V2
Pfield =
R

=
(220 )2
180

= 268,89 W

For the overall efficiency:

n.S. cos φ
ηOA =
n.S. cos φ + losses

(0,5)(100 000)(0,8)
=
(0,5)(100 000)(0,8) + 340 + 480 + (516,56)(0,5) 2 + 258,89

= 97,05 %

n.S. cos φ
(b) ηOA =
n.S. cos φ + losses

=
(100000)(0,8)
(100000)(0,8) + 340 + 480 + 516,56 + 258,2
= 98,670 %

2.4.3 Approximate power relationships

The armature winding resistance of a synchronous generator is usually quite small

and can be ignored when compared to the reactance of the winding.

Figure 2.10
The terminal voltage is:

V1 = E − jI 1 .Xs

76
Or:

E − V1
I1 =
jX s

=
(E. cos δ + jE. sin δ) − V1
jX s

E sin δ  E cos δ − V1 
= − j 

Xs  Xs 

Or:

E.Φ. sin δ
I.cos φ =
Xs

And:

E. cos δ − V1
I .sin φ =
Xs

Since the power output is Pout = 3.V1 .I 1 .cos φ, the approximate power output becomes:

3.V1 .E
Pout ≈ (sin δ)
Xs

For a synchronous alternator running at a constant speed with a constant field current,
Xs and E are constant. V1 is the terminal voltage, which is usually held constant.
Therefore the output depends on the angle δ, which is known as the load angle or
the power angle. A synchronous alternator is usually operated at a power angle
varying from 15° to 25°.

Since the resistance is neglected, the power output is equal to the developed power
of the machine. The developed power is a t a maximum when the load angle is 90°
and sin 90° = 1. This corresponds to the static stability limit of the alternator. In this
case, the maximum developed power is:

77
3.V.E
And: Td= (sin δ)
X s .ωs

The maximum developed torque is then:

Example 2.6

A 10 kVA, 230 V, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a field resistance of

4,5 Ω . The armature winding resistance is 0,3 Ω / phase and the exciting currents are

10 A, 7 A and 11 A for power factors of 0,85 lagging, unity and 0,85 leading,
respectively. Determine the efficiency in all cases when the core losses are 300 W
and the mechanical losses are 200 W.

Solution

S
IL =
3.VL

10 × 10 3
=
( 3 )(230)

= 25,102 A

230
Vph =
3

= 132,79 V

Rotational losses = 300 + 200

= 500 W

78
Stator copper losses = (3)(25,102)2 (0,3)

= 567 W

Lagging power factor:

Pout = V.l.cos φ

= S.cos φ

= (10)(0,85)
= 8,5 kW

Pf = Vf.I f

= I f2 .Rf

= (10)2 (4,5)

= 450 W

Pin = Pout + losses

= 8500 + 450 + 500 + 567

= 10,017 kW

Pout
η =
Pin

8 500
=
10 017

= 84,9%

Unity power factor:

Pout = (10)(1)

= 10 kW

Pf = (7)2 (4,5)

= 221 W

79
Pin = 10000 + 221 + 567 + 500

= 11,288 kW

10
η =
11,288

= 88,6%

Leading power factor:

Pout = (10)(0,85)

= 8500 W

Pf = (11)2 (4,5)

= 545 W

Pin = 8500 + 545 + 567 + 500

= 10,112 W

(10)(0,85)
η =
10,112

= 84,1%

2.4.4 Per unit and percentage values

The full- load voltage drops and voltages can be expressed as pu or % values of
the rated voltage (pu is per one; % is per hundred).

I FL .R f
εR =
Vf

I FL .X f
εXs =
Vf

80
I FL .Z f
εZs =
Vf

Ef
εE =
Vf

εV = IεI FL

=1

Ps = εPs .Xs

% value = (pu)(100)

When using calculations in per unit, calculate the per-phase value and times by S
to get the total.
% E = 1 ± %Zs phasorial. The percentage value times the base value gives
the actual value.

2.4.5 Power in terms of the phase angle β and load angle δ

Figure 2.11 shows the following:

E = V + I.Z s

Therefore:

E∠δ V∠0°
I = − =
Z∠β Z∠β
E V
∠(δ − β) − ∠ − β
Z Z

σ
V
β β
φ

Figure 2.11: Power in terms of φ, σ and β

The total current is the difference between the two current components, that is:
81
E∠δ E
= ∠(δ − β)
Z s ∠0° Z s

This current lags the voltage, E, by an angle β, and:

V∠0° V
= ∠−β
Z s ∠β Zs

This current lags the voltage, V, by angle β, where:

X 
β = tan-1  s 
 R 

For large machines, β tends to 90° because R is very small. The angle between E and V is δ, and for a
generator this angle is always positive.

P = E.I.cos ∠ EI

E V 
Pog = V  cos (β − δ ) − cos β watts/phase …
 Zs Zs 

E V 
Pemg = E  cos β − cos (β + δ ) watts/phase …
 Zs Zs 

When R is zero, all the power formulae change to:

E.V
P = . sin δ …
Xs

Each of these equations has maximum values that can be determined by means of calculus:

dP
=0
dδ

E V 
Pog max = V  cos (β − δ ) − cos β
 Zs Zs 

dPog max E.V

= [sin (β − δ )]
dδ Zs

=0

82
E.V
However, cannot be zero. Therefore:
Zs

(β − δ) = 0 …

And: δ =β …

E V 
Pog max = V  cos (β − β ) − cos β
 Zs Zs 

V.E V 2
= − cos β
Zs Zs

The maximum for the developed (electromagnetic) power of a generator is:

E2 E.V
Pemg = cos β −
Zs Zs

Example 2.7

A 3,3 kV, 3 MVA, six-pole, 50 Hz alternator having a synchronous reactance of

0,25 p.u. is connected to an infinite bus bar. Calculate the power developed for a
lagging power factor of 0,8.

Solution

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z.cos (β − φ)

= 1∠0° + 0,25∠(90° − 36,87°)

= 1,167∠9,866° pu

E
εPemg = [E.cos β - V.cos (β + δ)]
Xs

1,167
= [1,167.cos 90° - 1.cos(90° + 9,866°)]
0,25

= 0,8 pu

Or: εPemg = E.I.cos ∠ EI

= (1,167)(1)cos (36,87˚ + 9,87˚)

= 0,8 pu

Peg = εPeg.S

83
= (0,8)(3 x 10 6 )

= 2,4 MW

Example 2.8

Calculate the induced emf, impedance angle and load angle of a 1,5 MVA, 6,6 kV,
three-phase alternator. Zs = (0,4 + j6) Ω/phase for full load at a lagging power factor
of 0,8.

Solution

S
IL =
3.VL

1,5 × 10 6
=
( 3 )(6 600)
= 131,2 A

Zs = 0,4 + j6

= 6,013∠86,2° Ω

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β ± φ

= 3810,5∠0° + (131,2)(6,013)∠(86,2°− 36,87°)

= 4365,83∠7,88° V

If the steam input to the turbo alternator is increased until the load angle doubles,
calculate the new output power:
δ = 7,88ᵒ
2δ = 15,76ᵒ
E V 
Pout = V  cos(β − δ ) − cos β
Z Z 

= 3810,5 
4365,83   3810,5  
 6,0136  cos(86,2° − 15,76° ) −  6,013  cos 86,2°

= 766,229 kW/phase

= 2,299 MW

84
Example 2.9

A 20 MVA, three-phase alternator has an impedance Zs = (0,5 + j5) Ω/phase and is

connected to constant- voltage, 11 kV bus bars. If its field current is adjusted to
give an excitation voltage of 12 kV, calculate the maximum power output from the
alternator.

Solution

E V 
(a) Pout = V  cos(β − δ ) − cos β
 Z Z 

= [(6350 .85 ) ( )
5.025 [6928.2 cos 84.3° − 84.3° − 6350.85 cos 84.3°
]
= 7959.018 kW/phase
= 2,299 MW

EXERCISE 2.1

(1) A 200 kW, 2,2 kV, three-phase alternator has a synchronous impedance of
6,083∟80,54° ohms/phase and operates at a lagging power factor of 0,8.

Calculate:

(a) the induced emf

(b) the developed power
(c) the input power if the stator losses are 3 kW

(1583∟10,03° V; 213 kW; 216 kW)

(2) A 1 MVA, three-phase alternator has a synchronous impedance of (0,104 + j0,59)

pu. Calculate the following at full load and a power factor of 0,8 lagging:

(a) the pu induced emf

(b) the pu electromagnetic power
(c) the stator losses

(1,495∟15,9° pu; 0,904 pu; 96 kW)

85
(3) A 800 kVA alternator has an impedance of (0,168 + j0,628) pu. It delivers full load at
a power factor of 0,8 lagging. If the output of the prime movers is increased slowly,
the load angle will increase. Calculate the load angle when the electromagnetic power is
at a maximum.

(75°; 1145,9 kW)

2.5 NO-LOAD SYNCHRONISING

When the load on the system becomes too big, extra machines must be brought on
line. This coupling of a machine on line is called synchronising. When a synchronous
motor is being run up to speed, it will be operating like a generator and a three-
phase emf will develop at the terminals. Thus, short-circuit conditions will occur if
the incoming supply is fed into these terminals at this stage without checks being
made. This not only applies to a synchronous motor, but also to a synchronous
generator that is connected in parallel with an existing supply.

2.5.1 Conditions to be met before synchronising

• The machine voltage must be the same as the supply voltage. This can be
checked by a voltmeter. A small difference will produce circulating currents and
a large variation will be equivalent to fault or short-circuit conditions.

• The phase sequence of the voltage must be the same. The voltages may be the
same, but a phase displacement will cause a voltage difference and this too
would give conditions equivalent to a fault.

• The frequency of the machine must be the same as the supply frequency, in
order to maintain the correct phase–phase conditions. This means that the speed of
the machine must be correct.

2.6 METHODS OF SYNCHRONISING

2.6.1 Lamps dark method

The machine is run up to speed by its prime mover, but with the supply switch
open. In each phase there are two lamps connected in series across the switch.
86
(Using two lamps in series safeguards against over-voltage.) The circuit is shown
in figure 2.12.

Supply bus bars

R
Y
B

A B C

V1
Lamps in series
V2

Synchronous machine

Figure 2.12: Lamps dark method

As the machine builds up speed and starts to generate, the lamps will flicker. The
flickering becomes slower as the speed increases until the lamps brighten and
dim very slowly when synchronous speed is reached. This means that the speed
and frequency are almost correct. The fact that the lamps are either bright or dim at
the same time, indicates that the phase sequence is correct. By adjusting the
excitation, the voltages V 1 and V2 are made equal. The lamps will dim very
slowly, become dark and then brighten again. When they are dark, it is an
indication that the voltages on both sides of the switch are zero and the switch can
be closed.

The machine is now synchronised and connected to the supply, the pony motor
can be shut down and the load can be applied to the synchronous motor.

2.6.2 Lamps in sequence method

The circuit is shown in figure 2.13. It will be seen that the two sets of lamps are
cross-connected between the phases. With this method the lamps vary in brightne ss
in sequence and the particular sequence will indicate whether the machine is
running too fast or too slow. When the speed and voltage have been adjusted, the
switch S can be closed when one set of lamps (A figure 2.12) is dark and the
other two are of equal brightness.

87
Supply bus bars
R
Y
B

V1
Lamps in series
V2

Synchronous machine

Figure 2.13: Lamps in sequence method

2.6.3 Synchroscope

This instrument is designed for synchronising and is usually preferred instead of

lamps – especially for high-voltage machines operating through instrument
transformers. The synchroscope consists of a rotor and a stator, one connected to the
supply and the other to the incoming machine.

The pointer connected to the rotor will rotate if the frequencies are different. Anti­
clockwise rotation indicates that the frequency and speed are too low, and clockwise
rotation indicates t h a t frequency and speed are too high. When the frequency
is correct, the pointer is stationary; and when the voltages and phases are correct,
the pointer remains in the vertical position and the supply can be switched to the
machine. The circuit is shown in figure 2.14.

Supply bus bars

R
Y
B

Synchroscope Synchronous machine

S F
Figure 2.14
88
2.7 HUNTING

When a machine is connected to a large network, it is said to be connected to

infinite. Here, a large number of machines are operating in parallel to supply
power. Due to this, infinite bus bars have a constant frequency and voltage, and
the synchronous impedance tends to zero. Changing the settings of the prime
mover or the excitation of the machine has no influence on the frequency and voltage
of the bus bar. On a single machine, a change in excitation will cause a
corresponding change in induced emf.

On infinite bus, the frequency being constant, the speed cannot increase and the
only thing that changes is the load angle. Due to the change in load angle, the
machine exports or imports (increases or decreases) power to the system.

A synchronous machine, whether a generator or motor, when connected to infinite

bus bars, has an inherent tendency to remain synchronised.

Consider the following phasor diagram. It is part of the general load diagram that
applies to generator operation at a lagging power factor. At a steady load angle δo ,
the steady power transfer is P o (see figure 2.15).

Suppose that, due to a transient disturbance, the rotor of the machine accelerates so
that the load angle increases by Δ. This alters the operating point of the machine
to a new constant power line and the load on the machine increases to Po+ ΔP.

Figure 2.15: Effect of mechanical disturbance

89
Since the steady power input to the machine remains constant, this additional load
retards the machine and brings it back in synchronism. Similarly, if owing to a
transient disturbance, the rotor decelerates so that the load angle decreases by Δ,
the load on the machine is thereby reduced to P0 – ΔP. This reduction in load
causes the rotor to accelerate and the machine is brought back to synchronism.

The effectiveness of this inherent correcting action depends on the extent of the
change in power transfer for a given change in load angle. A measure of this
effectiveness is given by the synchronising power coefficient, sometimes called the
stiffness of the machine, which is defined as:
dP
Ps =
dδ

The power used during this moving back action is called the synchronising power.
The torque that is developed during this period is called the synchronising torque,
Ts.

2.7.1 Disadvantages of hunting

• It produces severe mechanical stress and fatigue in the shaft.

• It causes great surges in current and power flow.
• It increases machine losses and thus the temperature rise of the machine.

2.7.2 Causes of hunting

• sudden change in load

• fault in the supply system
• sudden change in field current
• a load or drive that contains harmonic torque

2.7.3 Methods of minimising hunting

• using a flywheel
90
• designing a machine of suitable stiffness factor
• employing damper bars

2.8 SYNCHRONISING POWER AND TORQUE

The rate at which synchronous power, P, varies with o is called the synchronis i n g
power coefficient Psy. It is also known as the stiffness, coupling, rigidity or stabilit y
factor for a cylindrical-rotor machine:

dP
P sy =
dδ
EV
= (cosδ)
Xs

This coefficient is equal to the slope of the power angle curve and its variation
with δ is illustrated in figure 2.16. The synchronising power coefficient is a measure of
the stiffness of the electromagnetic coupling between the rotor and the stator fields.
Too great a stiffness of coupling means that the motor tends to follow closely the
variation of speed caused by the disturbance in electric power supply.

Stable Unstable

Power

π δ

Psy

Figure 2.16

If there is no power supply disturbance, then too much stiffness of coupling would
cause the motor speed to remain practically constant, regardless of the mechanica l
load fluctuations This causes undue mechanical shocks whenever there is a
fluctuation in the mechanical load or supply.

Examination of the equation, Psy, reveals that Psy is inversely proportional to Xs and
91
directly proportional to E. Consequently, an overexcited machine is more rigidly
coupled than an underexcited one. Large air gaps decrease the value of Xs, so a
machine with a longer air gap is stiffer than one with a smaller air gap.

The unit of the synchronising power coefficient is watts per electrical radian. One
180
radian is 𝜋𝜋
electrical degrees:

 π  E.V 
Psy =   (cos δ) (W per electrical degree)…
 180  X s 

 p.π  E.V 

=   (cos δ) (W per mechanical degree)…
 180  X s 

The synchronising power coefficient gives rise to synchronising torque coefficients at

synchronous speed. If Tsy is the synchronising torque coefficient, then:

m  dP 
Tsy =   
 dδ  (Nm per electrical radian) …
 ωs 

m  dP  p.π 
=   
 dδ  180  (Nm per mechanical degree)…
 ωs 

Where:

m ≡ number of phases

p ≡ number of pole pairs

Figure 2.16 shows that Psy is positive for the stable operating region and negative
for the unstable region. Thus, the criterion of steady- state stability of a synchrono us
machine is that the synchronising power coefficient Psy or Tsy should remain positive.
The magnitude of Psy or Tsy indicates the degree of steady- state stability. For
example, when δ is near 0° at no-load, Psy has a large value and therefore the
degree of stability is high. As the value of δ increases, Psy decreases and therefore the
degree of stability is reduced.

Now, consider a synchronous machine in which the load angle has changed from
δ to δ + Δδ due to some transient disturbance. The variation of synchronous
92
power associated with the change of load angle Δδ is called the synchronising
power Ps. The synchronising power is therefore:
dP
Ps = ⋅ ∆δ
dδ
E.V
= cos δ.∆δ
Xs

At no load, δ = 0 and Vɛ = E. Therefore:

V2
Ps = .∆δ
Xs

Eφ Vt
But: =
Xs Xs

= steady-state short circuit current I sc

Ps = V.I sc.∆δ

Careful consideration reveals that the synchronising power 1s transient; that is, it
comes into play only when there is a sudden disturbance in the steady- state
operating conditions. In the case of an alternator, a sudden disturbance in prime
mover torque causes the synchronising power to flow from or to the bus in order
to restore the rotor to its previous position.

Once the steady-state condition is reached after the disturbance, the synchronis ing
power reduces to zero. Thus, the synchronising power is transient and exists only for
the time during which the disturbance persists. The synchronising torque for a small
displacement ∆δ is given by:

And:

If the armature resistance is not neglected for a cylindrical-rotor machine, then:

Where : β = the internal impedance angle

93
In general:

In the generating mode, the electromagnetic power developed, in

W/phase/electrical radian of rotor displacement, is:

E V 
Pemg = E  . cos β - cos (β + δ)
 Zs Zs 

dPemg E.V
= .sin (β + δ)
dδ Zs

𝜋𝜋
It is then multiplied by the displacement factor, ∆ , in electrical degrees, where ∆ = . To convert to
180
mechanical degrees, multiply ∆ by the number of pole pairs of the machine. Then:

∆.E.V
Ps =
Zs

Where: Ps ≡ synchronising power in watt/phase

∆.ε.E
εP = .sin (β + δ)
ε.Z s

Where: Ts ≡ synchronous torque in Nm/phase

Ps
Ts =
ωs

∆.E.V
= .sin (β + δ) …
ωs .Z s

For large machines, the resistance tends to zero. This means that β tends to 90˚. At
synchronising, the load angle is zero and the excitation is such that E = V. The
synchronising power now becomes:

94
∆.V 2
Ps =
Xs

Example 2.10

A 3,3 kV, 3 MVA, six-pole alternator has a reactance of 0,25 pu. Calculate the
synchronising power and corresponding torque when delivering full load at a power
factor of 0,8 lagging.

Solution

E = V + I.Z

= 1∠0° + 0,25∠(90° - 36,87°)

= 1,167∠9,866° pu

∆.V.E
Psy(p.u.) = .sin (90° + δ)
Xs

 3.π 
1,167 
=  180  (sin 99,866°)
0,25

= 0,241 pu

Psy = Psy(p.u.).S

= (0,241)(3)

= 723 kW

Psy(p.u.)
Tsy(p.u.) =
ωs

0,241
=
(2)(π)(16,667 )
= 0,0023 pu

Tsy = Tsy(p.u.).S

= (0,23)(3)

95
= 6904 Nm

Example 2.11

A 6,6 kV, 3 MVA, three-phase, star-connected, eight-pole, 50 Hz alternator has a

synchronous reactance of 20% and is connected to an infinite bus. Calculate the
synchronising power and torque per mechanical degree of phase displacement at
(a) no load
(b) full load at a power factor 0,8 lagging

S
(a) Ia =
3.VL

3 × 10 6
=
( 3 )(6 600)

= 262,432 A

(0,2)(3 810,15)
Xs =
262,432

= 2,904 Ω

At no load, E = V and δ = 0. Therefore:

 3.V.E  p.π 
Ps =  (cos δ ) 

 Xs   180 

 (3)(3 810,51)2  4.π 

=   
 2,904  180 

= 1,0472 MW

The corresponding synchronising torque is:

60.Ps
Ts =
2.π.N s

(60)(1,0472 × 10 6 )
=
(2)(π)(750)

96
= 13,333 kNm

(b) E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Z∠β±φ

= 3 810,51∠0° + (262,432)(2,9)∠(90° – 36,87°)

= 4310,35∠8,21° V

 p.π  3.E.V 
Ps =   (cos δ )
 180  X 

 (4)(π)   (3)(4 310,35)(3 810,51) 

=    (cos 8,12° )
 180   2,9 

= 1,174 MW

60.Ps
Ts =
2.π.N s

(60)(1,174 × 10 6 )
=
(2)(π)(750)

= 14,952 kNm

Self-test 2.1

A 750 kVA, 11 kV, four-pole, three-phase, star-connected alternator has an

impedance of (1 + j15) Q per phase. Calculate the synchronising power per
mechanical degree of displacement at

(a) load
(b) full load at a power factor of 0,8 lagging

EXERCISE 2.2

(1) Determine the synchronising torque per mechanical degree of a 5 MVA, 33 kV, 50 Hz,
three-phase, four-pole alternator. The synchronous impedance is (0,062 + j0,597) pu and the
induced emf is 1,22L29,3° pu.

(2,073 kNm)

97
(2) Determine the synchronising power and torque per mechanical degree of rotor displacement
of a two-pole, 50 MVA, 11 kV, star-connected alternator, if the synchronous impedance
is (4,181 + j39,78)%. The alternator operates at full load at a power factor of 0,8
lagging.

(2,827 MW; 9,002 kNm)

(3) A three-phase, 1500 kVA, 6,6 kV, two-pole, star-connected alternator has a synchronous
impedance of (0,5 + j5,5) Ω/phase. It is operating on full load at a power factor of 0,8
lagging.
Calculate:

(a) the pu synchronous impedance in polar form

(b) the electromagnetic power developed
(c) the synchronising torque per mechanical degree of rotor displacement

(0,19∟ 84°; 1,227 MW; 497,96 Nm)

(4) A 11 kV, 50 Hz, four-pole, star-connected alternator is being synchronised on an infinite

bus. On the moment of synchronising, the excitation is such that the induced emf is 10%
too low and the synchronising angle is 8° electrical leading. If the synchronous reactance

is 6 Ω/phase, determine the torque at synchronising. Mention the necessary assumptions.

(16,13 kNm)

(5) A 750 kVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz, four-pole, star-connected alternator has an impedance of
(1 + j15)%. Calculate the synchronising torque per mechanical degree of rotor
displacement on

(a) no load
(b) full load at a power factor of 0,8 lagging

(1,106 kNm; 1,223 kNm)

2.9 TWO MACHINES IN PARALLEL

It is normal practice these days to connect a number of alternators in parallel to

supply a common load. In power stations, instead of having one very large unit, a
number of smaller units are connected in parallel. Moreover, for a number of reasons,

98
all the power stations are interconnected through transmission and distribution lines.
This network forms a very large synchronous machine, called an infinite bus.
Similarly, all the consumers are connected in parallel and form a very large variable
load.

When operating in parallel, the principle of synchronising torque and power applies
even though the bus is not infinite. The impedance of the system is the sum of the
impedances of the machines. It is possible to set the prime movers such that a phase
angle exists between the two machines. In figure 2.17, the machines are considered
to be on no load. Assume that the prime mover of machine A is set such that it
leads machine B. Current will always flow from the leading machine to the lagging
machine. A circulating current will be set up between the two machines.

IA IB

IL
ZA ZB

ZL

EA EB

Figure 2.17: Two parallel machines supplying a load

E a − I c .Z a − I c .Z b − E b = 0

Ea − Eb
∴ Ic =
Za + Zb

V T − I c .Z b − E b = 0

And: V T + I c .Z a − E a =0

2.9.1 Advantages of parallel operation

99
• Individual alternators can be repaired and maintained. Continuity of supply can be
ensured by planning and scheduling the maintenance of these units properly.

• For operation at maximum efficiency, an alternator has to be run at almost full­

load capacity. If several small units are used, units can be switched in or out,
depending on the load requirement. It is uneconomic to run large units on low
loads.

• Additional units can be connected in parallel to meet increasing demand, thereby

reducing the initial capital cost of buying larger units in anticipation of increasing
demands.

• There are physical and economical limits to the possible capacity of alternators.
The demand on a single station may be as high as 1 200 MVA. It may not be
feasible to build one unit of such high rating.

By using Millman's theorem, the terminal voltage of any number of machines in

parallel can be calculated (see figure 2.17):

E1 .Y1 + E 2 .Y 2
VT =
Y1 + Y 2 + Y L

E1 − V T
I1 =
Z1

E2 − VT
And: I2 =
Z2

2.9.2 Effect of changing the mechanical torque

If two machines are driven at the same speed and with their emfs adjusted to equality,
the phasor diagram will be as shown in figure 2.18:

100
E1 E2 E2
E1
Ic

φ φ = tan-1

E1 – E2

(a) Floating (b)

Figure 2.18

If machine 1 has extra driving torque applied, the rotor will tend to accelerate and
advance the phase of E 1. Assuming generator conventions for machine 1, it will
drive a circulating current through the local circuit impedance of:

E1 − E 2
Ic =
Z1 + Z 2

Z1 Z2

Ic

E1 VTOT E2

Figure 2.19

Although the current will be lagging by almost 90° behind (E 1 – E2), figure 2.18(b)
shows that it is nearly in phase with E1 so that machine 1 will experience a
generating, retarding torque. Machine 2 has been assumed to be a motor in the
above equation and Ic is seen to have a strong component in phase with E2 .
Machine 2 receives power and produces a motoring, accelerating torque. Thus,
the electromagnetic torques exert a synchronising action tending to return the
emfs to their co-phasal relationship.

101
Figure 2.20

If the shaft of the machine had been loaded mechanically so that it tended to
decelerate, the phase of E1 would have been regarded as shown in figure 2.20.

This shows that the circulating current calculated from the equation

E1 − E 2
Ic =
Z1 + Z 2

has anti-phase components with both E 1 and E2, which indicates that both machine
functions have reversed. Machine 1 temporarily becomes a motor and machine 2
becomes a generator. The electromagnetic torque again causes the retarded machine to
be retarded.

Thus, within the limits of maximum electromagnetic torque, there is a tendency for
both machines to run in synchronism in spite of applied disturbances. The generating
machine provides a synchronising power which is the real part of EFL Ic.

Note that to get the circulating current in the right phase for corrective action, it is
necessary for the local circuit impedance to be highly inductive, and this is a natural
characteristic of synchronous impedance. A predominantly capacitive reactance would
not permit this stable situation.

2.9.3 Effect of changing the excitation

Starting again from the no-load condition, an increase in the excitation E1 of machine 1
will cause an interchange of current:
102
E1 − E 2
Ic =
Z1 + Z 2

-R1 .I c
-jX1 .I c
R1 .I c
E1
jX1 .I c
V
E1 E2
E2

E1 – E2

No load, floating Ic

Figure 2.21

The kVAs E1 Ic or E2 Ic will be almost entirely reactive. The active components

correspond to the copper losses Ic2R1 and Ic2R2 respectively, presuming the losses
are proportionally shared by the respective prime movers. It follows that neither
machine requires an electrical input, so that the terminal power factor will be zero.
Machine 1 has been regarded as a source and we can see that it operates at a lagging
power factor because it is overexcited. Since machine 2 is relatively underexcited
and because it has been considered as a sink when formulating the equation, it also
operates at a lagging power factor.

2.9.4 Load sharing of two machines in parallel

Unlike dc machines in parallel, disturbing the balance between the emfs does not
change the power of either machine; it only c ha nge s the reactive kVA.
Furthermore, the speeds must be identical, because of the synchronising action
that ties the speed/torque characteristics of the prime movers together in a more rigid
manner.

103
Figure 2.22

The construction of figure 2.22 explains how the characteristics determine the
power supplied through each shaft at any particular speed. To change the load
sharing necessitates a change of mechanical characteristic (hence the broken line),
and for a mechanical type of drive this involves an alteration of the governor spring
setting.

Points worth remembering

• The load taken up by an alternator depends directly on its driving torque, in other
words, on the angular advance of its rotor.

• The excitation merely changes the power factor at which the load is delivered
without affecting the load as long as the steam supply remains unchanged.

• If the input to the prime mover of an alternator is kept constant but its

excitation is changed, then the kVA component of its output is changed, not
the kW.

Example 2.13

Two identical three-phase, star-connected alternators operating in parallel share

equally a total load of 1 MW at 6,6 kV and a power factor of 0,8 lagging. The field
of the first alternator is excited so that the current is 50 A lagging. Calculate:

104
(a) the armature current of the second machine
(b) the power factor of each machine
Solution
500
(a) I a1 cos Ф1 =
√3(6.6)
= 43,7 A

43,7
Cos Ф1 =
50

= 0,875 lagging

P
IL =
3.V.cosφ

1000
=
( 3)( 6,6)(0,8)

= 109,35∠−36,87° A

Ia2 = 109,35∠−36,87° − 50∠−28,95°

= 60,22∠−43,44° A

cos φ2 = 0,726 lagging

Example 2.14

Two identical three-phase alternators operate in parallel and supply a total load of
1,5 MW at 11 kV and a lagging power factor of 0,867. Each machine supplies half
the power. The synchronous reactance of each machine is 50 Ω/phase and the
resistance is 4 Ω/phase. The field excitation of the first machine is adjusted so that

its armature current is 50 A lagging. Determine the armature current of the second
alternator and the generated voltage of the first machine.

Solution
4Ω 50Ω 4Ω 50Ω

105
Figure 2.23

P
(a) IL =
3.VL . cos φ

1500
=
( 3 )(11)(0,867)

= 90,81∠– 30°

= (78,644 – j45,41) A

Each machine supplies half the total power, so the active part of each machine current will be:

78,644
I a.cos φ1 =
2

= 39,322 A

 39,322 
φ1 = cos -1  
 50 

= 38,15° lagging

I a2 = 90,81∠−30° − 50∠−38,15°

= 41,92∠−20,26° A

(b) E1 = V + I 1 .Z

= 6350,85∠0° + (50)(4 + j50)∠−38,15°

= 8258,3∠12,91° V

Self-test 2.2

Two identical three-phase, star-connected alternators operating in parallel share

106
equally a load of 1 000 kW at 6 600 V and a power factor of 0,8 lagging. The
field of the first alternator is excited so that the armature current is 50 A lagging.
Determine:

(a) the power factor of each machine

(b) the armature current for the second machine

EXERCISE 2.3

(1) Two single-phase alternators are paralleled and the excitation is such that the induced
emfs are 3 500 V. The stator reactance of both machines is 30 Ω. If the one machine
leads the other by 40°, calculate:

(a) the circulating current

(b) the terminal voltage
(c) the power transferred

(39,9∟20° A; 3288,92∟20° V; 131,235 kW)

(2) The following data pertain to two three-phase, parallel-connected, 2,2 kV alternators
that are on no load:

Machine A: 300 kVA, Xs = 20%

Machine B: 500 kVA, Xs = 30%

The excitation of A is reduced so as to circulate its full- load current. Assume the
machines remain synchronised and calculate:

(a) the induced emf of machine A

(b) the terminal voltage

(787,306 V; 1 041 V)

107
(3) Two single-phase alternators operating in parallel supply a load with an impedance of
(3 + j4) Ω. The excitation of the machines is such that the induced emfs are 110 V
and 100 V respectively. The synchronous reactance of each machine is 1 Ω.
Calculate the power supplied by each machine.
(97,08∟–3,19° V; 592,3 W; 538,49 W)

(4) Two three-phase alternators operate in parallel and the excitation is such that the
induced emfs are 1 kV/ph. The load admittance is (0,427 – j0,214) S. The
admittance/phase of the machines are (0,0262 – j0,499) S and (0,0218 – j0,312) S
respectively. The emf of B leads A by 10°e. Calculate:

(a) the terminal voltage

(b) the current supplied by A
(c) the power factor of B

(716,01∟– 27,63° V; 192,31∟– 62,67°V; 0,961 lagging)

(5) Two 6,6 kV, three-phase, star-connected alternators supply a load of 3,5 MW at a
power factor of 0,75 lagging. Machine B has a synchronous impedance of
(0,6 + j9) Ω/phase. The excitation of A is set so that A supplies 180 A at a lagging
power factor. The prime movers are set so that the machines share the load equally.
Calculate:

(a) the power factor of A

(b) the load current
(c) the current supplied by B
(d) the induced emf of B

(0,85 lagging; 408 A; 233 A; 5626,85∟13,08° V)

(6) Two similar 100 V, single-phase alternators operate in parallel to supply a load of
(3 + j4) Ω. Machine A is excited to 110 V and machine B is excited to 98 V.

108
The impedance of the alternators is (0,2 + j1) Ω. Determine:

(a) the terminal voltage

(b) the power developed by A

(95,3∟– 2,3° V; 720,505 W)

(7) A 2,2 kV, 400 kVA, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a reactance of 0,25 pu
and is synchronised on a 600 kVA, 2,2 kV, star-connected alternator with a reactance
of 32%. The excitation of machine A is reduced so that its full-load current circulates.
Assuming that the machines remain synchronised, calculate the terminal voltage.

(1 542,53 V/ph)

(8) Two 2,2 kV, three-phase, star-connected alternators supply a load of 4 MW at a

power factor of 0,85 lagging. The impedance of A is 1,7∟82° ohms per phase and the
excitation of B is such that it supplies 700 A at a lagging power factor. The regulators
are set so that the machines share the load power equally. Calculate:

(a) the power factor of B

(b) the load current
(c) the current and power factor of A
(d) the induced emf of A

(0,75 '; 1235∟– 31,8°; 557,22∟– 19,7°; 1904,9∟26,12°)

2.9.5 Effect of changing the power input to two machines in parallel

Synchronous alternators in parallel must run at the same frequency speed for equal
number of poles. The speed per power characteristic of the prime movers driving
the two alternators in parallel decides the load division between the two. The electrical
power output of synchronous alternators is determined by the mechanical input.
Changes in excitation result in changes of voltage, but the division of active power

109
remains almost unaffected.

The governor controls the input to the prime mover. The speed drop characteristics are
known for each prime mover. For example, the speed of one machine may drop by
5% from no load to full load, where the speed of the other one may drop by 4% for
the same range. The division of active load on two synchronous alternators operating
in parallel is illustrated in figure 2.24:

Figure 2.24

Alternator 1 is supplying active load of P 1(AB) and generator 2, P2(AC), the total
load being PL = P 1 + P2 (BC). The curves I and II show the speed power
characteristics, assumed to be straight lines.

If the input to machine 2 is increased, the characteristics moves for II to II'. If

there is no change in mechanical input to machine 1, that is if the governor
arrangement is undisturbed, the total load, PL, remains the same and moves to
B1 C1 , and the frequency (speed) of both machines is increased. As the frequency of
the system, or bus, is to be maintained constant, corresponding to the synchrono us
speed of the machines, the speed of machine 1 is lowered to the characteristic curve
I' and the load division between the two machines is A2B2 and A2C2 . The total
load remains the same.

110
Example 2.15

Two 20 MVA, three-phase alternators operate in parallel to supply a load of 35

MVA at a lagging power factor of 0,8. If the output of one machine is 25 MVA at a
lagging power factor of 0,9, determine the output and power factor of the other
machine.

Solution

= 35L-36,87° - 25L-25,84°
= 11,503L-61,44° MVA

cos φ = cos 61,44°

= 0,478 lagging

Example 2.16
The speed regulation of two 800 kW alternators, A and B, running in parallel, are
respectively 100% to 104% and 100% to 105% from full load to no load. Determine
how a load of 1 000 kW will be shared. Also determine the load at which one
machine will cease to supply any portion of the load.
Solution
Refer to figure 2.25. Out of the combined load, AB = 1 000 kW, the share of A is Am
and the share of B is Bm . PQ is the line drawn through C, which is the intersection of
EF and DG . For similar triangles ADG and CPD we have:

CP PD
=
AG AD

PD
CP = AG ⋅
AD

PD = (4 – h)

CP =
(800)(4 − h )
4
111
= 200(4 – h)

106

105 E

D
104
Speed Regulation

103

102
C
P Q

101
h

A F G N B
100
200 400 M 600 800 kW

Figure 2.25

Similarly, for similar triangles EFG and ECQ:

CQ EQ
=
BF EB

EQ
∴ CQ = BF ⋅
EB

=
(800)(5 − h )
5

= 160(5 – h)
112
CP + CQ = 1 000

200(4 – h) + 160(5 – h) = 1 000

800 – 200h + 800 – 160h = 1 000

–360h = –600

∴h = 1,667

∴ CP = 200(4 – 1,667)

= 466,67 kW

And: PQ = 160(5 – 1,667)

= 533,28 kW

Alternator A will cease supplying load when line PQ is shifted to D. Then the load
supplied by B is such that the speed variation is from 105% to 104% . If the speed
varies from 105% to 100%, B supplies 800 kW. Hence, the load supplied for a
speed variation from 105% to 104% by the proportion (800)(,Ys) is 160 kW. Hence,
when the load drops to 160 kW, A will cease to supply any load.

2.10 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

When the machine is connected to an infinite bus, its speed and terminal voltage
are fixed and unalterable. Two controllable variables, however, are the field current and
the mechanical torque on the shaft. The variation of the field current Ir, referred to
as excitation system control, is applied to either an alternator or a motor to supply
or absorb a variable amount of reactive power.

Because the synchronous machine runs at a constant speed, the only means of varying
real power is through the torque applied to the shaft by either the prime mover (in

113
the case of an alternator) or the mechanical load ( in the case of a motor). It is
convenient to neglect the resistance when considering reactive power control of the
cylindrical-rotor alternator. Assume that the alternator is delivering power so that a
certain angle, δ, exists between the terminal voltage, V, and the induced emf, E, of
the machine, as shown in figure 2.26:

Constant power locus of I a Constant power locus of E

E
jI a.Xs I a Xs .cos φ

δ
φ V I a Xs .sin φ
(a) Overexcited alternator delivering
Ia
I a.cos φ
power to the system
Ia I a Xs .sin φ

E
jI a.Xs I a Xs .cos φ (b) Underexcited alternator receiving

φ δ
power from the system
V
Figure 2.26: Phasor diagrams showing constant power loci (power delivered by each alternator is
the same)

The complex power delivered to the system by the alternator is given in per unit
by:
S = P + jQ

= V.I a(FL)

= V Ia (cosφ + jsinφ)
Equating real and imaginary quantities in this equation:

P = V.I a.cos φ

Q = V.I.sin φ ……….

114
Q is positive for lagging power factors since the angle φ is numerically positive. To
maintain a certain power delivery P from the alternator to the constant voltage system,
it is clear from P = V I a cosφ that Ia cosφ remains constant.

2.10.1 Power supplied by each machine

Consider the power triangle with a lagging power factor in figure 2.9. S is the apparent
power; P is the active power; Q is the reactive power; and δ i s the load angle. For
stability, the sum of the power of the machines must be that of the load. The same
applies to the reactive power.

Figure 2.27: Two machines sharing a load

And: Q T = Q1 + Q 2

Assume two alternators supply a load. Alternator 1 is overexcited and thus delive r in g
too much reactive power. Alternator 2 must now be underexcited to compensate for
the excessive reactive power. It can be said that alternator 1 exports reactive power and
alternator 2 imports reactive power.

If the dc field current is varied under these conditions, the induced emf E varies

proportionally, but always so as to keep I a cosφ constant, as shown by the loci of

figure 2 26(a). Normal excitation is defined as the condition when:

115
The machine is said to be either overexcited or underexcited depending on whether

E cos δ 〉 V or E cos δ 〈 V . For the condition in figure 2.26(a), the alternator is

overexcited and supplies reactive power Q1 to the system. Thus, from the system

viewpoint, the machine is acting as a capacitor. Figure 2.26(b) is for an underexcited

alternator supplying the same amount of real power and a leading current to the

system, or it may be considered to be drawing lagging current from the system.

The real power P is controlled by opening or closing valves through which steam or
water enters a turbine. If the power input is increased to an alternator, the rotor speed

will start to increase, and if the field current Ir and hence E are held constant,

the angle δ between V and E will increase.

Increasing δ results in a larger (Ia) cos φ, as may be seen by rotating E counter

clockwise in figures 2.26(a) and (b). The alternator with a larger δ therefore
delivers more power to the network and exerts a higher counter torque on the
prime mover. Hence, the input from the prime mover is re-established at the
speed corresponding to the frequency of the infinite bus. The dependence of P on the
power angle δ is also shown as follows.
If:

V = V ∠0°

And: E = E ∠δ

E ∠δ − V ∠0°
Then: Ia =
jX s

116
E ∠ − δ − V ∠0°
And: I *a =
− jX s

V and E are expressed in volts to neutral or per unit. Therefore, the complex power delivered to the
system at the terminals of the alternator is given by:

S = P + jQ

And: S = V. I *a

2
V E ∠ − δ − V ∠0°
And: S =
− jX s

V E (cosδ - jsinδ ) − V
2
=
− jX s

The real and imaginary parts of the above equation are:

V E sinδ
P =
Xs

V
And: Q = ( E cos δ − V ) …
Xs

When volts rather than per unit values are substituted for V and E, care must be
taken and phase values used, then P and Q will be phase values. If, however, line
values are used, total P and Q will be the result. The per unit values of P and Q
must be multiplied by base MV AT or MV Aph, depending whether total power or
phase power is needed.
V.E
P = sin δ
Xs

This equation shows very clearly the dependence of power on δ . However, if P and

V are constant, this shows that δ must decrease if E is increased by boosting the dc

field excitation. With P constant, both an increase in E and a decrease in δ mean that

Q will increase if it is already positive, or it will decrease in magnitude and perhaps

117
become positive if Q is already negative.

2.11 GENERATOR MODE

The equivalent circuit is as shown in figures 2.28(a) and (b):

IA
E

I A.Zs I.Zs
V I.Xs
E V
φ
IR
IA

(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Phasor diagram

Figure 2.28

E ≡ internal induced emf

Zs ≡ internal impedance

V ≡ terminal voltage

E = V ± I.Z s

+ = generator mode

− = motor mode

The diagram, which is drawn for phase conditions, shows the relationship between the
various voltages for the unity power factor. Since the power factor is unity, the output
per phase is given by P =VI. If a suitable scale is chosen, the distance representing
I Z can also represent the phase power. This can be shown if figure 2.28 is redrawn
for a power factor of 0,8 lagging. For the same value of power to be maintained ,

the new value of machine 1 must be such that, where φ is the new phase angle, I Z
cos <I> is equal to the value of I Z for unity power factor. To achieve this, the value of
E must be increased by increasing the excitation.

118
Full-load power

I.Z.cos φ
Zero power
E I.Z α I.X
φ
σ
φ V α
I.R
I

Figure 2.29: Phasor diagram for 0,8 power factor lagging

If E is not increased, the terminal voltage V will fall when the load angle is reduced.
The zero-power line for constant load voltage is a line drawn through the extremity of
V, at an angle to the voltage phasor produced where tan β = XR in terms of the machine

parameters. The power reference line is drawn through the extremity of V,

perpendicular to the zero-power line. For unity power factor conditions, the alternator
impedance drop I Z will coincide with this line, which is at an angle B to the phasor V
extended.

Since the output of an alternator is dependent on the mechanical power input, the
power output line is also an indication of the power input to the machine if the
losses are neglected.

The behaviour of an alternator under varying load and excitation conditions depends
on whether the machine is operated in isolation as a single unit or in parallel with a
number of other, where the influence of one machine does not influence the voltage
or the frequency of the system. For practical purposes, a system is infinite relative
to a machine when the machine represents less than 10% of the total capacity of the
system. In the following explanation, it will be assumed that whatever the mode of
operation, the frequency remains constant through the operation of mechanical
governors.

2.12 ISOLATED MACHINES

If it is initially assumed that if the generated emf is constant, any change of load
119
in an isolated machine is reflected in a change in I Z. Since the phase angle is a
function of the external load, this fixes the angular relationship between I Z and
V. To accommodate for a change in I Z, the position of E relative to V must change
as shown in the figure 2.29. A change in δ occurs, where δ is the load angle. Thus,
increased mechanical power would be provided as the machine tends to slow down
and the governor setting changes. From figure 2.30(a) it can be seen that:
E1 = E2

I2 > I 2 .Z

I 2 .Z > I 1 .Z

V2 < V1

It has been observed that a change of terminal voltage of a synchronous alternator

depends on load and power factor. A series of load characteristics as shown in
figure 2.30(b) can be drawn for different power factor loads. The change in terminal
voltage is termed the regulation of the machine and is expressed as a percentage of
the full-load terminal voltage.

E2
E1
I 2 .Z2
I 1 .Z1
σ σ
φ V1 φ V2

I1
I2

(a) Full load (b) 1,25 pu full load

Figure 2.30: Effect of varying the load on isolated machines

2.13 MACHINE S CONNECTED TO AN INFINITE SYSTE M

When operating on infinite bus, the idea of voltage regulation has little meaning ,
since the voltage of an infinite bus is fixed. A further difference in behaviour is
observed when changing excitation conditions are considered. If the load power
and the terminal voltage remain constant, the extremity of the generated emf E must

120
move along a line parallel to the zero power line. As the impedance drops, I Z is
the phasor difference between E and V; I Z also varies in magnitude and phase
relationship to V. Thus, I also varies in magnitude and phase relationship with V,
as shown in the phasor diagram of figure 2.31.

Note that in addition to producing a change in the magnitude of the machine power
factor angle, the angle δ is also varied. The load angle represents the relationship
between the axis of the dc field and the field produced by the ac winding. It is a
measure of the mechanical torque being applied to drive the rotor.

Figure 2.31: Effect of varying the excitation

If the load conditions change suddenly, a change in the torque angle, δ , is produced
and there is a shift of the rotor relative to the ac field, as shown in figure 2.32:

Figure 2.32: Salient pole rotor with damper

windings
121
If the shift is sufficient in magnitude, there is a tendency for the rotor to over­
shoot the correct position and oscillations about the equilibrium position can take
place. This oscillating action is called hunting and, if excessive, may cause
mechanical damage to the drive mechanism. Oscillations can be damped
mechanically by the inertia of the mechanical rotating parts, particularly where
there is a flywheel in the drive (i.e. for diesel-driven alternators).

Electrical means can also be used and the machine is then fitted with damper
windings or amortise windings. Where relative motion exists between the
conductor and the ac field, the induced currents in these windings produce a
torque that tends to oppose this relative motion. Damper windings are used
extensively in diesel-driven machines where the diesel machine has a tendency to
oscillate. The nature of the driving torque developed by steam or water decreases
the possibility of oscillation, so the need for damping is minimal.

The effect of varying the load can be explained by using the phasor diagram in
figure 2.33. The excitation is constant and the input power is changed. The
diagram shows that if the power associated with the alternator is reduced from P1
to P2 with constant excitation, the phasor for the induced emf intersect the new
power line. This produces changes in both the current and phase angle. It can also
be seen that the load angle changes:

Figure 2.33: Effect of varying the power

122
2.14 CONSTANT LOAD WITH VARIABLE EXCITATION

At constant load:
Pxs
E.sin δ =
V

= constant

Also: V.I a.cos φ = Pe

= constant

Pe
Or I a.cos φ =
V

= constant

It is therefore observed that with a constant load, as the excitation is varied (by

varying the field current If ) the power angle varies such that E sin δ remains constant.

The behaviour of the machine is depicted by the phasor diagram in figure 2.31.
As E varies, the tip of phasor E moves on a line parallel to V and at a distance
from it corresponding:

P.x s
Esin δ =
V

Since Ia cos ϕ is constant, the projection of the current phasor on V must remain
constant; in other words, the tip of the current phasor traces a line perpendicular to
V at a distance, from the origin, of:

Pe
Ia Cosφ =
V

The current phasor Ia is always located at 90° to phasor voltage Ia Xs. The excitation
corresponding to the unity power factor is known as normal excitation, while excitation

123
larger than this is called overexcitation. Excitation less than the unity power factor is
called underexcitation. The following conclusions can be drawn from figure 2.31:

• The machine supplies a lagging power factor when overexcited.

• The machine supplies a leading power factor when underexcited.

2.15 MINIMUM EXCITATION

Figure 2.31 shows that as the excitation is reduced, the load angle continuous ly
increases. The minimum permissible excitation corresponds to the stability limit; that
is, the load angle equals 90°. Therefore:

P.x s
Emin =
V

Example 2.17

(a) An alternator has synchronous reactance Xs = 1,7241 p.u. and is connected to a

very large system. The terminal voltage is 1 ∟0° p.u. at a lagging power factor of
0,9. All pu values are to the same base. Ignoring resistance, determine the magnitude
and angle of the induced emf E, the active power P and the reactive power Q
delivered to the infinite bus.

(b) If the real power output remains constant but the excitation is (i) increased by
20% and (ii) decreased by 20%, determine δ and the terminal bus voltage, and
the reactive power Q delivered to the bus by the alternator.

Solution

(a) E∠δ = V∠0° + (I.Z)∠β±φ

= 1∠0° + (0,8)(1,7241)∠(90° – 25,84°)

= 2,026∠37,79° pu

V.E
P = sin δ
Xs

124
=
(2,026)(1) sin 37,79°
1,7241

= 0,720 pu

V
Q = (E.cos δ – V)
Xs

1
= [(2,026)cos 37,79° - 1]
1,7241

= 0,3487 pu

(b) (i) By increasing excitation by 20% with P and V constant:

V.E
P = sin δ
Xs

 P.X s 
∴ δ = sin-1  
 V.E 

 (0,72 )(1,7241) 
= sin-1  
 (1)(1,2 )(2,026 ) 

δ = 30,703°

The new value of Q supplied by the alternator is:

1
Q = [(1,2)(2,026)cos 30,703° − 1]
1,7241

= 0,6325 pu

(ii) With the excitation decreased by 20%:

V.E
P = sin δ
Xs

=
(1)(0,8)(2,026) sin δ
1,7241

125
= 0,72 pu

 (0,72 )(1,7241) 
δ= sin-1  
 (0,8)(2,026 ) 

= 49,98°

The value of Q now supplied by the alternator is:

1
Q= [(0,8)(2,026)cos 49,927° − 1]
1,7241

= 0,0245 pu

2.16 LOADING CAPABILITY DIAGRAM

All the normal operating conditions of the cylindrical-rotor alternator connected to

an infinite bus can be shown on a single diagram, usually called the loading capabilit y
diagram or operating chart of the machine.

The chart is important to power plant operators who are responsible for the proper
loading and operation of the alternator. The chart is constructed on the assumption
that the alternator has a fixed terminal voltage and negligible armature resistance.
Construction begins with the phasor diagram of the machine, with V as the reference
phasor; s e e figure 2.26(a). The mirror image of figure 2.26(a) can be rotated to
give the phasor diagram of figure 2.34, which shows five loci passing through the
operating point m. These loci correspond to five possible operating modes, in each
of which one parameter of the alternating unit is kept constant.

126
Q
(a) Constant P

(b) Constant φ

I a.Xs .cos φ
m
q

I a.Xs .sin φ jI a.Xs (c) Constant E

E
Lagging power factor

(d) Constant I a
p
o
V P

Leading power factor

Ia φ δ

Figure 2.34: Operating chart for a cylindrical rotor

2.16.1 Constant excitation

The constant excitation circle has point n as centre and a radius of length nm equal
to the voltage magnitude of E, which can be maintained constant by holding the dc

current If in the field winding constant.

2.16.2 Cons tant armature curre nt

The circle for constant armature has point 0 as centre and a radius of length om
proportional to a fixed value of Ia. Because V is fixed, the operating points on this
locus correspond to constant MVA output V I from the alternator.

2.16.3 Constant power

The active power output of the machine is given by P = VI cos φ p.u. Since V is constant,
vertical line mp at the fixed distance Xs Ia cos φ from the vertical axis no represents a
locus of operating points for constant P. The MV output of the alternator is always positive
regardless of the power factor.

2.16.4 Constant reactive power

127
The reactive power output of the machine is given by:

Q VI sin φ pu

The angle <I> is defined positive for lagging power factors. When V is constant, the

horizontal line qm at a fixed distance Xs Ia sin φ from the horizontal axis represents a

locus of operating points for constant Q. For unity power factor operation, the Q output

of the alternator is zero, corresponding to an operating point on the horizontal axis op.
For lagging (leading) power factors, the Q output is positive (negative) and the operatin g
point is in the half-plane above (below) the line op.

2.16.5 Constant power factor

The radial line om corresponds to a fixed power factor angle φ between the armature
current and the terminal voltage in figure 2.34. The angle φ is for a lagging power
factor load. When φ = 0°, the power factor is unity and the operating point is on the

horizontal axis op. The half-plane below the horizontal axis is scaled to indicate the
P and Q loading of the alternator. Accordingly:

VE
P= sin δ
Xs
V
and Q= (𝐸𝐸 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 δ – V)
Xs

These equations can be arranged to read:

VE V²
P= sin δ (Q + )
Xs Xs
VE
= sin δ
Xs

2 2
Since sin δ + cos δ = 1 squaring of each side and adding, give:

128
EV V²
The locus of P and Q is therefore a circle of radius sin δ (0, – ) 2
Xs Xs
This circle can be obtained by multiplying the length of each phasor in figure 2.34 by Yxd or
by rescaling the diagram to conform to figure 2.35, which has the axis labelled P horizontally
and Q vertically from the origin at point o:

Figure 2.35: Phasor diagram obtained by rescaling all distances in figure 2.34

At the vertical axis of figure 2.35, the length on equals V2

Xs
of reactive power, where V

is the terminal voltage. Usually the loading diagram is constructed for V = 1 pu, in
which case length on represents reactive power equal to 1
Xs
pu. Thus, length on is the

key to setting the scale for real and reactive power on the P and Q axes. The loading
chart of the synchronous alternator can be made practical by taking account of the
maximum permissible heating (I2 .R losses) in the armature and the field windings, as
well as the limits of the prime mover and heating in the armature core.

An example of a cylindrical-rotor, turbo-alternator units rated at 635 MVA, 24 kV, 0,9

power factor and Xs = 1,7241 pu can be used as follows to demonstrate the procedure
for constructing the loading capability diagram of figure 2.34:

• Take V as 1 p.u. on the rated voltage base of the machine. Using a convenient VA
scale, mark the point n on the vertical axis so that on equals 1
Xs
in per unit on the

rated base of the machine. In this example Xd = 1,7241 pu and so the length on

129
corresponds to 1
1,7241
= 0,58 p.u. on the vertical Q axis. The same scale obviously

applies to active power P in per unit on the horizontal axis.

• Along the P axis, mark the distance corresponding to the maximum output of the
prime mover. For this purpose the MW limit of the turbine is 1 pu on the rated
MVA base of the machine. Draw the vertical line P = 1 pu.

• Mark the length om = 1 pu on the radial line from the origin at the rated power
factor angle φ, which in this case is cos-1 0,9 = 25,84°. With o as centre and length
om as radius, draw the MVA circular arc corresponding to the armature current
limit.

• Construct the arc mr of maximum permissible excitation using n as centre and

distance mn as radius. This circular arc corresponds to the maximum field current
limit. The constant excitation circle with radius of length on usually defines 1 pu
excitation. Figure 2.34 therefore shows the field current limit occurring at 2,34 pu
excitation, that is length rn/length on on the Q axis.

• An under-excitation limit also applies at low levels of excitation where VArs are
being imported from the system to the machine. It is determined by the
manufacturers' design.

In figure 2.34, point m corresponds to the MVA rating of the alternator at rated power
factor lagging. The machine designer has to arrange sufficient field current to support
the overexcited operation of the alternator at rated point m. The level of the field
current is limited to this maximum value along the circular arc mr, and the capability
of the alternator to deliver Q to the system is thereby reduced. In reality, machine
saturation decreases the value of the synchronous reactance Xs. For this reason, most
manufacturers’ curves depart from the theoretical field-heating limits described here.

The mirror image of m is the operating point m’ in the underexcited region. Power
130
plant operators try to avoid operating conditions in the underexcited region of the
capability curve for two different reasons. The first relates to the steady-state stability
of the system, while the second relates to overheating of the machine itself.
Theoretically, the so-called steady-state stability limit occurs when the load angle δ,
between E and V, reaches 90°.

In practice, however, system dynamics enter into the picture to complicate the
determination of the actual stability limit. For this reason power plant operators prefer
to avoid underexcited machine operation whenever possible. As the machine enters
into the underexcited region of operation, eddy currents induced by the system in iron
parts of the armature begin to increase. The accompanying I2 .R heating also increases
in the end region of the armature.

To limit such heating, machine manufacturers prepare capability curves specific to

their own designs and recommend limits within which to operate. In figure 2.34, the
line mn is therefore drawn for illustrative purposes only. To obtain MW and MVAr
values for any operating point, the p.u. values of P and q, as read from the chart, are
multiplied by the MVA rating of the machine, in this case 635 MVA. Also, the distance
mn is the pu MVA value of the quantity E .V
Xs
at operating point m. Therefore, the value

of E in pu can be calculated, in this case on the rated base of 24 kV, by multiplying nm

Xs
by the pu ratio of V
or simply by Xd, since V = 1 pu. Conversion to kV then requires

multiplication by the voltage rating of the machine in kV.

If the actual terminal voltage V is not 1 pu, then the pu value 1

Xs
assigned to the

distance on has to be changed to V2

Xs
pu. This change alters the scale by V2 and so the

p.u. P and Q readings from the chart must first be multiplied by V2 in pu and then by
the MVA base (635 MVA) in order to give the correct MW and MVAr values for the
actual operating conditions. For instance, if the actual terminal voltage is 1,05 pu, then
point n on the Q axis corresponds to the actual value 0,58 x (1,05)2 = 0,63945 pu or
406 MVAr and the point shown as 0,9(1,05)2 = 0,99225 pu or 630 MW.

To calculate the correct excitation voltage E, corresponding to an operating point m

131
when the terminal voltage is not exactly equal to its rated value, the length nm obtained
Xs
must be multiplied by V2 p.u. to correct the scale and then by the ratio V
pu to convert

to E. The net result is that nm is obtained when multiplied by the actual pu value of
the product (Xs.V) yields the correct pu value of E. It is important to note that the
power factor angle φ and the internal angle δ are the same before and after rescaling.

Example 2.18

A 24 kV, 635 MVA, 3 600 r/min, 60 Hz, three-phase alternator with a power factor
of 0,9 has an operating chart as shown in figure 2.35. The alternator is delivering
458,47 MW and 114,62 MVAr at 22,8 kV to an infinite bus. The synchronous
reactance Xs = 1,7241 pu on the machine base and resistance is negligible. Calculate
E using:

(a) the equivalent diagram

(b) the loading diagram

Solution
22,8
(a) Vt = ∠0°
24
= 0,95 ∠ 0 ° pu
458,47 + j114,62
P + jQ =
635
= (0,722 + j0,1805) pu
0,722 − j0,1805
Ia =
0,95∠0°
= (0,76 – j0,19) pu

E = V + I a.Xs

= 0,95∠0° + (0,78)(1,7241)∠(90° – 14°)

= 1,823∠45,64° pu

= 43,752∠45,64° kV

132
(b) The point k, corresponding to the actual operating conditions, can be located on
the chart.
P + jQ
Pk + jQk =
0,95 2

= 0,722 + j02,1805
(0,95)
= (0,8 + j0,2) pu

The distance nk equals (0,8)2 + (0,78)2 = 1,1173 pu when calculated on the scale
 1,7241 
of figure 2.35. The actual value of E is then: E = (1,1173)(0,92)2  
 0,95 

= 1,830 pu

This is the same as obtained above. The angle δ = 45° can easily be measured.

2.17 GENERAL LOAD DIAGRAMS

Assume generator mode with normal excitation. The active part of the current, in this
case the whole current, is in phase with the voltage. The active part of the current

Ia will remain constant, and Z and δ are also constant. Thus Ia Zs will be constant

too. Construct a line perpendicular to Ia Zs. This represents the line of constant power.
If the excitation is now reduced, the point P moves upwards on the constant power
line to point P1. E2 is now the new reduced emf, and 1a2 Zs is the new voltage drop in
the machine. As in figure 2.36, the angle P 1VP is the phase angle φ and the power
factor is leading.

If the excitation is increased, the point P moves down on the line to point P2 and
the power factor is lagging. The line Ia Zs can be considered as the divis io n
between lagging and leading power factors. Above or to the left of the line is
leading, and to the right is lagging.

133
Leading power factor Lagging power factor

Constant power lines

Power reference line

P1

Stability limit I 2 .Z P
E2 P3
E3
I.Z
P2
φ2 I 3 .Z
φ3
δ1 δ3
V
1 p.u. Excitation Normal 2 p.u. Excitation

Figure 2.36: General load diagram

Assume that the power input increases by 50%. The active part of the current will
then also increase by 50%. The same applies to Ia Zs. The excitation did not
change; the length of E remains constant; the new operating point is P 3 ; and the
voltage drop is la3 Zs. The arc P3P, with radius 0, is the locus of E. The more the
machine is loaded, the more the power factor becomes leading. A line parallel to Ia
Zs through point 0 is called the stability limit line. On this line, the load angle will
be equal to the internal impedance angle. The point P cannot move past this point,
otherwise the machine will fall out of step. The line of constant reactive power is
the line perpendicular to the power line. A circle with a certain radius with the end
point of V, is the constant kVA circle.

EXERCISE 2.4

(1) A 6 kV, three-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected alternator has a synchronous impedance of

(0,6 + j10) Ω/phase, is coupled to an infinite bus and supplies 100 A at unity power
factor. With the aid of a load diagram, determine:

(a) the armature current and power factor at which the machine will operate if the
power input is increased by 100% while the excitation remains constant
(b) the armature current and power factor if the power remains at 200% and the
excitation is increased to 1,2 pu

134
(c) the maximum power output, armature current and power factor that can be expected
in (b)

(220 A; 0,945; 210 A; 0,984; 500 A; 0,775)

(2) An 11 kV, three-phase, star-connected alternator has a synchronous impedance of

10∟80° Ω/phase and operates at unity power factor on infinite bus bars. It supplies a
current of 300 A by using a general load diagram. Determine:

(a) the full-load current for normal excitation ( motor mode)

(b) the current and power factor for 100% excitation on 25% overload (generator
mode)
(c) the maximum power that the machine can develop in the generator mode for
50% excitation

(330 A; 455 A, 0,84; 4,1 MW)

(3) A 6,6 kV, three-phase, star-connected alternator operates on full load and delivers
300 A at unity power factor. The synchronous impedance is 15∟80° ohms per phase.
Determine the induced emf if the steam regulator is throttled so that the load angle is
halved, assuming that the current remains the same.

(7 800 V)

(4) An 11 kV, three-phase, turbo alternator has a synchronous impedance per phase of
(0,4 + j0,8) Ω and it supplies 2 kA at unity power factor to an infinite bus. The
excitation is increased so that the emf is increased by 20%. Sketch a general load
diagram and determine the following from this diagram:

(a) the armature current for maximum power output

(b) the actual maximum power output

(9 199,7 A; 128,31 MW)

135
2.18 TIME PERIOD OF OSCILLA TION

Every synchronous machine has a natural time period of free oscillation. Many factors,
including the variation in load, create phase swinging of the machine. If the time period
of these oscillations coincides with the natural time period of the machine, then the
amplitudes of the oscillations may become so greatly developed as to swing the
machine out of synchronism. The expression for the natural time period of oscillat i on
of a synchronous machine is developed below:

Let: T ≡ torque in Nm/mechanical radian

J ≡ Σ m.r2 − moment of inertia (kg.m2 )

The period of undamped oscillations, in seconds, is given by:

J
t = 2.π
T

The synchronising power for a displacement δ is:

δ.E 2
Ps =
Zs

δ ≡ in electrical radians

E 2 .p
And: Ps = (per mechanical radian per phase)
Zs

136
p ≡ the number of pole pairs

The synchronising torque is given by:

3.Ps
Ts =
2.π.n s

3.E 2 .p
=
2.π.Z s .n s

Now E
Zs
is the short circuit current Isc and ns .p is the frequency f.

Therefore:

p f
=
ns n s2

Substituting these values in the torque developed:

3  E   p 
Ts =  .E. 
2.π  Z s  n
  s



= 3 .I sc .E. 2
f
2.π ns

3.I sc .E. f
=
2.π.n s2

Substituting this equation in the formula for time:

2.π.n s2
t = 2π
125

π 3 .n s2 J
=
125  I sc 
S  f
 I 

137
I sc 100
=
I %X s

This equation can also be substituted in the formula.

EXERCISE 2.5

(1) A 5 000 kVA, three-phase, 10 kV, 50 Hz alternator has a synchronous speed of

1 500 r/min and is connected to infinite bus bars. If the moment of inertia of the entire
system is 1,5 x 104 kgm2 and the steady short-circuit current is five times the full- load
current, find the natural time period of oscillation.

(1,364 s)

(2) A 10 000 kVA, four-pole, 6,6 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase alternator has a synchrono us
reactance of 25% and is connected to infinite bus bars. If the natural period of
oscillation while operating at full- load unity power factor is to be limited to 1,5 s,
calculate the moment of inertia of the rotating system.

(3) A three-phase, two-pole, 934 kW synchronous motor has an efficiency of 0,95 pu

and delivers full- load torque with the excitation adjusted so that the power factor is
unity the moment of inertia of the motor and its load is 30 kgm2 , and its synchronous
reactance is 11,1 ohm. Determine the period of undamped oscillation on full load.

(0,612 s)

2.19 ELECTROM ECHANICAL TRANSIENT STABILITY

Since the electromagnetic "coupling" between the stator and rotor fields is a flexible
one, any change in either the load or the electromagnetic torque is liable to cause a
mechanical oscillation. Consider a synchronous motor operating against a mechanical
torque Tm 1 , which is suddenly reduced to Tm2 in figure 2.37.

138
The electromagnetic torque Te is now greater than the mechanical load torque and
the rotor will accelerate, reducing the load angle. On first reaching the new steady-state
balance point δ2, the rotor cannot suddenly decelerate back to synchronous speed.
Energy extracted from the magnetic field represented by Xs has increased the stored
energy in the rotating parts by an amount equal to the work done:

Load angle

Figure 2.37

Consider the shaded area. As the rotor is carried beyond the balance point and the
load angle continues to decrease, a retarding torque sets in as Tm2 is now greater
than Te.

At some angle > δ 3, when the additional stored energy has been partly dissipated
and partly transferred back to the magnetic field, the speed is again synchronous.
But the retarding torque, which is still acting, causes the speed to fall further; it
allows the rotor to swing back and reduce the load angle towards δ 2 again. This
interchange of energy between the inertia of the rotating
parts and the magnetic field causes a superimposed speed oscillation about
synchronous speed. The disturbance continues until the excess energy is dissipated
in losses.

It does not always follow that all disturbances will cause a decaying oscillatio n.

139
Transient stability studies are concerned with whether the oscillation could reach
such a magnitude that the machine would "swing" out of synchronism. Figure
2.37 shows the torque or angle curves for a motor that is subjected to a sudden
fall in terminal voltage, which could be brought about by a supply-line fault,
causing a large impedance drop. Momentarily, the load angle is unchanged, but
immediately there arises a decelerating torque Tm – Te.

The rotor slips backwards, but after an amount of energy corresponding to the lower
shaded area has been extracted from the rotating inertia, torque balance is restored at 02.
Beyond this point, Te becomes greater than Tm so that acceleration towards synchronis m
commences. However, if the upper shaded area does not give an energy increment equal
to the lower area, synchronism will be lost as Tm again becomes greater than Te at an angle

δ3. The motor will therefore stall, unless the protective equipment has cleared the fault and

restored the voltage in time.

EXERCISE 2.6

(1) The load angle characteristic of a power system is given by P = 120 sin δ
MW, where δ is the load angle. The system is initially stable at Pt = 40 MW. Due to a
short circuit, the load demand is increased to 70 MW. By using the equal area
criteria, determine whether the system will still be stable.

(system still stable)

(2) The load angle characteristic for a power system is given by P = 125 sin δ.
The system is initially stable at 42 MW. The load demand is suddenly increased to
90 MW. By using the equal area criteria, determine whether the system will be stable.
Also determine the maximum rotor swing angle by using the following function:

x(rad) 1,204 1,239 1,292 1,326 1,361 1,396 1,449

f(x) 1,225 1,218 1,206 1,197 1,187 1,179 1,165

(system stable; 1,361 rad)

140
2.20 PROTECTION
A generator requires to be protected against the consequences of overspeed,
overvoltage, overcurrent, unbalanced load, insulation failure, bearing failure, prime-
mover failure, excessive coolant temperature, internal hotspots, surges and fire.
Equipment has been developed to indicate shaft distortion and rotor expansion in
large steam turbo alternators. The modulated carrier signal is picked up from inductive
sensors close to the shaft and fed to recorders, indicators and alarms.

Rectifiers employed in excitation systems are subjected to the most onerous

conditions by a short circuit across the dc side, and fuse protection must be provided.
During a short circuit on the alternator, the rotor current is positive during the
transient so that the rectifier is not called on upon to perform voltage blocking, but
it carries a large (though decaying) current surge. Rotor slot wedges, damper bars and
other metal parts of the rotor in the neighbourhood of the air gap magnetically screen
the field winding.

High-speed dc circuit breakers for the field current, operating in little more than 30
ms, have been used in generators rated up to 500 MW, with series high rupturing
capacity fuses in the diode circuits as backup. For machines with larger ratings and
currents in the order of 5 kA to be broken, circuit breakers are impracticable; such
machines rely on diode fuses for protection.

GENERATOR PROTECTION
Fault Method
Overspeed Mechanical or electrical sensor
Overvoltage Over-voltage relay (H)
Overcurrent Over-current relay or differential
protection

Load unbalance Unbalance-detecting network

with relay or alarm

Stator insulation failure Differential protection

Rotor insulation failure Alarm from earth fault detector
Loss of bearing oil pressure (T) automatic transfer to
emergency oil feed
(H) standby oil pump
141
Loss of vacuum (T) vacuum load suppression
sensor
Prime mover failure (T) reverse-power relay
Bearing overtemperature Temperature sensor
Surges Supply network protection
sufficient
(T) – turbo-alternator; (H) – hydro-alternator

142
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

CHAPTER 3

SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

CONTENTS
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
3.2 INTRODUCTION
3.3 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
3.4 STARTING OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
3.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
3.6 PERFORMANCE COMPUTATION
3.7 POWER FLOW IN A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
3.8 MOTOR ON LOAD WITH CONSTANT EXCITATION
3.9 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS WITH DIFFERENT EXCITATIONS
3.10 EFFECT OF INCREASED LOAD WITH CONSTANT EXCITATION
3.10.1 Normal excitation
3.10.2 Underexcitation
3.10.3 Overexcitation
3.10.4 Summary
3.11 EFFECT OF CHANGING THE EXCITATION AT A CONSTANT LOAD
3.11.1 Excitation decreased
3.11.2 Excitation increased
3.12 DIFFERENT TORQUES OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
3.12.1 Starting torque
3.12.2 Running torque
3.12.3 Pull-in torque
3.12.4 Pull-out torque

3.13 POWER ANGLE AND STATIC STABILITY

3.14 POWER DEVELOPED BY A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
3.15 POWER FACTOR CONTROL
3.16 A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR AS A SYNCHRONOUS CAPACITOR
3.17 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS
3.18 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM POWER
EXERCISE 3.1
143
3.19 EFFECT OF EXCITATION ON ARMATURE CURRENT AND POWER
FACTOR
EXERCISE3.2
3.20 CONSTANT POWER LINES
3.21 CONSTRUCTION OF V-CURVES
3.22 SYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION MOTOR
3.22.1 Circle diagram for the synchronous induction motor
EXERCISE 3.3

3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• explain the different types of motor excitations

• discuss the conditions for maximum power and power developed by
synchronous motors
• calculate the applied voltage, induced emf, synchronous impedance and power
angle
• draw the V-curve

3.2 INTRODUCTION
A synchronous motor, as the name implies, runs at a synchronous speed dictated by
the frequency and the number of poles on the stator. Most large synchronous motors
have three- phase windings on the stator and a field winding on the rotor. The stator
windings are connected to a balanced three-phase supply, while the dc voltage is
impressed on the rotor winding. Therefore, these motors are also a doubly fed type.
Often single-phase synchronous motors do not have a field winding on the rotor.
However, polyphase synchronous motors with no dc excitation are not that common.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

In construction, a synchronous motor looks the same as an alternator. In fact, it can

be made to operate as a generator, and vice versa. However, a synchronous motor
144
must have an additional winding, which is referred to as the damper or amortise
winding.

This winding serves two basic purposes. First, it helps to start the motor because it is
not a self-starting motor. Second, the damper winding tends to minimise hunting.
Hunting is the term that is used to define successive overshoots and undershoots in
speed due to sudden variations in load. Whenever the load is changed suddenly, a
synchronous motor cannot adjust its power angle instantaneously to account for the
variation in load. As it tries to adjust its power angle, due to its inertia, it may go over
the needed adjustment. Then it will try to correct itself and may overdo again.
Therefore it may swing back and forth many times before reaching the proper value.
A damper winding minimises these swings and helps to adjust the power angle promptly
due to changes in the load.

In a synchronous motor without a damper winding, hunting may become intolerably

severe. The following are some of the characteristic features of a synchronous motor:

• It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all.

• It is not inherently self-starting. It has to run up to synchronous speed by some means
before it can be synchronised to the supply.
• It is capable of being operated under a wide range of power factors, both lagging and
leading. Hence, it can be used for power-factor correction in addition to supplying
torque to drive loads.

3.4 STARTING OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

As soon as the three-phase voltage is impressed on the stator windings, a revolvin g

flux is produced, which moves around the periphery of the rotor at synchronous
speed.

Since the rotor is at standstill, in one half cycle of the stator revolving field, the rotor
polarity may be such that it experiences a force of attraction and tends to go along
with the field. Due to the heavy mass of the rotor, it takes time before it can start
moving, but by then the stator flux has already reversed. Now a force of repulsion
acts on the rotor pole and tends to rotate the rotor in the opposite direction. As the rotor
145
tries to rotate in the opposite direction, the stator field changes again. Thus, the rotor
pole is acted on by a rapidly reversing force of equal magnitude in both directions.

The net torque is therefore zero. Thus, the rotor stays in its original position and no
motion is imparted to it. If the stator field flux is strong enough, the motor will draw
a very high current and produce a growling noise. Thus, in the absence of damper
windings, the rotor must be driven at nearly synchronous speed by another source and
then synchronised by applying dc to the rotor winding. With damper windings, the
machine can start as an induction motor. As soon as the machine is on normal speed
(about 95% of synchronous speed) the machine can be synchronised. As the rotor is now
rotating at its synchronous speed, there is an induced voltage in the stator winding
owing to generator action.

The expression of the voltage is the same as for the synchronous alternator. However,
it must be noted that when the rotor of a synchronous motor is rotating at its
synchronous speed, the damper winding does not play any role. However, the presence
of the damper winding still helps to control the hunting of the rotor due to changes
in the load.

3.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

The equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is the same as that of a synchronous

alternator, except for the direction of the stator winding current.

It is obvious that:

Let φ be the angle between V and I. The power factor of a three-phase synchronous
motor can be unity, leading or lagging. Taking the applied voltage as reference, the
phasor diagram can be drawn for any power factor. The power input to the motor is:

146
The electrical loss in the machine takes place in the stator winding resistance, as
well as in the field winding of the rotor. Thus, the total electrical loss is:

Pelec = 3.I 2 .R + Vf.I f

Where: If = the current in the field winding of the rotor

vf = the dc voltage impressed on the rotor

The power developed by the motor is:

The torque developed by the motor is:

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Tdev =
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠

The power output is obtained by subtracting the rotational losses from the power
developed.

3.6 PERFORMANCE COMPUTATION

The analysis of the performance of a synchronous motor is readily determined by

the phasor diagram, power flow diagram and the expression for the mechanical power
developed. We have already demonstrated the usefulness of the power flow diagram
in connection with the induction motor, hence we present it here without much
additional comment.

147
Electrical power input Pi = 3.V.I a.cos φ

Stator Mechanical Pm = 3.E.I a.cos (φ+δ)

3. .Ra
copper power
= sin δ

= T.ωs

Figure 3.1: Power-flow diagram for a synchronous motor

Useful
Core loss power Mechanical Pc Po = Pm - Pc - Prot

Power losses
Rotational power Prot = To.ωs

There is one step fewer in the flow diagram of figure 3.1 because the ac source
does not have to supply the rotor winding copper loss, since the rotor is travelling at
synchronous speed. This is not to say that the rotor copper loss does not exist – it
does, but the power is supplied from a separate dc supply. The figure represents the
power flow from the ac supply to the shaft of the synchronous motor.

As the power-flow diagram indicates, the only mechanical power needed is that
required to supply the rotational and core losses on no load. This calls for a very
small value of δ, as shown in figure 3.2(a). The machine is assumed to be overexcited

since E > V δo is just large enough so that the in-phase component of Ia is sufficient

148
to supply the losses.

Ia

φ0 V φ
δ δ V
jI a.Xs jI a.Xs

I a1 E

(a) No load, overexcited (b) On load, fixed excitation

Figure 3.2

Now consider a mechanical load suddenly applied to the motor shaft. The first
reaction is to cause a momentary drop in speed. In turn, this appreciably increases the
power angle, thereby causing a phasor voltage difference between E and V. The
result is an increased flow of armature current at a much improved power factor
compared with no load. The speed changes momentarily by a sufficient amount to
allow the power angle δ to assume that value which enables the armature current
and input power factor to assume those values which enable the input power to
balance the power required by the load plus the losses.

Figure 3.2(b) is typical of what the final phasor diagram looks like. Note that the
active component of the current is considerably increased over the no-load case.
The increase in power and power angle from no load to full load can be measured
with a stroboscope. The stroboscope provides a convincing demonstration of the
physical character of the power angle. The elements of the phasor diagram of the
synchronous machine are the same whether it is used as a motor or an alternator. The
geometry of the diagrams differs only in the signs of the power angles that are
reversed.

E∠−δ = V∠0 − IZ∠β±φ (motor action)

E∠δ = V∠0 + IZ∠β±φ (alternator)

149
The mechanical power developed is the same in both cases:

𝐸𝐸.𝑉𝑉
Pd = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 (kW per phase)
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

3.7 POWER FLOW IN A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Let: Rs = stator resistance

Xs = stator reactance

Then:

The mechanical power developed in the rotor is:

Pmec = E Ia COS (δ − φ)

Out of this power developed, some would be used as iron, friction and excitatio n
loss, hence the power available at the shaft would be less than the developed
power by this amount The input power/phase is:

150
The power-flow diagram is shown in figure 3.3:

V Air gap E

Pin Po
Pem
Electrical

Stator losses Wind,

friction and
Ps(Fe) + Ps(Cu) excitation
losses

Figure 3.3(a) The power-flow diagram

V
φ β δ

Ia
Figure 3.3(b) The phasor diagram

3.8 MOTOR ON LOAD WITH CONSTANT EXCITATION

In a synchronous machine, a back emf, E, is set up in the stator by the rotor flux
that opposes the applied voltage V. This back emf depends on the rotor excitatio n
only. The net voltage in the stator is the phasor difference between V and E. The
armature current is obtained by dividing this phasor difference by the impedan ce
of the stator.

Figure 3.4 shows the condition when the properly synchronised motor is running
on no load, has no losses and has a field excitation that makes E = V. It is seen that

the phasor difference is zero, and so is the stator current. The motor does not take
current from the supply, as there is neither load nor losses to be met by it; that is, the
motor floats on the supply.

151
If the motor is on no load but it has losses, then the phasor E falls back by an
angle δ so that a resultant emf is brought into existence and hence Ia which supplies
the losses. It is worth noting that the magnitude of E does not change – only its
phase changes. Its magnitude will only change when the rotor excitation is changed.
If the motor is loaded, then the rotor will fall back in phase by a greater
value of δ, the so- called load angle. The resultant voltage ER is increased and the

motor draws an increased stator current, though at a slightly decreased power factor.

V
E

(a)
V
δ1

ER
E

(b)
V

ER
E

(c)

Figure 3.4

3.9 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS WITH DIFFERENT EXCITATIONS

A synchronous motor is said to have normal excitation when E = V. If the field

excitation is such that E < V, the motor is underexcited. In both these cases, the
motor has a lagging power factor, as shown in figured 3.4(a) and (b):

152
_!_V.._ IR

Figure 3.4 (a) Normal excitation

Figure 3.4 (b) Underexcitation

If the excitation is such that E > V, the motor is overexcited and draws a leading
current, as shown in figure 3.5:

Figure 3.5 Overexcitation

There will be some value of excitation where the power factor will be unity. See

figure 3.6:

153
I V
δ
I.Z

E
Figure 3.6 Unity power factor

3.10 EFFECT OF INCREASED LOAD WITH CONSTANT EXCITATION

Assume that Ra is negligible and that the excitation is constant

3.10.1 Normal excitation

Figure 3.7 shows the condition when the motor is running with a light load so that
the following is true:

• The torque angle, δ, is small.

• The resultant emf is small.

• Hence the current Ia1 is small.

• φ 1 is small.

Now suppose the load on the motor is increased as shown in figure 3.7. To meet
this extra load, the motor must develop more torque by drawing more stator current.
This can be done by decreasing the speed, and hence de c r e a s ing E, because both
are fixed.

The following happens:

• The rotor falls back in phase. In other words, the load angle increases to δ2, as
shown in figure 3.7,
• As a result, Ia1 increases to Ia2, thereby increase the torque developed by the

motor,

• φ 1 increases to φ 2 so that the power factor decreases. Since the increase in the
stator current is much greater than the slight increase in power factor, the torque
developed by the motor is increased to a new value sufficient to meet the extra

154
load put on the motor. It will be seen that it is essentially by increasing the stator
current that the motor is able to meet the extra load (see figure 3.7).

Power reference line

Constant excitation

Zero load
I 1 .Z
φ3 φ1

δ1 Load P1
δ2 δ3
I 3 .Z I 2 .Z

Load P2

Load P3
Figure 3.7

3.10.2 Underexcitation

Figure 3.4(b) shows that with a small load, the current lags behind V by a large
angle, which indicates a poor power factor.

Unlike normal excitation, a large stator current must be drawn to develop the same
power because of the poor power factor. As the load increases, the resultant emf
increases; consequently the stator current increases, and the power factor improves
and approaches unity. The stator current also increases, thereby meeting the extra
load. In this case, the change in power factor is more than the change in the stator
current.

3.10.3 Overexcitation

When on light load, the load angle is small, but the stator current is comparative ly

large and leads the applied voltage by a large angle φ 1. As i n t h e c a s e o f a n

underexcited motor, the power factor improves and approaches unity as more load

is applied. The stator current also increases, thereby meeting the extra load .However,

155
it should be noted that the power factor here increases at a faster rate than the stator
current.

3.10.4 Summary

• As the load on the motor increases, the stator current increases regardless of
the excitation.
• For underexcited and overexcited motors, the power factor tends to approach
unity as the load is increased.
• With both underexcitation and overexcitation, the change in power factor is
greater than the change in stator current when the load is increased.
• With normal excitation, an increase in load causes a greater change in current
than in power factor, which tends to become increasingly lagging.

3.11 EFFECT OF CHANGING THE EXCITATION AT A CONSTANT LOAD

Suppose a synchronous motor is operating with normal excitation at unity power
factor with a given load, as in figure 3.8. If Ra is negligible compared to Xs, then the
stator current lags the resultant emf by 90° and is in phase with V, because the power
factor is unity. The stator is taking enough power, VIa, per phase to meet the
mechanical load on the motor.

3.11.1 Excitation decreased

Look at figure 3.8. Suppose t h a t due to the decrease in excitation, the induced emf
is reduced to Eb1 at the same load angle δ1. The resultant voltage, ER1, causes a lagging
stator current, Ia1, to flow. Even though this current is larger than Ia in magnitude, it
cannot produce the necessary power, VIa, to sustain the constant load VIal cos ϕ is

less than VIa. Hence, it becomes necessary for the load angle to increase to δ2.

The load angle increases the emf from E1 to E2, which in tum increases the resultant
emf to ER2. The stator current therefore increases to Ia2. This causes the necessary power
to meet the constant load on the motor.

3.11.2 Excitation increased

The effect of increasing the excitation is shown in figure 3.7, where the increased

156
emf, E1, is shown at the original load angle. The resultant voltage, ERl, causes a

leading current I a 1 , whose in-phase component is larger than Ia. Hence, the stator
develops more power than the load on the motor.

The load angle now decreases to δ2, which decreases the resultant voltage to ER2.

This in turn causes the current to decrease to Ia2 . The power again taken is just
sufficient to supply the load. Hence, we find that the variation in excitation of a
synchronous motor running with a given load produces variations in its load angle
only.

Zero load

Figure 3.8

3.12 DIFFERENT TORQUES OF A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

3.12.1 Starting torque

The starting torque is the torque developed by the motor when full voltage is applied
to the stator winding. It is sometimes called the breakaway torque.
The value of this torque may be as low as 10% ( as in the case of centrifugal pumps)
or as high as 200 to 250% of full-load torque (as in the case of loaded reciprocating
two- cylinder compressors).

3.12.2 Running torque

The running torque is the torque developed by the motor under running conditions.
It is determined by the rating and speed of the driven machine. The peak kW
determines the maximum torque that would be required by the driven machine. The
motor must have a breakdown or a maximum running torque greater than this value
to avoid stalling.

157
3.12.3 Pull-in torque

A synchronous motor is started as an induction motor until it runs 25% below the
synchronous speed. The excitation is switched on and the rotor pulls into step with
the synchronously rotating stator field. The amount of torque at which the motor
will pull into step is called the pull-in torque.

3.12.4 Pull-out torque

The maximum torque that the motor can develop without pulling out of step or
synchronism is called the pull-out torque. Normally, when the load on the motor is
increased, its rotor progressively tends to fall back in phase by the load angle
behind the revolving stator field, although it keeps running synchronously. The motor
develops maximum torque when its rotor is retarded by 90°, that is if it has shifted
backwards by a distance equal to half the distance between two poles. Any further
increase in load will cause the motor to fall out of synchronism.

3.13 POWER ANGLE AND STATIC STABILITY

When the synchronous motor is connected to a line source that behaves as an infinite
bus, it follows that the maximum developed power corresponds to an angle of 90° (if
armature resistance is neglected) so that:

𝐸𝐸.𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (W per phase)
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

It is useful to keep in mind that during normal operation the power angle is
considerably less than 90°, even at rated conditions.

The differential serves as a reserve capacity to help preserve static stability during
load changes (maintain synchronism). This stability limit is seriously compromised
when the synchronous motor is supplied by a local generator which is of comparable
rating. To illustrate this, refer to figure 3.9. For the sake of simplicity, armature
resistance and other losses are assumed to be negligible.

158
Figure 3.9(a) Line diagram using per phase quantities

Ia b
c
Eg
α

o δ δg
δm V

Em a

Figure 3.9(b) Overexcited synchronous motor/underexcited synchronous

alternator

The alternator is assumed to be electrically coupled to the synchronous motor through

the synchronous reactance of both machines. The fields are adjusted so that the motor
is overexcited and the alternator is underexcited. The power developed by the generator
is expressed as:

P Ea Ia cos α

In triangle oab, the value of ab can be determined:

= Em sin 0
In triangle abc, this quantity is given by:

ab =ia (Xsg + Xsm) cos α

From the last two equations, it then follows that:

159
Em.sin δ = I a.cos α(Xsg + Xsm)

𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚
I a.cos α = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Inserting this equation into the equation for P:

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 .𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚
P= 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

δ = δa + δm

δa = the load angle of the alternator

δm = the load angle of the motor

The maximum power represented by this alternator motor combination is again

obtained by letting δ = 90°.

However, comparing it to an alternator connected to an infinite bus reveals two

important differences:

• In the motor–alternator combination, δ = δa. + δm. Thus, where they both have the
same minimal rating, the individual angles are 45°. Hence the maximum allowable
motor power angle to maintain synchronism has been reduced to half the value,
namely 45°.
• The coefficient of sin δ is smaller than before, because the denominators' reactance
term is now greater by a factor of two, and also because Ea< V.

The conclusion then follows that the static stability of the synchronous motor is
much less when supplied by a comparably rated synchronous generator than when
supplied from an infinite bus.

3.14 POWER DEVELOPED BY A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Consider the equation for the induced emf of a motor:

E = V – IZs

By making I the subject of the formula, the following evolves:

𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸
I = −
𝑍𝑍 𝑍𝑍

160
𝐸𝐸
The total current is the difference between the two current components, that is 𝑍𝑍 , which
𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉
lags the voltage E by an angle β, and 𝑍𝑍 , which lags the voltage V by an angle β.
𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋
Where: β = tan-1 � 𝑠𝑠 �
𝑅𝑅

For a motor, the load angle is always negative:

P = E.I.cos ∠ 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼

𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸
Pinm = V�� � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛽𝛽 − � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝛽𝛽 + 𝛿𝛿 )�
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸
Pem= E�� � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝛽𝛽 − 𝛿𝛿 ) − � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 90°�
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

In figure 3.9, OA represents the supply voltage/phase and I is the stator current and
AB is the emf at a load angle δ. OB gives the resultant voltage ER = IZs. I leads the

voltage by an angle φ , and lags behind the resultant voltage by an angle:

Consider the equation E∟α = V∟0 – IZ.∟(β-φ ). Rewrite this equation in the
form:
𝑉𝑉
I =
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

𝐸𝐸
=
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

If the phasor diagram is consulted, the following would become clear: E lags
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
behind V by an angle δ; 𝑍𝑍 lags behind V by an angle β; and 𝑍𝑍 lags behind E by an angle β.
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

The electromagnetic power developed by the motor is:

Pem = EIa

161
Usually Rs is negligible and therefore the internal impedance angle is 90° and the
equation becomes:

𝐸𝐸.𝑉𝑉
= . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

This gives the value of the electromagnetic power developed in terms of the basic

variable, δ, of a synchronous machine for a constant voltage V. If the gross torque, in

Nm, developed by the stator is Ts, then:

60.Pem
Or: Ts =
2.π.N s

Conditions for maximum power developed can be found by differentiating the above
expression with respect to the load angle and then equating it to zero:

𝑑𝑑𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐸𝐸.𝑉𝑉
=− .sin (β – δ)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

=0

Or: sin (β – δ) = 0

This means that δ = β. Therefore the maximum power developed, in W/ph, is:

E.V E 2
Pem(max) = − . cos δ
Zs Zs

This shows that the maximum power (and hence torque) depends on the applied
voltage and the excitation.

Examp le 3.1

162
A 2300 V, three-phase, 60 Hz, star-connected, cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor has
a synchronous reactance of 11 Ω per phase. When it delivers 150 kW, the efficiency
is found to be 90% exclusive of field loss and the power angle is 15ᵒe. Assume
t ha t the motor is supplied from an infinite bus and determine the following:

(a) the induced emf per phase

(b) the line current Ia
(c) the power factor

Solution
(a) Since the armature resistance is ignored, the input power equals the developed
power:
3.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 150
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿 =
𝑋𝑋 0,9

150
( )(11)
9
E = 2300
(3)( )(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 15° )
√3

= 1 778,10 V

𝑉𝑉∠0°−𝐸𝐸∠𝛿𝛿
(b) Ia =
𝑋𝑋∠90°

1 327,91∠0° −1 778,10∠ −15°

=
11∠90°

= 54,82∠40,3° A

(c) cos φ = cos 40,3°

= 0,763 leading

3.15 POWER FACTOR CONTROL

For a fixed mechanical power developed, it is possible to adjust the reactive

component of the current drawn from the line by varying the dc field current. This
is possible because the machine is a doubly excited machine.

Thus, although operation at a constant applied voltage demands a fixed resultant

flux, both the dc and ac source may co-operate to establish a resultant flux. If the

163
field winding current is made excessively large, then the resultant air gap voltage
in the motor tends to be larger than that demanded by the applied voltage. Accordingly,
a reaction occurs that causes the armature current to assume such a power factor
angle that the armature current mmf exerts that amount of demagnetising effect that
is needed to restore the required resultant flux.

Similarly, if the field is underexcited, then the resultant air gap flux tends to be too
small. This also creates a phasor voltage difference between E and V, which causes
the armature current to flow at that power factor angle which enables it to magnetise
the air gap to the extent needed to provide the necessary air gap flux.

Whether the reactive component of current must be lagging or leading readily follows
from an investigation of the phasor diagram in figure 3.10. Figure 3.10 shows various
values of excitation voltage at a constant mechanical power developed:

I a1

φ1 I a2 V
δ3 δ2 δ1
jI a3 .Xs
jI a2 .Xs jI a1 .Xs E.sin δ

I a3
E3 E2 E1

Figure 3.10 Varying excitation on power factor

Hence, as E is changed, the sin δ must change correspondingly to keep E sin δ

constant. In figure 3.10, this means that as the excitation is varied, the locus of the
tip of E is the broken line. The active component of the current in each case must be
the same. In the first case, E1, the field current is producing too much flux. This
causes a reaction between the motor and the source, which calls for a leading current
of such magnitude that it provides an amount and direction of synchronous reactance
crop that, when added to E1, yields a fixed terminal voltage V.

Physically, what is happening is that a leading reactive current is made to flow,

which acts to demagnetise the flux field to the extent needed. When the excitation
is reduced to E2, there is no excess flux produced by the field winding.
Consequently, the ac line current contains no reactive component. It merely has
164
the in-phase component needed to supply power to the load. At the excitation E3,
the machine is greatly underexcited. To compensate for this, a reaction occurs
that allows the line to deliver a large lagging reactive current, which helps to
establish the value of air gap flux demanded by the terminal voltage.

As the excitation 1s decreased, the power angle must increase for a fixed
mechanical power developed. For a given load condition δ, the motor has no
need to draw reactive power whenever:

E cos δ V

The motor draws leading reactive current whenever :

E cos δ > V

The motor draws lagging reactive current whenever:

E cos δ < V

If a plot is made of Ia against a varied excitation If for a fixed mechanical power,

the current is large for underexcitation, and overexcitation, and passes through a
minimum at some intermediate point. The plot resembles a V shape as demonstrated
in figure 3.11:

Figure 3.11

165
3.16 A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR AS A SYNCHRONOUS CAPACITOR

The ability of the motor to draw a leading current when overexcited can be used
to improve the power factor of a plant having a lagging power factor. Many
electric companies charge increased power rates when power is bought at a poor
lagging power factor. Over the years, such increased power rates can result in an
appreciable costs.

In such instances, the installation of a synchronous motor, operating at a leading

power factor, can more than pay for itself by improving the overall input power
factor to the point that the penalty clause no longer applies when the motor is
operated solely for the purpose of power-factor correction. It is called a
synchronous capacitor.

In such a case the motor serves the function of supplying the reactive volt-amperes
required by the singly excited induction motors that operate on the same power
lines, and thereby relieves the power source of the need to do so. In addition to the
favourable power rates that can result, the overall efficiency of the plant is improved
because of the reduced line losses that accompany the improved power factor.

Example 3.2

An industrial plant is supplied from a 2 300 V, three-phase, infinite bus transmission

line. The plant uses several large three-phase induction motors, drawing a total of
2600 kW at a lagging power factor of 0,87 when fully loaded.
Calculate:

(a) the current drawn from the supply

(b) the kVA rating of the synchronous motor used as a capacitor that is needed to
improve the power factor to unity
(c) the new value of the current
(d) the induced emf if the synchronous reactance of the motor is 1,6 Ω

166
Solution
P
(a) IL = √3VCosφ
2600x10³
= (√3)(2300)(0.87)
= 750,2 A

Ism = I1 sin φ
= (750,2) sin 29,54
= 369,9 A

S = √3VLIL
= (√3)(2300)(369,9)
= 1473 kVA

(b) After improvement of unity power factor, the current will be equal to
the active part of the current.
Ia = I1 cos φ
= (750,2) cos 29,54
= 652,7 A

(c) E∟δ = V∟0ᵒ – IX∟(β ± φ)

2300
= √3 ∟0 – (369,9)(1,6)∟90)
= 1919,75∟0ᵒ V

3.17 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR APPLICATIONS

Synchronous motors are rarely used below 37,3 kW in the medium-speed range
because of their initial cost is s o mu c h h ig h e r t h a n t h a t o f inductio n
motors. In addition, they require a dc excitation source, and the starting and control
devices are usually more expensive – especially where automatic operation is
required. However, synchronous motors do offer some very definite advantages such
as constant speed operation, power-factor control and high operating efficiency.

Furthermore, there is a kW and speed range at which the disadvantage of higher

initial cost vanishes; this range may even put the synchronous motor at an advantage.
Where low speed and high kW ratings are involved, the induction motor is no longer
cheaper because it must use large amounts of iron in order not to exceed a gap
flux density of 0,7 T. In a synchronous machine, a value twice this figure is
permissible because of the separate excitation. These motors also feature quite
167
prominently in applications that are characterised by low speed, high kW ratings, for
example:

• large low-head pumps

• flour mill line shafts
• rubber mills and mixers

• crushers
• chippers
• pulp grinders and Jordan refiners
• refiners used in the paper-making industry

Example 3.3

A three-phase, 1 732 V, star-connected, cylindrical-rotor, synchronous motor has a

synchronous reactance of 10 Ω per phase. The rotational and copper losses amount to
9 kW. The motor delivers 291 kW and the greatest excitation voltage that may be
obtained is 2 500 V per phase. Calculate:

(a) the magnitude and power factor of the armature current for maximum excitation at
the specified load
(b) the smallest excitation for which the motor will remain in synchronism for the
given power output

Solution
3𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
(a) P =
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
3(11000)(2500)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿)
300 x 10 3 =
10
δ = 23.58˚

𝑉𝑉∠0° −𝐸𝐸∠ − 𝛿𝛿
Ia =
𝑍𝑍
1000∠0° − 2500∠ − 23,58°
=
10
= 163,324 ∠52,24˚ A

Cos φ = φ = cos 52.24

= 0,6124 leading
168
(b) Minimum excitation corresponds to the stability limit, that is δ = P:
3𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
P = sin 90ᵒ
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 )
E=
3𝑉𝑉

300 x 103 x 10
= (3)(1000 )
= 1 000 V

Example 3.4
A 2 300 V, star-connected, 60 Hz, synchronous motor has a synchronous reactance of
11 Ω per phase . When the machine delivers 149,2 kW, the efficiency is 90% and the

load angle is 15°. Neglect Ra and calculate:

(a) the induced emf

(b) the line current
(c) the power factor

(a) Pout = ŋPin

149,2 = 0,9 Pout
Pout = 165,778 kW

3𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿
P=
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

3(1327,91)(𝐸𝐸)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝛿𝛿)
165,778 x 10 3 =
11
E = 1 768,61 V

𝑉𝑉∠0°−𝐸𝐸∠−𝛿𝛿
(b) I L =
𝑍𝑍
1327.9∠0°−1768.61∠−15°
=
11∠90°
= 54,1094 ∠39,73˚ A

(c) Cos φ = φ = cos 39,73

= 0,769 leading

Example 3.5

169
A three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor is operating at a power factor of
80% leading. The synchronous reactance is 2,9 Ω. The resistance is negligible
and the armature current is 20 A. The applied line voltage is 440 V.

(a) Determine the induced emf.

(b) The armature current must be increased to 40 A per phase and the power factor
m u s t b e maintained at 0,8 leading. Show clearly in a phasor diagram how the
field excitation must be changed. Can this be accomplished if the shaft load
remains fixed? Explain your answer.

Solution

(a) E∟δ = V∟0 – IX∟(90 ± φ)

= 254∟0° – (20)(2,9)∟(90° + 36,87°)

= 292,504∟– 9,13° V

Pdev = (3)(292,504)(20)cos(36,87° + 9,13°)

= 12,1914 kW

(b) If the current doubles at the same power factor:

E∟δ = v∟0° – IX∟(90 ± φ)

= 254L0°– (40)(2,9)L(90° + 36,87°)
= 336,644L – 16° V

This means that, if the power remains unchanged, E sin δ must remain constant and the
locus of E should then be the dotted line. In this case the input power almost doubled:

Pdev = 3 V I COS φ
= (3)(336,644)(40)cos(36,87° + 16°)
= 24,385 kW
Therefore, this cannot be accomplished if the shaft load remains fixed. If the power
were to remain the same, the new power factor would be:

P dev = 3 VIcos (φ + δ)
170
12,1914 x 103 = (3)(336,644)(40)cos(φ + 16)
cos(φ + 16) = 0,302
φ = 56,44°

Cos φ = cos 56,44°

= 0,553 leading

Example 3.6

A 1,492 MW, 13,5 kV, star-connected, three-phase, 60 Hz synchronous motor

has a synchronous impedance of (1,52 + j37,4) Ω per phase and a n efficiency
of 96%. The field current is adjusted so that the motor takes a leading current of
85 A. Calculate:

(a) the power factor of the motor

(b) the excitation emf
(c) the mechanical power developed

Solution

(a) Zs = 1,52 + j37,4

= 37,43∠87,67° Ω

𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜
Pin =
𝜂𝜂

1,492 × 106
=
0,96

= 1,5542 MW

Pin = √3. 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 . 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜑𝜑

1554,2 x 10 3 = √3. 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 . 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜑𝜑

∴ cos φ = 0,782 leading

(b) E∠δ = V∠0° − I.X∠90° ± φ

= 7 794,23∠0° − (85)(37,43)∠(87,67° + 38,56°)

171
= 10 009,2∠–14,86° V

(c) Pdev = 3.E.I.cos ∠ 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼

= (3)(10009,2)(85)cos (38,56° + 14,86°)

= 1,5211 MW

Pin = √3. 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜑𝜑

= (√3)(7 794,23)(85)cos 38,56°

= 1,55416 MW

In this case, the difference between the input power and developed power is due to the resistance of the armature.

Pin – Pdev = 33,0596 kW

= 3.I 2 .R
33,0596
R=(
3)(85) 2

= 1,525 Ω

3.18 CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM POWER

The power developed by the synchronous motor depends on the applied voltage, induced
voltage, synchronous impedance and power angle. If it is assumed that the synchrono us
impedance, applied voltage and induced voltage are constant, the power developed is
dependent on the power angle. Since the induced voltage is maintained constant, the locus
of E is a circle as shown in figure 3.12:

Figure 3.12
172
The developed power is a maximum when:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Before going further, look at the power expression again . Assume that the current in the

stator winding lags the applied voltage by an angle φ.

From the exact equivalent circuit:

V = E∟δ + IZ∟(β±φ)

Or: I Z∟ (β±φ) = V∟0° – E∟δ

This can be written as:

(I cos φ – ji sin φ )(R + jXs) = V1 – E cos δ + jE sin δ

Equating real and imaginary parts:

I1 R cos φ + I1 X sin φ = V1 – E cos δ

And:

I R sin φ + I1 Xs cos φ = E sin δ

Squaring these two equations and after some simplification:

(𝑉𝑉1 − 𝐸𝐸 .𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 )2 + 𝐸𝐸2.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛿𝛿

𝐼𝐼12 =
𝑅𝑅2 2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉2 + 𝐸𝐸2 − 2.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 .𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿

Or: 𝐼𝐼12 =
𝑅𝑅2 2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

Where: 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠2

The stator copper loss per phase is:

𝑉𝑉2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝐸𝐸2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 − 2.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿

𝐼𝐼12 . 𝑅𝑅1 =
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

173
Multiplying (I 1 .Rs .cos φ + I.Xs .sin φ = V − E.cos δ) by Rs :

I 1 .𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 .cos φ + I.Rs .Xs .sin φ = V.R − E.R.cos δ

Multiplying (I 1 .Rs .sin φ + I 1 .Xs .cos φ = E.sin δ) by X:

I.Xs .cos φ − I 1 .Rs .Xs .sin φ = E.X.sin δ …

After adding, the following equation is obtained:

𝑉𝑉1.𝑅𝑅1 − 𝐸𝐸 .𝑅𝑅1.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 +𝐸𝐸 .𝑋𝑋.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿

I 1 .cos φ =
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

The input per phase is:

Pin = V.I.cos φ

𝑉𝑉2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑅𝑅.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝐸𝐸.𝑉𝑉.𝑋𝑋.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿

∴ =
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

The developed power per phase:

Pdev = Pin − stator copper loss

𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠.𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸.𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 .𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 −𝐸𝐸 2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

=
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

2 .𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸
= ( 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 ) − 𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

This expression can be simplified by neglecting the stator winding resistance:

3.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 .𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
Pd =
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

174
The torque developed is:

3.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 .𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿
Td =
𝜔𝜔.𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉. 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

� 𝑅𝑅 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 � − 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

= Rs .sin δ + Xs .cos δ

=0

𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
∴ tan β =
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

This clearly indicates that the power angle will approach 90° when the winding resistance becomes
negligible. The maximum power developed is:

𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸2 .𝑅𝑅

Pdm = � 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 ⋅ + 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 ⋅ �−
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅2 2
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
= � �−
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸2 .𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

= −
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

If the maximum power developed by a three-phase synchronous motor is known, the necessary
induced emf can be determined. The maximum power developed equation can be rewritten as:

𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2
E2 − 𝑉𝑉 ⋅ 𝐸𝐸 + . 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

𝑉𝑉1.𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 1 𝑉𝑉1 .𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 2 4.𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

∴ E = ± �� � −
2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 2 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠
= �𝑉𝑉 ± �𝑉𝑉2 − 4. 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

This gives two values for E and these are the excitation limits for any load. The criterion for maximum
power developed as a function of E can be obtained by differentiating:
175
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉. 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 2 . 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
� 2 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 )� −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

𝑉𝑉
= ( 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 ) − 2.𝐸𝐸.𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 2 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

=0

Therefore:

𝑉𝑉
(𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 ) = 2.𝐸𝐸.𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2 2 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

And:

V.(Rs .cos δ + Xs .sin δ) = 2.E.Rs

𝑉𝑉
E = [ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 ]
2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

Thus, the maximum power developed:

𝑉𝑉2
Pdm = [ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 ] 2
4.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠.𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

𝑉𝑉2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 2

= � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 �
4.𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

But: Rs = Zs .cos β

And: Xs = Zs .sin β

Therefore the maximum power developed becomes:

176
𝑉𝑉2
Pdm = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 (𝛽𝛽 − 𝛿𝛿 ) …
4.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

Thus, the maximum power developed will be when β = δ. Therefore, the maximum power developed
by a three-phase synchronous motor when E is variable becomes:

𝑉𝑉2
Pdm =
4.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

The corresponding value of the induced emf is:

𝑉𝑉.𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠
E =
2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

This is the value of induced emf that gives maximum power, but it is not the maximum value that can
be induced in the stator winding.

Example 3.7

A 120 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has a stator impedance

of Zs = (0,2 + j3) Ω per phase. When operating on full load, the stator line current is
10 A at a leading power factor of 0,8.

(a) Determine the maximum power developed by the motor if the field excitation
is unchanged.
(b) If the induced emf is variable, determine the maximum developed power.
(c) What would the induced emf then be?

Solution

120
(a) Vp =
√3

= 69,28 V

E∠δ = V∠0° − I.Zs ∠β ± φ

= 69,28∠0° − (10)(0,2 + j3)∠36,87°

= 89,31∠-16,36° V

𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸2 .𝑅𝑅1

Pdev = −
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠2

(69,28) (89,31) (89,31) 2(0,2)

= −
3,007 (3,007)2

177
= 1 881,2 W/phase

= 5,644 kW

𝑉𝑉2
(b) Pdm =
4.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

(69,28) 2
= (4)(0,2)

= 6 kW

𝑉𝑉.𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠
(c) E =
2.𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

(69,28) (3,007)
= (2)(0,2)

= 520,812 V

Example 3.8

A 440 V, 50 Hz, four-pole, three-phase, delta-connected synchronous motor has a

synchronous impedance Zs = (1,2 + j8) Ω per phase. The induced line voltage is
560 V. Determine for maximum power:

(a) the line current and power factor

(b) the torque angle
(c) the maximum torque developed

Solution

(a) When operating at maximum power:

δ =β

Zs = (1,2 + j8)

= 8,09∠81,47° Ω

δ = 81,47°

𝑉𝑉∠0° − 𝐸𝐸∠𝛿𝛿
I =
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

178
440∠0° − 560∠ − 81,47°
=
8,09∠81,47°

= 81,44∠ – 24,27° V

cos φ = 24,27°

= 0,912 lagging

IL = 141,058∠ – 24,27° A

(b) Pin = √3. 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 . 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜑𝜑

= �√3�(440) (141 ,058) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 4,27°

= 98,0407 kW

Pdm = √3. 𝐸𝐸. 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 . 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∠ 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼

= �√3� (560)(141,058)cos (–24,27° + 81,47°)

= 74,116 kW

Or: Pdm = Pin − stator copper loss

= (98,0407 x 10 3 ) − (3)(81,44)2 (1,2)

= 74,164 kW

(60)(50)
(c) Ns =
2

= 1 500 r/min

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Tdm =
𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠

(60)�74,116 × 103 �
= (2)(𝜋𝜋)(1500)

= 471,837 Nm

179
Example 3.9

A 440 V, 50 Hz, six-pole, three-phase, delta-connected synchronous motor draws 86,6 A

on full load. The friction, windage and core losses are 3 kW, and the field excitation
loss is 1 kW. The field current is adjusted so that the induced emf equals the applied
voltage (i.e. normal excitation). The synchronous reactance is 5 Ω per phase and the
resistance is negligible. Determine:

(a) the load angle

(b) the power factor
(c) the input power
(d) the output power
(e) the efficiency
(f) the net torque developed by the motor

Solution

(a) Since the induced voltage equals the applied voltage, the power factor must be lagging.

𝑉𝑉∠0° − 𝐸𝐸∠𝛿𝛿
∴ I∠φ =
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 ∠90°

𝑉𝑉2+𝐸𝐸2 − 2.𝑉𝑉.𝐸𝐸
∴ I2 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿
𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠

(254,03)2 + (254,03) 2 − (2)(254,03)(254,03)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛿𝛿)

50 2 = (5) 2

∴ δ = 58,95°

254,03∠0° − 254,03∠ − 33°

∴ I∠φ =
5∠90°

= 50∠ – 29,48° A phase

= 86,6∠ – 29,48° A line

(b) cos φ = cos 29,48°

= 0,867 lagging

(c) Pin = √3.VL.I L,cos φ

180
= �√3� (440)(86,6)(0,867)

= 57,248 kW

(d) Since R is negligible, the developed power equals the input power.

Pd = 57,248 kW

(e) Pout = Pin − losses

= 57,248 − 4

= 53,248 kW

𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
η =
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

53,248
=
57,248

= 93%

(60)(50)
(f) Ns =
3

= 1 000 r/min
(60)�57,248 × 103 �
Ts = (2)(𝜋𝜋)(1 000)

= 546,678 Nm

EXERCISE 3.1

(1) A 2,3 kV, three-phase, star-connected, 50 Hz synchronous motor has a synchrono us

impedance of Zs = (0,2 + j2,2) Ω/phase. The motor is operating at a leading power
factor of 0,5 with a line current of 200 A. Calculate the induced emf.

(1708 V/ph)

181
(2) A three-phase, 6,6 kV, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous motor takes a current of
50 A. The impedance is Zs = (1 + j20) Ω/phase. Calculate the power supplied to the
motor and the induced emf for a lagging power factor of 0,8.

(457,248 kW; 5651 V)

(3) A 1 MVA, 11 kV, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchrono us

impedance of Zs = (3,5 + j40) Ω/phase. Determine the induced emf and the load
angle for a power-factor of 0,8 lagging.

(5187,3L; –17,61° V)

(4) A 2 kV, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchronous impedance

of Zs = (0,2 + j2,2) Ω/phase. The input is 800 kW at normal voltage and an induced
emf of 2 500 V. Calculate the current and power factor.

(242 A; 0,95 leading)

(5) A 400 V, six-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchronous
impedance of Zs = (0,5 + j4) Ω/phase. It takes a current of 15 A at unity power factor
when operating at a certain field current. If the load torque is increased until the line
current has increased to 60 A, the field current remaining unchanged, calculate the gross
torque developed and the new power factor.

(0,954 lagging; 327 Nm)

(6) A 400 V, six-pole, three-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous motor has a synchronous

impedance of Zs = (0,5 + j4) Ω/phase. On full load, the excitation was adjusted so that
the machine takes a current of 60 A at a leading power-factor of 0,866. Keeping the
excitation unchanged, determine the maximum power output.

Excitation, friction, wind and iron losses total 2 kW.

182
(50,4 kW)

(7) A 500 V, single-phase synchronous motor gives a net output mechanical power of
7,46 kW and operates at a lagging power factor of 0,9. Its effective resistance is 0,8 Ω. If
the iron and friction losses are 500 W and the excitation losses are 800 W, determine:

(a) the stator current

(b) the efficiency

(20,2 A; 82,6%)

(8) A three-phase, 2,2 kV, star-connected synchronous motor has a stator impedance of
(1 + j6) Ω/phase. The stator input is 200 kW at a leading power factor of 0,8.
Calculate:

(a) the induced emf/phase

(b) the load angle
(c) the electromagnetic power
(d) the stator losses
(e) the output if the mechanical loss is 3 kW

(1 496,45 V; 13,7; 187,08 kW; 12,92 kW; 184,08 kW)

(9) A three-phase, 380 V, star-connected synchronous motor has a stator impedance of

(0,8 + j10,5) Ω/phase. It develops 19,16 kW. If the mechanical and iron loss is
300 W at unity power factor, determine :

(a) the input current

(b) the pu impedance
(c) the output power
(d) the efficiency
(Note: The developed power is the electromagnetic power.)

183
(32,9 A; 1,58 pu; 18,86 kW; 87,1% )

(10) A three-phase, star-connected, 380 V synchronous motor draws 80 A at a power

factor of 0,6 leading. The synchronous impedance is (0,347 + j1,96) Ω/phase. Calculate
the induced emf and the load angle. Also determine the electromagnetic power in terms
of the load phase angle; the load angle in terms of the phase angle; and t he internal
phase angle.

(348,89 ∟-19,55° V; 8,337 kW/ph; 8,33 kW/ph)

3.19 EFFECT OF EXCITATION ON ARMATURE CURRENT AND POWER

FACTOR

The value of excitation for which the back emf is equal (in magnitude) to the applied
voltage, V, is known as 100% excitation. Consider a synchronous machine in which
the mechanical load is constant; the output will also constant if the losses are
neglected. Figure 3.4(a) shows the case for 100% excitation. The armature current lags
behind the voltage by a small angle φ. Its angle β with IZ is fixed by the stator
constants, that is:

𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
tan β =
𝑅𝑅

In figure 3.4(b) the excitation is less than 100%. Here IZ (ER) is advanced clockwise
and so is the armature current (because it lags ER by the impedance angle). The
magnitude of I is increased, but the power-factor component of I will remain
constant. In fact, the locus of the extremity of the current phasor would be a straight
line, as shown. It may be noted that when the field current is reduced, the pull-out
torque of t he mot or is also reduced in proportion.

Figure 3.5 <represents the condition for an overexcited motor, that is E > V. Here
the resultant voltage, ER, is pulled anticlockwise and so is the stator current I. The
motor now draws a leading current. It may also happen that for some value of

184
excitation the V and I are in phase. This means that the power factor is unity, as
shown in figure 3.6 . At this time, the current drawn by the motor is a minimum.
Two important facts are coming to light now:

• The magnitude of the stator current varies with the excitation. The current has
large values for both high and low excitation; in between it has a minimum
value corresponding to a certain excitation.

The variations of stator current with excitation is known as the V-curves

because of their shape (see figure 3.13).

• For the same input, the stator current varies over a wide range and so causes
the power factor to vary accordingly. When overexcited, the motor runs with a
leading power factor, and when overexcited, it runs with a lagging power
factor. In between the power factor is unity.

Figure 3.13

The variation of power factor with excitation is shown in figure 3.14. This looks
like an inverted V-curve. The stator current is a minimum when the power factor
is unity. As the motor can run with a leading power factor, it renders the motor
extremely useful for power-factor correction and phase advancing. Both
transformers and induction motors draw a lagging current from the supply. By using
the synchronous motor in conjunction with the above mentioned, the lagging
185
reactive power can be compensated for by the leading power factor of the machine s.

Figure 3.14

EXERCISE 3.2

(1 ) A 400 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, star-connected, 37,3 kW synchronous motor has a full­

load efficiency of 88%. The impedance of the motor is Zs = (0,2 + j1,6) Ω/phase if the
excitation of the motor is adjusted to give a leading power factor of 0,9 lead in g.
Calculate for full load:

(a) the induced emf

(b) the total mechanical power developed

(494,8 V; 39,6 kW)

(2) A 693 V, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor takes 48 kW at a lagging

power factor of 0,8. The induced emf is increased by 30%, the power taken remaining
constant. Determine the new current and power factor. The machine has a leakage
reactance of two ohms per phase and negligible reactance.

(46,4 A; 0,8623 leading)

(3) A synchronous motor absorbing 60 kW is connected in parallel with a factory load of

240 kW having a lagging power factor of 0,8. If the combined load has a power
factor of 0,9, determine the value of the leading kV Ar supplied by the motor and the
power factor of the motor.

186
(35 kVAr; 0,863 leading)

3.20 CONSTANT POWER LINES

In figure 3.15, OA represents the applied voltage of the motor and AB is the
induced emf per phase E. OB is the resultant voltage ER. The stator current is OI
lagging behind ER by an angle:

The value of the current is:

𝐸𝐸𝑅𝑅
=
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠

Figure 3.15

187
Since Zs is constant, ER represents the main current. OY is drawn at an angle β
with OA. BL is drawn perpendicular to OX, which is at right angles to OY.

Phasor OB, when referred to OY, also represents (but on a different scale) the
current both in magnitude and phase. Hence, OB cos φ = I cos φ = BL. The power
input per phase of the motor is:

VI cos φ = V BL

As V is constant, the power input is dependent on BL. If the motor is working with
a constant intake, then the locus of B is a straight line parallel to OX and
perpendicular to OY, that is, line EF for which BL is constant. Hence EF represents
a constant power input line for a given voltage but varying excitation. Similarly, a
series of such parallel lines can be drawn, each representing a definite power

intake of the motor. The following can be noted about these constant power lines:

• For equal increase in intake, the power lines are parallel and equally spaced.
• Zero power lines run along OX.
• The perpendicular distance from B to OX represents the motor intake.
• If the excitation is fixed, that is if AB is constant in length, then as the load on
the motor is increases, a increases.

In other words, the locus of B is a circle with its centre at A and a radius AB.
With increasing load, B goes on to lines of higher power until point B1 is
reached. Any further increase in load on the motor will bring B to a lower line.
This means that as the load increases beyond the value corresponding to point
B1, the motor intake will decrease, which is impossible. The area to the right of
AY 1 represents unstable conditions. For a given voltage and excitation, the
maximum power the motor can develop is determined by the location of B 1,
beyond which the motor pulls out of synchronism.

188
3.21 CONSTRUCTION OF V-CURVES

The V-curves of a synchronous machine show how stator current varies with its
field current when the input to the motor is kept constant. These are obtained by
plotting ac stator current against dc field current while the motor input is kept
constant.

There is a family of curves, each corresponding to a definite power intake. In

order to draw these curves experimentally, the motor is run from a constant voltage
and frequency bus bars. Power input to the motor is kept constant at a definite
value. Next the field current is increased in small steps and corresponding stator
currents are noted. When plotted, we get a V-curve for a particular constant
motor input. Similar curves can be drawn by keeping the motor input constant at
different values. A family of curves is shown in figure 3.14.

3.22 SYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION MOTOR

A disadvantage of the induction motor, as has been seen, is that it operates at a

lagging power factor. However, it is self-starting. On the other hand, the
synchronous motor, which can be operated at leading power factor, has no
starting torque. The synchronous induction motor combines the high starting
torque of the induction motor with the leading power factor of the synchrono us
motor.

The machine consists essentially of a wound rotor induction motor, which has a
longer air gap than the normal induction motor to reduce the effect of armature
mmf in the machine when it is running as a synchronous motor. If it is started by
resistance ( starting as an induction motor) and when it has run up to speed, the
starting resistance is disconnected and direct current from a small exciter on the
same shaft as the motor is fed into the rotor.

The machine then runs as a synchronous motor, the power factor being varied by
controlling the dc in the rotor. The most common method of connecting the rotor is
shown in figure 3.16. From this it can be seen that one phase carries the total current
Id, while the other two carry half, each in the opposite direction. Since the rotor
189
runs at synchronous speed, the currents will move with the rotating field and produce
a synchronously rotating field. Thus, the rotor current may be represented on the
stator complexor diagram. For the connection shown, the dc corresponds to the
instant when a three-phase system has positive maximum current in one phase and
half negative maximum current in the two other phases:

Figure 3.16

The equivalent rms rotor current will thus be:

′ 𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
√2.𝑘𝑘𝑓𝑓

This is the radius for the synchronous mode circle.

3.22.1 Circle diagram for the synchronous induction motor

For starting and running up to speed, the current locus will be the same as the
circle diagram for the induction motor. When the dc is switched into the rotor,
there will be an additional stator current (at supply frequency) due to transfor mer
action.
The resultant current will be the phasor sum of the no-load current and this
additional current so that, for a constant de, the locus of the stator current
11 = Io + Ic will be a circle with centre D and of radius representing the rotor
current, that is:

I 'dc
𝐼𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
√2.𝑘𝑘1

The operating point for a given power output may be found (approximately) by
the following procedure:
(1) Calculate the active component of the total current, which will correspond to
the required output power. Mark this component from D parallel to the voltage
phasor:
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
DQ’ =
3.𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ

190
The entire diagram should preferably be drawn for phase values of voltage
and current.
(2) Draw a line at right angles to DQ' from Q' to cut the circle representing the
rotor current in use at point Q. Q is then the operating point and OQ represents
the total stator phase current.
It will be seen that for this load and rotor excitation, the machine has a leading
power factor. DM represents the maximum possible load that the motor could
supply with this particular dc excitation without falling out of step as a
synchronous machine.

EXERCISE 3.3

(1) The no-load current in the induction motor mode for a synchronous induction motor is
40 A at a power factor of 0,2 lagging. The effective turns ratio is 0,5. Calculate the
input current for a dc of 50 A. The machine is operating at unity power factor. If the
dc excitation is increased by 20%, determine the new input current and power factor.

(2) A test on a three phase, 440 V, 33,5 kW, 50 Hz synchronous induction motor gave the
following results:

No load 440 V 50 A 3,4 kW

Locked rotor 220 V 152 A 13 kW

When running synchronously at full load, the excitation is adjusted to give unity
power factor when k 1 is 0,5.
(a) Calculate the dc field current required.
(b) Draw the circle diagram for both the induction motor and the synchronous motor.
(c) From this diagram, determine the maximum power output and the corresponding
input currents and power factor for:
(i) synchronous running at the above excitation
(ii) induction running

(47,6 A; 51,5 kW; 87,2 A; 0,83 lagging; 77,6 kW; 199 A; 0,67 lagging)

191
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

CHAPTER4

SALIENT-POLE SYNCHRONOUS ALTERNATOR

CONTENTS
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
4.2 INTRODUCTION
4.3 MAXIMUM LOAD ANGLE AND OUTPUT POWER
4.4 STIFFNESS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
4.4.1 Cylindrical rotors
4.4.2 Salient-pole rotors
EXERCISE 4.1
4.5 TWO-REACTION METHOD OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES

193
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• draw the equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of a salient-pole

synchronous alternator

• calculate the following:

o induced emf
o developed torque
o reluctance torque
o developed power
o load angle
o maximum power

• explain the stiffness of a synchronous machine

4.2 INTRODUCTION
The round rotor construction is commonly used for synchronous machines, operating at
1 500 r/min or 3 000 r/min. These high-speed alternators are driven by steam turbines
and are known as turbo alternators. The cylindrical rotor structure helps to reduce the
wind losses, provides quiet operation and enables the rotor to withstand high
centrifugal forces.

Figure 4.1: Power in a salient-pole synchronous generator

For low-speed operation, synchronous machines having four or more poles usually
employ salient-pole rotors. Low-speed alternators are normally driven by water turbines
and are known as hydroelectric alternators. The steady-state performance of the salient-

194
pole synchronous machine can be satisfactorily predicted and analysed using the
following equation:

The positive signs are for an alternator and the negative signs are for a motor. This
equation is derived from Blondel’s theorem (or the two-reaction theory). This theory
takes into consideration the effects of saliency, but ignores the effects of magnetic
saturation. Magnetic saturation is accounted for by the cylindrical-rotary theory, which
ignores saliency. Under normal operating conditions, both theories yield slight ly
different but generally satisfactory results. According to the Blondel’s theorem, the
armature current is represented by two components, namely the direct-axis component
(Id) and the quadrature-axis component (Iq). The relationship of the armature current and
its components is not given in phasor form because the direct-axis component may
lead or lag (depending on the power factor) the quadrature-axis component for either
a motor or a n alternator. However, the two components are 90° out of phase with
each other; and the quadrature-axis component is always in phase with the induced emf.

Ia = I q2 + I d2

Where: Id = I.sin (φ ± δ)

Iq = I.cos (φ ± δ)

Owing to the uniform air gap, the reluctance and therefore also the reactances were

considered to be constant parameters.

In the salient-pole rotor, the region midway between the poles (quadrature or q­
axis) has a larger air gap than the region between the pole centres (direct or d-
axis). Therefore, a given armature mmf produces more flux along the d-axis than
along the q-axis. To make calculations using the preceding equations, we must
know Id, Iq, X d and Xq. The value of X d can be determined using the open-circuit
and short-circuit tests.

The quadrature-axis synchronous reactance can be determined by means of standard

195
tests as described in IEEE test code for synchronous machines. To determine Id and
Iq, φ and δ must be known. The power-factor angle is usually given in the
specifications, but the load angle is unknown. However, to complete the phasor
diagram, the load angle must be known. From the phasor diagram it can be shown
that:

Example 4.1

A synchronous alternator has a direct-axis synchronous reactance of 0,5 pu and a

quadrature-axis synchronous reactance of 0,8 pu. It supplies full load at rated voltage
and a power factor of 0,8 lagging. Determine the open-circuit voltage.

Solution

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Xq ∠(90° − φ)

= 1∠0 ° + 0,5∠(90° − 36,87°)

= 1,36∠17,13° V

Id = I.sin (φ + δ)

= sin (36,87° + 17,13°)

= 0,809 pu

Iq = I.cos (φ + δ)

= cos (36,87° + 17,13°)

= 0,588 pu

E∠δ = V∠0° + Id .Xd ∠δ + Iq .Xq ∠(90° + δ)

= 1∠0 + (0,809)0,8∠17,13° + (0,588)0,5∠(90° + 17,13°)

= 1,603∠17,13° V

The power output of a three-phase salient synchronous alternator is:

196
Po = 3.V.I.cos φ

= 3.V.Iq .cos δ + 3.V.Id .cos(90° − δ)

PO = 3.V.lq.cos δ + 3.V.Id.sin δ

Neglecting the armature resistance, the power developed must be equal to the power output.
Thus:

Pd = 3.V.Iq.cos δ + 3.V.Id.sin δ

Moreover: V.cos δ = E − Id .Xd

E − V. cos δ
Or: Id =
Xd

Substituting these two equations in the one for the developed power, the follow ing

evolves:

The first term is the same as the power developed in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous
machine. The second term highlights the effects of saliency. It is the power developed
by reluctance action in a salient-pole machine. The torque developed can be expressed
as:

The torque developed by a salient-pole synchronous alternator as a function of torque

angle is plotted in figure 4.2. The reluctance torque is independent of the excitation.
Furthermore, for a cylindrical or non-salient machine, the synchronous reactance along
the d-axis and q-axis are equal, and the contribution due to reluctance torque disappears.

The reluctance torque is:

197
Td
Total torque

Cylindrical-rotor torque

Reluctance torque

O
π

Figure 4.2

4.3 MAXIMUM LOAD ANGLE AND OUTPUT POWER

To obtain the load angle at which maximum output will occur, differentiate the

developed power with respect to δ and equate to zero:

dPd 3.V.E  X − Xq 
= cos δ − 3.V2  d  cos 2δ …
dδ Xd  X .X 
 d q 

By substituting cos 2δ with 2 cos2 δ −1, the equation becomes:

 Xd − Xq  3.V.E  Xd − Xq 
6.V2 .cos2 δ  + cos δ − 3.V2  
 X d .X q  X  X d .X q 
  d  

From this:
198
2
E.X q 1  E.X q 
cos δ max =− + +  …
4.V(X d − X q ) 2  4.V(X d − X q ) 

The same results can be arrived at without using the developed power, by using the following
equation:

2
k1  k 
cos δ max =− ±  1  + 0,5
8.k 2  8.k 2 

E.V
Where: k1 =
Xd

And: k 2=
(
v 2 Xd − Xq )
2.X d .X q

Example 4.2

A 1,5 MVA, 3,3 kV, 40-pole, three-phase, star-connected synchronous alternator has
reactances of Xd = 4,0l Ω/phase and Xq = 2,88 Ω/phase. For a lagging power factor
of 0,8 when delivering full load, calculate:

(a) the induced emf

(b) the developed power
(c) the developed torque
(d) the reluctance torque
(e) the maximum load angle
(f) the maximum power

Solution
S
(a) I =
3.VL

1500
=
( 3 )(3,3)

199
= 262,43 A

E∠δ = V∠0° + I.Xq ∠(90° ± φ)

= 1905,3∠0° + (262,43)2,88∠(90° − 36,87°)

= 2435∠14,378° V

Id = I.sin (φ + δ)

= (262,43)[sin(36,87° + 14,378°)]

= 204,67 A

Id = I.cos(φ + δ)

= (262,43)[cos(36,87° + 14,378°)]

= 164,26 A

E∠δ = V∠0° + Id .Xd ∠δ + Iq .Xq ∠(90° + δ)

= 1 905,3∠0° + (204,67)4,01∠14,378° + (164,26)2,88∠(90° + 14,378°)

= 2 666,3∠14,378° V

3.V.E  3.V 2  X − X q 
(b) Pd = sin δ +   d  sin 2δ
Xd  2  X .X 
  d q 

 3(1905,3)(2666,3)   3(1905,3) 2  4,01 − 2,88 

=   (sin 14,378°)+  
 4,01 x 2,88 
sin[(2)(14,378°)]
 4,01   2 

= 1 200 kW

Pd
(c) Td =
ω

1200 x 10 3
=
 50 
2.π 
 20 

200
= 76,394 kNm

V2  X − Xq 
(d) TR = sin 2δ  d 
2  X d .X q 
 

 (1905,3)2   4,01 − 2,88 

=   sin 2(14,378°)  
 2   (4,01)(2,88) 

= 85,45 kW/ph

dPd
(e) =0
dδ

d
= [(1,2669 x 106 )(sin δ) + (177,6 x 103 )(sin 2δ)]
dδ

0 = (1,2669 x 106 )(cos δ) + (355,2 x 103 )(cos 2δ)

= (1,2669 x 106 )(cos δ) + (355,2 x 103 )(2cos2 − 1)

= (710,4 x 103 )(cos2 δ) + (1,2669 x 106 )(cos δ)− ( 355,2 x 103 )

cos δ =
( ) (
2
− 1,2669 x 106 ± 1,2669 x 106 + 4 710 x 103 )(355,2 x 103 )
3
2(710,4 × 10 )

And: δ = 75,74°

(f) Pd max = (1,2669 x 106 )(sin 75,74°) + (177,6 x 103 )(sin 151,48°)

= 1,228 MW/ph

4.4 STIFFNESS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The stiffness or toughness (also known as the synchronising coefficient) of a

synchronous machine is a measure of its ability to oppose the forces that tend to
pull it out of synchronism. Mathematically, the stiffness is given by the partial
derivative of the power developed with respect to the load angle. In other words, the
stiffness of a machine is given by the slope of the power angle curve at the

201
operating point in consideration. Maximum stiffness is also referred to as
synchronising power.

4.4.1 Cylindrical rotors

V.E
P = sin δ
Xs

dP
ST =
dδ

V.E
=3 cos δ
Xs

The stiffness is at a maximum at the origin of the power-angle curve and a t a

minimum at the torque angle that corresponds to zero output power. In other words, at
pull-out the stiffness is zero.

4.4.2 Salient-pole rotors

By differentiating the equation with respect to o, it can be shown that the stiffness of
a salient-pole rotor machine is:

ST is measured in watts per electrical radians.

EXERCISE 4.1

(1) A 70 MVA, 13,8 kV, 40-pole, 50 Hz, salient-pole, star-connected, three-phase synchronous

alternator has R 1 as 0,0125 Ω. Xd and Xq are respectively 1,83 Ω and 1,21 Ω. It is

operating at full load at a power factor of 0,8 lagging. Determine:

202
(a) the load angle
(b) the developed power
(c) the reluctance torque
(d) the voltage regulation

(15,53°; 55,848 MW; 875,706 kNm; 49,95%)

(2) An 11 kV, three-phase, 20-pole, star-connected, salient-pole synchronous alternator has a

full-load current of 1000 A. The resistance of the rotor is 1,2 Ω/phase. The quadrature-
axis synchronous reactance per phase is 4,8 Ω and the direct-axis synchronous reactance

per phase is 3,6 Ω.

Determine for a lagging power factor of 0,8:

(a) the load angle

(b) the developed power
(c) the reluctance torque
(d) the voltage regulation

(17,022°; 20,9475 MW; 74,8719 kNm; 52,3955%)

(3) A salient-pole alternator has a quadrature-axis and direct-axis synchronous reactance

of 0,5 pu and 0,7 pu respectively. It operates at a lagging power factor of 0,8.
Determine:

(a) the load angle

(b) the developed power
(c) the voltage regulation
(d) the maximum load angle
(e) the maximum developed power

(17,103°; 1,0559 pu; 52,208% ; 79,86°; 3,09564 pu)

(4) An 80 kW, 550 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, ten-pole synchronous motor draws rated current
at a leading power factor of 0,95. The direct-axis and quadrature-axis reactances are
0,8 pu and 0,5 pu respectively. Neglect any losses and determine:

203
(a) the load angle in electrical and mechanical degrees
(b) the induced emf
(c) the maximum torque that the machine can develop when the excitation voltage as
determined in (b) is constant
(–22,3°; 4,5°; 1,45 pu; 1,94 pu)

(5) A three-phase, 50 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz, salient-pole synchronous motor has reactances
of XI = 0,8 pu and Xq = 0,4 pu. The synchronous motor is loaded to draw rated
current at a power factor of 0,8 lagging. The rotational losses are 0,15 pu. Neglect the
armature resistance losses.

(a) Determine the induced emf.

(b) Determine the power due to the field and due to saliency.
(c) If the field current is reduced to zero, would the machine stay in synchronism?
(d) If the shaft load is removed before the current is reduced to zero, determine the
resultant supply current in pu and the supply power factor.

(0,73 pu; 0,35 pu; 0,45 pu; loose synchronism; 1,267 pu; 0,117 lagging)

(6) A three-phase, 12 kV, 15 MVA, 50 Hz, salient-pole synchronous motor has reactances of
Xd = 1,2 and Xq = 0,6 pu. Ignore rotational losses and armature resistance losses. The
machine excitation and load are varied to obtain the following conditions:

(a) Maximum power input with no field excitation. Determine the value of this
power, the armature current and the power factor for this condition.
(b) Rated power output with minimum excitation. Determine this minimum value of
excitation.
(0,416 pu; 1,32 pu; 0,32; 0,87 pu)

(7) The synchronous reactance of a salient-pole synchronous generator with a direct-axis and
quadrature-axis is 0,9 pu and 0,6 pu respectively. Draw the two-reaction phasor
diagram with a power factor of 0,8 lagging and calculate:

(a) the load angle

204
(b) the pu-induced emf

(19,4°; 1,6918 pu)

(8) The synchronous reactance of the direct-axis and quadrature-axis of a three-phase,

40-pole, 50 Hz, 13,8 kV, salient-pole synchronous generator is 2,38 Ω and 1,33 Ω
respectively. The resistance of the star-connected stator is negligible. The load angle of
the machine is 30°e and the excitation is set to induce an emf of 167%. Sketch the phasor
diagram and calculate:
(a) current
(b) power
(c) reluctance torque
(d) the maximum load angle
(e) the maximum power developed

(ID = 2,689 kA; IQ = 2,995 kA; I = 4,02∟41,9° kA; 1,741 MNm)

(9) A 4160 V, 3,5 MVA, 20-pole, 50 Hz, star-connected, salient-pole synchronous generator
has a direct-axis and quadrature-axis reactance of 2,75 n per phase and 1,8
n per phase respectively. It delivers full load at a lagging power factor of 0,8.
Determine:

(a) the regulation

(b) the power developed
(c) the reluctance torque

(40,06%; 3,138 kW; 23,9 kNm)

4.5 TWO-REACTION METHOD OF SALIENT-POLE MACHINES

In the emf method of voltage regulation, the armature reaction mmf Fa is accounted for
by means of an equivalent armature reaction emf Ear. This is how we get the concept
of synchronous reactance Xs. This is permissible only in the case of non-salient-pole
machines where the air gap is uniform and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is

205
substantially constant – whatever the orientation of the field poles to the armature
mmf wave may be.

In a salient-pole machine, the armature mmf cannot be accounted for by introducing one
equivalent reactance because the air gap is not uniform and the reluctance along the
polar or direct axis is considerably smaller than along the interpolar or quadrature
axis. In view of this, the theory based on constant reluctance, that is the cylindrical-rotor
theory, cannot be applied to salient-pole machines. In a cylindrical-rotor machine, the
armature current Ia lags the induced emf E by an internal angle ψ = φ ± δ.

For a salient-pole machine, if the armature current Ia lags the induced emf by 90°, the
armature mmf Fc (in phase and proportional to Ia) is along the field-pole axis and it

directly opposes the field flux φ f, as shown in figure 4.3:

Ef

Axis of field
l Ψ=90

F φf φ ar Fa Ia
Figure 4.3

In other words, the armature reaction flux φ ar for ψ = 90° has a demagnetising effect on
the field flux φ f; consequently the resultant air gap flux φ r is reduced.

When the armature current Ia leads the excitation emf Eδ by 90°, the armature mmf Far is
again along the field-pole axis, but it is now directly aiding the field flux φ f; consequently
the resultant air gap φ r is increased.

In case the armature current Ia is in phase with Eδ, the armature mmf Far would act on an axis
90° away from the field or direct axis, that is, along the interpolar axis, as shown in figure 4. 4:

206
Ef

Ia
Fa
Axis of field φa

Ff φf
Figure 4.4

The different values of reluctance in the polar and interpolar regions make the analysis of salient-
pole machines quite different from cylindrical-rotor machines. The effect of salient poles can be
taken into account by the two-reaction theory, as suggested by Blondel. According to this theory,
the sinusoidal armature mmf Fa is resolved into two sinusoidal components, one Fad along the
direct axis and the other Faq along the quadrature axis.

Example 4.3
A single-phase synchronous motor for use on a 500 V circuit has a synchronous
impedance of 3,2 Ω. The armature resistance is 0,2 Ω. Determ ine:
(a) the current
(b) the induced emf if the machine develops 29,84 kW and the mechanical losses
equals 3,73 kW.

Figure 4.5
(a) Pdm = 29,84 + 3,73
= 33,57 kW

Pdmech = Pin – losses

33570 = (500)1 cos <I> – 0,2 12
0,2 I2 = (500)(1) + 33 570
= 0

500 ± �5002 − 4(0.2)(33570 )

𝐼𝐼 =
2(0,2)
207
= 69,4281 A

(b) E∟– δ = v∟0° – IZ∟(β±φ)

= 500∟0° – (69,428)(3,2)∟86,42°

= 534,31∟– 24,52° v

Example 4.4
A synchronous motor has an equivalent armature reactance of 3,3 Ω. The field
current is adjusted so that the induced emf is 950 V. If the motor is taking 80 kW
from the supply at 800 V, determine the power factor at which the machine
operates.

Solution

V
P = [Vcos β – E cos (β + δ)]
Z
800
80 x 10³ = = [800 cos 90 – 950 cos (90 + δ)]
3.3

90 + δ = 110,326
δ = 20,3264ᵒ

V∟0−E∟−δ
I∟φ =
Z
800∟0−950∟−20,33
=
3,3∟90

= 103,734∟15,39ᵒ A

Cos φ = Cos 15,39

= 0,964 leading

Example 4.5

A 2 000 V, three-phase, star-connected synchronous motor has an effective resistance and

reactance of 0,2 and 2,2 respectively. If the input is 800 kW at normal voltage and
the induced emf is 2500 V, determine the line current and power factor.

208
Solution
Z = 0,2 – j2,2
= 2,21∟84,81ᵒ Ω
V
P in = [Vcos β – E cos (β + δ)]
Z
2 000
800 x 10³ = [2000 cos 84.81 – 2500 cos (84,81 + δ)]
2.2

84,81 + δ = 106,334
δ = 21,524ᵒ

V∟0−E∟−δ
I∟φ =
Z
1154,7∟0 − 1443,4∟ − 21,524
=
2.21∟84,81

= 254,249∟24,74ᵒ A

Cos φ = Cos 24,74

= 0,908 leading

Example 4.6

An 11 kV, three-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous motor takes a current of

50 A. The effective synchronous reactance and the resistance per phase are 29 Ω
and 0,95 Ω respectively. Calculate the power supplied to the motor as well as the
induced emf for a power factor of:
(a) 0,8 lagging
(b) 0,8 leading

Solution
(a) Zs = 0,95 +j29
29,02∟88,12ᵒ Ω

Pin = √3VLIL cos φ

= √3)(1100)(50)(0,8)
= 762,102 kW

E∟– δ = v∟0° – IZ∟(β±φ)

= 6 350,8∟0° – (50)(29,02)∟(88,12 – 36,87)

209
= 5 559,43∟– 11,75° v
= 9 628,53 kV line

(b) The power input remains the same:

E∟– δ = v∟0° – IZ∟(β±φ)

= 6 350,8∟0°– (50)(29,02)∟(88,12 + 36,87)

= 5 557 280,6∟– 9,4° v

= 12,6104 kV line

210
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

CHAPTER 5: DESIGN

CONTENTS

5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

5.2 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

5.2.1 Main dimensions of a stator/rotor
5.2.2 Rating of a machine
5.2.3 Output of a three-phase induction motor
5.2.4 Specific magnetic load
5.2.5 Specific electrical load
5.2.6 The relation between D and L for the best power factor

5.3 SALIENT-POLE ROTOR DESIGN

5.3.1 Radial length of the air gap

5.4 COOLING OF THE STATOR

5.4.1 Advantages of hydrogen instead of air
5.4.2 Amount of coolant necessary
5.4.3 Power needed for the fans

5.5 ELEMENTS OF TRANSFORMER DESIGN

5.5.1 Specifications
5.5.2 Design of transformers
5.5.3 Basic arrangements of core and coils
5.5.4 Main dimensions of a transformer
5.5.5 Specific magnetic loading
5.5.6 Specific electrical loading
5.5.7 Output equation of a transformer
5.5.8 Single-phase transformer
5.5.9 Three-phase transformer (core-type)
5.5.10 Three-phase transformer (shell-type)
5.5.11 Design of the core
5.5.12 Design of window and main dimensions of core frame
5.5.13 Design of the windings
211
5.6 ELEMENTS OF DC MACHINE DESIGN
5.6.1 Specific magnetic loading
5.6.2 Specific electrical loading
5.6.3 Output equation
5.6.4 Main dimensions of a de machine
5.6.5 Field form factor of a direct current machine
5.6.6 Choice of number of poles

EXERCISE 5.1

212
5.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• identify the elements of design of induction motors

• calculate the necessary coolant
• identify the elements of transformer design
• identifying the elements of dc machine design

5.2 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

The main specifications of a three-phase induction motor for design purposes are the
following:

• three-phase

• frequency

• rated output in kW

• voltage

• connections

• temperature rise

• speed

• pull-out torque

• starting current

• power factor

• efficiency

• class of insulation

5.2.1 Main dimensions of a stator/rotor

D = bore-diameter of the stator

= the outer diameter of the rotor
L = length of the stator or the rotor

The air gap can be ignored in this work. The data h e r e are applicable to both
213
synchronous and induction motors.

5.2.2 Rating of a machine

S = V.I x 10 –3 (kVA/phase)

But: V ≈E

= 2.kf.kp.kd.Φ.Z.p.ns x 10 –3 (kV/phase)

S = 2.kf.kp.kd.Φ.Z.p.ns .I x 10 –3 (kVA/phase)

S
= (2.p.Φ)(I.Z)kf.kp.kd x 10 –3 … (i)
ns

S
= apparent power per revolution
ns

W
= k(TML)(TEL)
r

TML = 2.p.Φ

= the total magnetic load

And: TEL = I.Z

= total electrical load

If the number of conductors per phase is used, it will be called the electrical load.
This equation states that the apparent power per revolution in an electrical machine
is directly proportional to the product of total magnetic load and the total electrical
load.

214
5.2.3 Output of a three-phase induction motor
The rating of ac machines is expressed in kVA output in the case of an alternator
and kVA input for a motor. The main dimensions of a rotating machine are the
diameter of the stator bore and the length of the stator core.

Let D = diameter of stator bore in m

L = stator core length in m
p = number of pole pairs
n = number of revolutions per second
S = electrical rating in kVA
eph = voltage per phase in volts
Iph = current per phase in amps

Where: z = number of conductors per phase

One turn consists of two conductors. Hence, in some formulas:

Where: kw = winding factor

f = frequency in Hz
φ m = flux in the air gap in Wb

For a three-phase machine, the rating is given by:

s kVA

5.2.4 Specific magnetic load

The specific magnetic load (Eave) is the average flux density (in tesla) per pole
pitch, τp (in metre):
215
Φ
B =
A

Φ
=
τ p .L

π .D
But: τp =
2. p

2𝑝𝑝φ𝑚𝑚
Bave = … (ii)
π DL

The specific magnetic loading is the average magnetic flux density over the whole
surface of the air gap in the machine:
2𝑝𝑝φ𝑚𝑚
B=
π DL

5.2.5 Specific electrical load

The specific electrical load is defined as the number of ampere conductors per
metre of the armature circumference:

q = total number of ampere conductors/metre circumference

By combining equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get:

I.Z
q = … (iii)
π.D

S
= (Bave.D.L)(q.π.D)kf.kp.kd x 10 -3
ns

= (D2 .L)(Bave.q.π2 .kf.kp.kd x 10 -3 )

= D2 .L.G

Where: G ≡ the output coefficient

216
S
D2 .L =
G.n s

This means that the output of a machine is directly proportional to the volume of

the rotor. G and N are constants in the system. In the initial stages kd, kp = kw is
unknown and can be assumed to be 0,955.

The specific electrical loading is the number of ampere conductors per unit length of
the gap- surface circumference of the machine:

3.I.Z
q =
π.D

The rms value of the current is used. The specific magnetic loading is limited by
the saturation and losses in the teeth, and the excitation necessary to overcome the
reactance of the air gap. The specific electrical loading depends on the permissible I2R
loss and the effect of armature reaction. This will also depend on the type of
insulation used, and the ventilation and cooling methods used for the machine. The
rating of an ac machine is given as:

S = 6,66.kw.f.Zph.φm.I ph x 10 –3

If P m is the output of the induction motor in kW, then:

P
S =
η.cosφ

Where: η = the efficiency of the motor

cos φ = the power factor on full load

2
In the case of induction motors: 0,45 <B < 0,6 Wb/m

q can be taken to be 30 kA to 40 kA conductors/m for small to medium-size d

motors, and 40 kA to 50 kA conductors/m for large motors. The current density
used is:
217
• 3,5 A/mm2 for class A insulators
• 4 A/mm2 for class E insulators
• 5–6 A/mm2 for class B insulators
2
• 5–8 A/mm for classes F and H insulat ors

Substituting for B and q in the equation for S:

S = 3.2.1,1.I.Z.p.φ.n x 10 –3 kVA

= 1,11.kw(3.I.Z)(2.p.φ)n x 10 –3 kVA

= 1,11.kw.(π.Dq)(B.π.D.L)n x 10 –3 kVA

= 1,11.kw.π2 .B2 .L.q.n x 10 –3 kVA

2
We can see that the output of the machine is proportional to D L n. The output

coefficient is:

S
G=
2
D .L.n

= 1,1.kw.B.q x 10 –3

The larger the output coefficient, the smaller D2 L is required. The larger the number
of revolutions per minute, the smaller the machine.

5.2.6 The relation between D and L for the best power factor

The relation of the magnetising current per phase to the ideal short- circuit current
per phase is termed the dispersion coefficient:

Iµ
σ =
I sc(ideal)

This determines the power factor of the induction motor. The smaller this ratio,
the higher the power factor. The larger the pole pitch, the smaller the ratio D
L

becomes; and the smaller the pole pitch, the larger D

L
becomes.

218
For the best power factor for a three-phase machine :

τ 180
=
L τ

Substituting the values of τ in terms of D and p (where D and L are in mm):

D = 8,54.p. L

In general, L is taken between 0,7 and 0,8 of the pole pitch. The shorter core is
taken as 0,7 𝜏𝜏 p . The long core may be taken equal to the pole pitch, or up to
1,2 𝜏𝜏p .

Example 5.1

Design a three-phase, four-pole, 50 Hz, 7,5 kW, 415 V, delta-connected, class A

insulation, continuous-rated, direct-on-line start, squirrel cage induction motor.
The efficiency is 88% and the speed is 1440 m/min. For the above data, determine
the main dimensions D and L. The full- load power factor 1s = 0,87; kw = 0,95 m; B
= 0,45 T; D = 165 mm; and q = 23 000 A/conductor/m.

Solution

p
S =
η. cos φ

7,5
=
(0,88)(0,87 )
= 9,8 kVA

60. f
Ns =
p

3000
=
2

= 1500 r/min

∴ ns = 25 r/s

219
S = 1,11.kw.π2 .Bave.D2 .L.q.n x 10 -3

9,8 = (1,11)(0,95)(π)2 (0,45)(D)2 (L)(23 000)(25)(10 -3 )

∴ D2 .L = 3,62 x 10 6 mm3

3,62 × 10 6
∴ L =
(165)2
= 133 mm

Example 5.2

Determine the main dimensions D and L for a three-phase, 50 Hz, six-pole, 415 V,
75 kW, slip-ring induction motor . The efficiency is 90%; power factor = 0,88; kw
= 0,95; Bav = 0,5 T; q = 38000 A/conductor/m; and D = 325 mm.

Solution

p
S =
η. cos φ

75
=
(0,9)(0,88)
= 94,697 kVA

60. f
Ns =
p

3000
=
3

= 1000 r/min

∴ ns = 16,667 r/s

S = 1,11.kw.π2 .Bave.D2 .L.q.n x 10 -3

94,697 = (1,11)(0,95)(π)2 (0,5)(D)2 (L)(38000)(16,667x10 -3 )

∴ D2 .L = 28,817 x 10 -3

220
(325 x 10 –3 )2 (L) = 28,817 x 10 -3

L = 3,665 m

5.3 SALIENT-POLE ROTOR DESIGN

The rotor consists of a number of coils in series. There are two types of voltages
of concern, namely the excitation voltage and the coil voltage The resistance of the
coil (in ohms) is:

Where : mt = mean length per turn

ac = area of the conductor

Nc = number of turns per coil

Each coil has to produce an mmf, Fc (in ampere turns), to supply the necessary

flux.

Fc = IfNc
Vc
And Rc =
If

Vc 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌N
=
If ac

The power consumed by the coil is:

The temperature rise in the coil is:

221
Where: c = the cooling coefficient
P = the heat that must be dissipated
s = the area of the shank on which the pole is
wound (i.e. circumference x height)

5.3.1 Radial length of the air gap

The air gap must be kept as small as possible to keep the magnetising current low
in order to have a high power factor. Owing to the very small gap, any play in

the bearings will cause the rotor to rub against the stator and cause expensive
damage to the machine. The bearings must therefore be replaced every second
time the machine is cleaned. The following empirical formula is used to calculate
the length of the air gap:

D and L are in metres and the gap in millimetres.

5.4 COOLING OF THE STATOR

Generally air is used as a cooling medium in small to medium machines with either
an open circuit or a closed circuit for the air. Hydrogen is used in bigger machine s;
it comprises a closed system with the pressure in the order of two to three
atmospheres to keep air out of the system.

5.4.1 Advantages of hydrogen instead of air

The advantages of using hydrogen instead of air to cool stators include the
following:
1
 The density of hydrogen is about 14 th of that of air and therefore much less

wind loss is experienced.

 The specific heat of hydrogen is 14 times that of air.

222
1
 The heat transfer of hydrogen is about 12 times that of air.

 Hydrogen has seven times the thermal conductivity

of air.
 It will not ease combustion if the ratio of H:O is greater than 3:1.
 Hydrogen improves corona effects.
 The rating can be increased by 140% by using hydrogen.

Example 5.3

The following data are applicable to the poles of a 12-pole, salient-pole

synchronous machine.

Field circuit operating voltage = 120 V

Mmf per pole = 20 kAt

Resistivity of copper = 2,1 x 10-8 Ω.m

Maximum winding temperature rise = 70 °C

Cooling coefficient = 0,012° Cm2 /W

Mean length per turn of winding = 1,3 m

Effective cooling area per pole = 0,23 m2

Determine:
(a) the cross-sectional area of the conductor
(b) the power consumed by each pole
(c) the field current
(d) the number of turns per pole
(e) the current density

Solution

Vex
(a) Vc =
2.p

120
=
(2 )(6 )
= 10 V

223
ρ. mt .N.I
ac =
Vc

=
(2,1 x 10 )(1,3)(20 x 10 )
-8 3

10

= 54,6 mm 2

θ.s
(b) P =
c

=
(70 )(0,23)
0,012

= 1342 W

P
(c) I =
V

1342
=
10

= 134,2 A

F
(d) Nc =
I

20 x 10 3
=
134,2

= 149 turns

I
(e) J =
ac

134,2
=
54,6 x 10 -3

= 2,46 MA/m 2

5.4.2 Amount of coolant necessary

224
P
Q = 0,003 (θ m + 273)
θi

3
Where: Q = amount of coolant necessary in m /s
P = the amount of heat to be dissipated
θI = the inlet temperature of the coolant

em = the maximum temperature rise of the

machine

5.4.3 Power needed for the fans

Fans are used to circulate the coolant in the system Let the efficiency of the fans

be η:

Q.ρ
η=
Pf

Where: 𝜌𝜌 = the pressure in MPa

Example 5.4

A 30 MVA alternator operates at a power factor of 0,8 lagging and has a full-loa d
efficiency of 0,97 pu. The temperature rise in the stator is 32 °C and the inlet
temperature of the coolant is 25 °C. Calculate:

(a) the volume of coolant needed per second

(b) the power required by the fans, if the fan efficiency is 40% and the pressure is
3 kPa

Solution

(a) P = S.cos φ

= (30)(0,8)

225
= 24 MW

Po
Pi =
η

24
=
0,97

= 24,7423 MW

Ploss = Pi − Po

= 24,7423 − 24

= 742,3 kW

P
Q = 0,003. (θm + 273)
θi

 742,3 
= (0,003)   (32 + 273)
 25 

= 27,168 m 3 /s

Q.ρ
(b) Pf =
η

=
(27,168)(23x 10 3 )
0,4

= 135,84 kW

5.5 ELEMENTS OF TRANSFORMER DESIGN

5.5.1 Specifications

When designing a transformer, the first requirements are the specifications of the
transformer and the performance expected from it. The specifications of the
transformer include the following information and data:

• kVA rating
226
• rated voltage
• number of phases
• rated frequency
• connections, star or delta
• tappings, if required
• ambient temperature
• type of cooling
• temperature rise depending on the class of insulation
• total loss at rated voltage on nominal tap, at rated frequency
• no-load loss
• load loss at rated current at 75% tap
• impedance voltage at rated current for nominal tap as percentage
• percentage resistance at rated current and frequency
• no-load current

• efficiency at 75 ᵒc at unity power factor at full load, at 75% of full load and at

half of full load

• regulation at 75 ᵒc at unity power factor and 0,8 lagging

5.5.2 Design of transforme rs

A transformer may be designed for maximum efficiency, for minimum initial cost or
for minimum annual cost. The usual practice is to design a transformer for the best
efficiency, keeping the losses in the transformer within the permissible limits.

The main dimensions of a transformer core are its cross-sectional area; its window
area; the low­voltage and high-voltage windings to be accommodated in the window
area with enough insulation for safe working; t he design of windings; the size of
conductors; and t he number of turns on each winding for the given capacity. These
dimension and the specifications of the transformer are the main design points of a
transformer.

5.5.3 Basic arrange me nts of core and coils

Figure 5.1 shows the basic arrangement of t he core and coils of windings in a
single­phase transformer:

227
Ww

L.V
Yoke
A B

H hw Core

H.V

(a) (b)
Figure 5.1

The core section is taken as circular . The diameter is taken as the circumscribing
circle of the actual stepped core construction.

5.5.4 Main dimensions of a transformer

Consider the core of a three-phase core-type transformer (see figure 5.2).

The following symbols and their definitions are applicable to this figure:

Ww = window width
= D-d

hw = window height (length of the core limb)

d = diameter of the circumscribed circle

D = distance between core-limb centres

H = total height of yoke

W = core-frame width

228
W

Ww d

H Hw

hy
D

Figure 5.2: Main dimensions of a transformer

The space required to place the coils of the transformer around the core is known
as the window space. This space is found between the limbs of the core and the
yoke joining them:

(a) Square section (b) One-step (c) Two-step

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.3 shows some different types of core shapes:

A = kAg

Where: Ai ≡ net area

Ag ≡ gross area

k ≡ stacking factor

The net area for the different core shapes are:

Square: Ai = 0,45d2

229
Cross: Ai = 0,56d2

Three-step: Ai = 0,6d2

The low-voltage conductor has a cross-section a2 and N2 number of turns. The high-
voltage conductor has a cross-section a1 and N1 number of turns. These are
distributed on two limbs in a single-phase transformer.

The area occupied by the coils on both limbs in the window space

Area of the window:

Aw = width x height of the window

= WH

The window space factor:

Area occupied by windings placed in the window

kW =
Area of the window

The area occupied by the winding is smaller than the actual window space because
allowance has to be made for insulation on the conductors, and between the conductors
and the core.

The window factor varies with the type of construction, the voltage and the rating
of the transformers. A single-phase and a three-phase core-type transformer is shown
in figure 5.4:

Ww

H Hw

(a)
230
L.V

H.V

(b)

Figure 5.4

In the case of the three-phase transformer, the number of turns on the HV side is
N1. The cross- sectional area of the conductor in the HV winding per phase is a1 and
that for the secondary a2 and N2. In the three-phase, core-type construction, there are
two windows, and each accommodates two HV and two LV windings. Thus the
total area occupied by the winding is:

The window factor in this case is:

2(a 1 N 1 + a 2 N 2 )
kW =
Area of the window

5.5.5 Specific magnetic loading

When the transformer is excited by applying a voltage to any one of the windings ,
a flux is set up in the core. This flux varies according to the frequency of the
applied voltage.
φ = B.A

Thus, by specifying the flux density in the core, it is possible to determine the cross-
sectional area of the core. The flux density that can be sustained by the core depends
on the type of material used and the thickness of the laminations. The flux density
must be such that the core does not saturate and that the losses remain within the

231
specified limits.

The specific magnetic loading is the maximum flux density in the core, Bm. For a
power transformer, 1,5 < Bm< l,6 T.

5.5.6 Specific electrical loading

The specific electrical loading is the current density that is considered when we select
the size of the conductor in the windings. It should be such that the conductor will
be able to carry this current without overheating. The specific electrical loading also
depends on the type of cooling used. For transformers with tanks that have radiators
and tubes, the current density J may be 2 to 3 A/mm2 .

When designing a transformer, the specific magnetic and electrical loadings have to
be selected first and only then can the process begin.

5.5.7 Output equation of a transformer

The output of a transformer can be found in terms of the net cross-sectional area of
the core Ai , the window area Aw and t h e window space factor, kw , the flux density B m

and the current density J. The frequency, f , is taken as constant. The induced emf in a
transformer winding, E, is given by:

E= 4,44.φm.f .V

= 4,44.Bm.Ai.f

Where: Bm = maximum flux density

Ai = net area of the core

5.5.8 Single-phase transformer

KwAw = A1 N1 + a 2 N2
J = I 1 N1
=I 2 N2
= ½ KwAwJw

The output rating of a single-phase transformer is:

S = V.I x 10 –3 kVA

232
= 4,44.Bm.Ai.f.N1 .I x 10 –3 kVA
= 2.22.Ai.Kw f.J x 10 –3 kVA

5.5.9 Three-phase transformer (core-type)

kw.Aw = 4a 1 .N1

J = I 1 N1

= I 2 N2

S = 3.V1 .I 1 x 10 –3

= 3x4,44.Bm.Ai.f.N1 .I x 10 –3 kVA
= 3.33. Bm.Ai.Aw.Kw f.J x 10 –3 kVA

5.5.10 Three-phase transformer (shell-type)

kw.Aw = a 1 .N1 + a 2 .N2 ...

a 1 .N1 = a 2 .N2

kw.Aw = 2(a 1 .N1 )

½kw.Aw = a 1 .N1

I1 = J.a 1

I 1 .N1 = J.a 1 .N1

= ½kw.Aw.J

S = 3.V1 .I 1 x 10 –3 kVA

= (3)(4,44.Bm.Ai.f.N1 )I 1 x 10 -3 …

S = (3)(4,44.Bm.Ai.f)(½kw.Aw.J) x 10 -3 …

S = 6,66.Bm.Ai.f.Aw.kw.J x 10 -3 kVA … kVA

233
Core type Shell-type

Figure 5.5(a): Single-phase transformer

Figure 5.5(b): Three-phase shell-type

Figure 5.5(c): Three-phase core-type

5.5.11 Design of the core

The emf per turn Et = k√3V.

S is the rating of the transformer in kVA and k is a constant, depending on the

material, labour costs, type of transformer and single-phase or three-phase core-type
or shell­type construction.

Type Single-phase Three-phase Three-phase

distribution
Core-type 0,75–0,85 0,6–0,9 0,45– 0,75
Shell- type 1–1,2 1–1,5 0,8– 1,25
234
5.5.12 Design of window and main dimensions of core frame

The approximate window space factors for various voltage ranges are given
below:

S (kVA) 3 kV 10 kV 30 kV 100 kV
100 0,28 0,2 0,14 –
800 0,37 0,27 0,20 0,15
2 000 0,4 0,31 0,23 0,16
10 000 0,45 0,37 0,28 0,21

The normal ratio of window height to width is 2:4.

5.5.13 Design of the windings

When the rating is given, the primary and secondary voltages are known,
N1 and N2 are the number of turns on the primary and secondary respectively,
and the emf per turn is selected, then:

V1
N1 =
Et

V2
And: N2 =
Et

S per phase
I1 =
V1

S per phase
And: I2 =
V2

Selecting the current density J then:

I1
a1 = (mm2 )
J

I2
And: a2 = (mm2 )
J

Generally, round copper conductors are used to wind the winding of smaller and
medium-capacity transformers. Square or rectangular conductors are used for
larger transformers.
235
Example 5.5

Design a 5 kVA, 50 Hz, 415/240 V, air-cooled transformer for laboratory

purposes. Determine:

(a) the emf per turn if k = 0,75

(b) the cross-sectional area of the core
(c) the cross-sectional area of conductors
(d) the number of turns on the primary and secondary
(e) the window area
(f) yoke and approximate frame size if Bm = 1,6 T, J = 2 Amm2 and kw = 0,3
(g) the copper area used in windings (check the window space factor)

Solution

(a) Voltage/turn:
Et = S .k

= ( 5 )(0,75)

= 1,67 V

(b) Cross-sectional area:

Et = 4,44.B.Ai. f

1,67
Ai =
4,44 × 1,6 × 50

= 4,7016 x 10 –3 m 2

Ai = 0,45.d2

4,7016 x 10 –3 = (0,45)(d2 )

d = 102,22 mm

0,35 mm thick cold-rolled steel laminations are used for the core. Stepped core
construction can be used; the section should form as near a circle as possible.

(c) Cross-sectional area of conductor:

236
S
LV side: I 2 =
V2

5 000
=
240

= 20,83 A

J = 2 x 10 6 A/m2

I
a2 =
J

20,83
=
2 × 10 6

= 10,415 x 10 -6 m2

d2 = 3,641 mm

S
I1 =
V1

5 000
=
415

= 12,05 A

I
a1 =
J

12,05
=
2 × 10 −6

= 6,025 mm2

∴ d1 = 2,77 mm

V2
(d) N2 =
Et

240
=
1,67

= 144 turns

V1 .N 2
N1 =
V2

(415)(144)
=
240
237
= 249 turns

S
(e) Aw =
2,22.k w .B m .A i . f .J × 10 −3

5
=
(2,22)(0,3)(1,6)(4,7016 × 10)−3 (50)(2)(10)6 (10)−3
= 9,98 x 10 –3 m 2

(f) Taking the window height as 125 mm:

9,98 × 10 3
w =
125

= 79,84 mm

≈ 80 mm

78 80 78

78

125

78

D = 158

Figure 5.6

(g) kw.Aw = a 1 N1 + a 2 N2

= (6)(250) + (10,4)(144)

= 2998 mm2

≈ 3000 mm 2

3 000
kw =
10 000

= 0,3

This value corresponds with the given value.

238
Example 5.4

Design a 100 kVA, three-phase, 50 Hz, 110 000/433 V, core-type, delta/star

distribution transformer. The transformer constant is 0,45; the flux density is
1,65 T; the current density is 2,5 A/mm2 ; the window factor is 0,28; and the height
of the window is 300 mm.

Determine:

(a) the emf per turn

(b) the cross-sectional area of the core
(c) the number of turns on t he primary and secondary
(d) the cross-sectional area of the conductors
(e) the window area
(f) the yoke and approximate frame size
(g) the copper used in the window area (check kw)

Solution

(a) Emf per turn:

Et = S .k

= ( 100 )(0,45)

= 4,5 V/turn

(b) Cross-sectional area:

Et = 4,44 BmAi f

Et
Ai =
4,44.B m . f

4,5
=
(4,44 )(1,65)(50 )
= 12285 mm 2

Ai = 0,45.d2

1,2285 x 10 3 = (0,45)(d2 )

239
d = 165,23 mm

d2 = x2 + x2

2x 2 = d2

= (165,23)2

x = 116,84 mm

0,35 mm thick cold-rolled steel laminations are used for the core. A stepped core construction

can be used to make the cross-sectional area as close to a circle as possible.

S
(c) I2 =
3.VL

=
(100)(10)3
( 3 )(433)
= 133,5 A

V2
N2 =
Et

433
=
( 3 )(4,5)

= 55,62

≈ 56 turns

S
I1 =
3VL

100 × 10 3
=
( 3 )(11× 10 3 )

= 5,249 A

= 3,0303 A per phase

240
N1 V1
=
N2 V2

N1 11 000
=
56 250

∴ N1 = 2 464 turns

Iq
(d) a2 =
J

133,5
=
2,5

= 53,4 mm 2

I1
a1 =
J

3,03
=
2,5

= 1,212 mm2

≈ 1,2 mm 2

(e) S = 3,33.Ai.Aw.kw.Bm.f.J x 10 -3

Aw =
(100 )(10 )6 (10 )3
(3,33)(12 285)(0,28)(2,5)(50 )(1,65)
= 42328 mm 2

Aw
(f) Ww =
hw

43 328
=
300

= 141 mm

241
Figure 5.7

Aw
Lw =
D−d

42 328
300 =
D - 165,23

∴ D = 306,323 mm

Hc = W h + 2x

= 300 + (2)(116,84)

= 533,68 mm

Wc = 2D + d

= (2)(306,323) + (2)(0,71)(165,23)

= 847,3 mm

(g) Acu = 2(a 1 N1 + a 2 N2 )

= 2[(1,212)(2464) + (53,4)(56)]

= 11953,536 mm 2

copper used in window area

kw =
window area

11 953,536
=
42 328
242
= 0,2824

5.6 ELEMENTS OF DC MACHINE DESIGN

The specification of the machine gives the expected rating and performance under
operating conditions. Basically, the specifications of a dc machine will state the
following:

• kW output of the machine

• speed
• voltage
• permissible temperature rise
• type of load on the machine
• type of cooling
• efficiency
• type of excitation
• speed control type

5.6.1 Specific magnetic loading

The operating value of the intensity of the magnetic loading is very important as it
shows the extent to which the active material is utilised. The specific magnetic loading
is given by the average flux density, Bav, in the air gap:

(Wm/m2 or T)

Figure 5.8

Where: p = number of poles

φ = flux per pole (Wb)
D = diameter (m)

243
L = length of the core (m)

The actual maximum flux density in the air gap is given by:

Bav
Bg =
kf

Where:

pole arc
kf =
pole pitch

The ratio kf lies between 0,65 and 0,75.

τp – pole pitch

Pole arc – measured

along the periphery

of the pole face

Figure 5.9

The average value of the flux density in dc machines varies:

8,5 < Bav < 0,75 T
The value of the flux density in the air gap is 0,9 < Bg < l,l T.

5.6.2 Specific electrical loading

The specific electrical loading is the ampere conductors per metre periphery of the
armature.

I.Z
q = Ampere conductors per metre
π.D

244
This indicates the space actively used by conductors on the armature periphery. At
low speeds, the specific electrical loading may have to be reduced due to poor
ventilation and cooling; while at relatively high voltages more space would be taken
up by insulation mainly due to an increased number of active conductors.

The value of q is generally 30 000 < q < 45 000 A conductors per metre.

5.6.3 Output equation

Work done per revolution of the machine:

P
= p.φ.Ia.Za
n
The dimensions of a dc machine are determined by the amount of work that it has
to perform per revolution. Substituting the values of specific magnetic loading and
specific electrical loading in the above equation:

P
= (π.D.L.Bav)(π.Dq)
n

= π2 D2 L Barq x 10 –3 kW

Where: P ≡ power in kW

n ≡ speed in r/s

N
Output: P = (π2 .D2 .L.Bav.q)   (10 –3 ) kW
 60 

The peripheral speed of the armature of dc machines is generally from 400 r/min to
2000 r/min. If the speed of a dc machine is such that the frequency of the flux
in the armature core is more than 50 Hz, it would be necessary to reduce the air-
gap flux density, Bg, to keep the losses within the limit of 50 Hz. Bg should also be
such that the maximum flux density in the teeth does not exceed the permissib le
limits for the material used.

245
5.6.4 Main dimensions of a dc machine

Pem = E.I x 10 –3 kW

2.p.Φ.N.Z
But: E =
60.c

Pem
=
(2.p.Φ )(I a .Z) x 10 -3 (Φ)
N 60

2.p.Φ
Bave =
π.D.L

Pem
=
(
D 2 .L π 2 .q.B x 10 -3 )
N 60

= D2 .L.Co (kW.min/r)

Where: Co ≡ the Esson coefficient

Pem
∴ D2 .L =
C o .N

The next step is to separate D and L. This is done by using the square-pole criterion, that is:

L = α.bs

L ≡ the axial length of the pole shoe

bs ≡ the breadth of the shank

α ≡ the pole arc/pole pitch

The ratio of α ranges between 0,6 and 0,7.

246
L = α.τp

α.π.D
=
2.p

5.6.5 Field form factor of a direct current machine

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
kfdc =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

In a dc generator the output is considered and for a dc motor the input is considered
when determining the main dimensions D and L in the output equation. The
expression for the output may be written as:

P π2 
=  .B av .q × 10 − 3  D 2 .L
N  60 
2
We can see that the power per revolution per minute is proportional to D L. The
expression in brackets is known as the Esson output coefficient. Selecting a specific
magnetic and electrical loading for the size of the machine and substituting this in
2
the equation then gives the product D L. The length of the armature core may be
taken as between 0,5 and 1,0 pole pitch. The design criteria are for a smaller diameter
core and a larger core length. When designing a line of machines, the armature
diameter should be such that a number of different ratings can be obtained by
changing the length of the armature only.

There is no definite rule about the minimum and maximum length of the armature
core for a given diameter. This will depend on the cost of construction and the
operating characteristics desired. To obtain the optimum dimensions of a dc machine,
it is necessary to select a number of poles and suitable proportions for them. Thus,
the electric and magnetic circuits have to be considered. Regarding the electric circuit,
it is necessary to select a suitable winding and commutator. The current density used
in the conductors varies from 4,5 to 10 A/mm2. The air gap varies from 1 mm for a
1 kW machine to 6 mm for an 800 kW machine. Normal standard air gaps for
medium-sized machines vary between 1,5 mm and 1,75 mm.

247
5.6.6 Choice of number of poles

The number of poles of a dc machine is not fixed for a certain speed ( as is the
case with ac machines). The number of poles may be chosen so that good operating
characteristics be obtained with minimum weight of active material and minimum
cost of construction. When determining the number of poles the following points
should be born in mind:

• The armature frequency

N.p
f =
60

The losses in the armature will increase with an increase in frequency for the
same flux density. The frequency should therefore be between 25 and
50 Hz.
• The value of flux per pole varies inversely proportionally to the number of
poles for an armature of given proportions.
• The cross-section and weight of the yoke are inversely proportional to the
number of poles.
• Increasing the number of poles reduces the weight of copper
( in c lu d i n g inactive copper), the overhang of the conductor and the overall
length of the armature.
• The weight of the iron parts in the magnetic circuit will decrease with an
increase in the number of poles.
• The weight of copper in the field windings is reduced with an increase in the
number of poles.
• Labour charges will increase with an increase in the number of poles.
• The current per brush arm and the length of the commutator should be
reasonable. The pole pitch for a four-pole machine is between 350 mm
and 400 mm; for a six-pole machine it is between 400 mm and 450 mm.

In deciding the core length, one more factor has to be considered. The induced

248
emf per turn in the armature winding should not be excessive. Normally the
maximum voltage between two adjacent commutator segments should not exceed
20 V on open circuit. For a single coil, the induced emf = 2 Bg Lv V.

Example 5.5

Design a 15 kW, 440 V, 1 500 r/min dc shunt motor. Its efficiency must be not less
than 88%. Determine L if:

Bav = 0,65 T

q = 30 000 A conductors per metre

p =2

Rf = 220 Ω

D = 170 mm

Solution

fa =
(1 500)(2)
60

= 50 Hz

Po
Pin =
η

15
=
0,88

= 17 kW

P
IL =
V

17 000
=
440

= 38,63 A

249
V
If =
Rf

440
=
220

= 2A

N
P = π2 .D2 .L.Bav.q. x 10 -3
60

∴ D2 L = 3,54 x 10 6 mm3

3,54 × 10 6
∴ L =
170 2

= 122,5 mm

π.D
τp =
2p

(π)(0,17)
=
4

= 133,57 mm

π.D.N = (π)(0,170)(1500)

= 801,43 m/min

This lies between 400 m/min and 2000 m/min.

L = 0,917 τp within the limits of 0,5τp and 1τp

Example 5.6
Determine the preliminary values for D and L and the number of poles for a 750 kW, 440
V dc generator running at 400 r/min. q = 36 200 A/conductor/m
flux = 0,7 Wb

250
Solution

 400 
750 = π2 .D2 .L(0,7)(36 200)   x 10 –3
 60 

D2 .L =
(750 × 10 )(60)
3

(π)2 (0,7 )(36 200 )(400)

= 0,4497 m 3

Since it is a big machine operating at a slow speed, assume the diameter to be 1,5 m.

0,4497
∴ L =
(1,5) 2

= 0,2 m

N.p
For 50 Hz: f =
60

∴ p =
(60)(50)
400

= 7,5

≈ 8 pole pairs

π.D.N
Check: v =
60

=
(π )(1,5)(400)
60

= 31,416 m/s

= 1885 m/min

This lies between 400 m/min and 2 000 m/min.

π.D
τp =
2p

251
=
(π )(1,5)
(2)(8)

= 0,2945 m

L = 0,2

≈ 0,679 τp

This lies between the limits 0,5τp and 1τp.

EXERCISE 5.1

(1) The following data are applicable to a 110 kW, 3,3 kV, 12-pole, 50 Hz, star-
connected induction motor:

Full-load efficiency : 93%

Power factor : 0,8

Useful flux per pole : 0,022 Wb

Winding factor : 0,96

Specific magnetic load : 0,4 T

Stator induced emf : 88% of the applied voltage

Peripheral velocity : 19 m/s

Full-load speed : 480 r/min

Calculate:

(a) the input current

(b) the synchronous speed
(c) the full- load slip
(d) the armature diameter
(e) the number of stator conductors
(f) the specific electrical load
(g) the armature length

252
(h) the output coefficient

(25,87 A; 8,333 r/s; 0,04; 0,756 m; 2148; 23397 A Z/m; 0,278 m 98,427)

(2) A 4 MVA, 33 kV, six-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase synchronous machine has the
following data:

Useful flux per pole 220 mWb

Pole pitch/armature length/winding factor 0,45 m
Armature length 1,6 x pole pitch
Winding factor 0,96
Specific electrical load 48 kA/m

Calculate:

(a) the armature diameter and length

(b) the specific magnetic load
(c) the number of armature windings per phase
(d) the output coefficient

(0,859 m; 0,72 m; 0,679 T; 617; 343)

(3) By using the square-pole criterion, calculate the preliminary measurements of the
armature core for a 60 kW, 230 V, 800 r/min, shunt-connected dc motor. The
following data are applicable:

Full-load efficiency 90%

Specific magnetic load 0,6 T
Field current 10 A
Armature circuit resistance 0,05 Ω
Ratio of pole arc to pitch 0,7
Number of poles 6
Specific electrical load 35 kA/m

(D = 0,3916 m; L = 0,14 m)

253
(4) Determine the main dimensions of a 1,5 MVA, 50 Hz synchronous machine with the
following specifications:

Full- load speed 1500 r/min

Specific electrical load 25 kA/m
Winding factor 0,955
Sinusoidal distributed flux 0,25 Wb
Specific magnetic load 0,5 T
A length to diameter ratio 5

(Go = 130,68 ; D = 0,36 m; L = 1,79 m)

(5) The following data are applicable to a 60 kW, four-pole, 230 V, dc shunt motor:

Full-load speed 800 r/min

Maximum air-gap flux density 0,84 T
Field form factor 1,4
Armature length 50% of armature diameter
Specific electrical load 35 kA/m
Field current 8A
Armature circuit resistance 0,05 Ω

Calculate the preliminary dimensions of the armature.

(D = 0,3994 m; L = 0,172 m)

(6) The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch of a four-pole, 600 r/min dc machine is 0,7. The
diameter of the armature is 0,5 m. The Esson output coefficient is 4,45.
Calculate:

(a) the axial length of the armature by means using the square-pole criterion

(b) the full-load electromagnetic torque

254
(0,275 m; 0,92 kN m)

(7) The following data are applicable to a 60 kW, four-pole, 320 V, 800 r/min dc
shunt motor:

Efficiency 90%
Field current 8A
Maximum flux density 0,84T
Armature resistance 0,05Ω
Field form-factor 0,7
Specific electrical load 35 kA/m
Armature length 0,5 m

Calculate:
(a) the armature current
(b) the induced emf
(c) the output coefficient
(d) the armature dimensions

(200,33 A; 309,983 V; 3,3853; D = 0,358 m; L = 0,179 m)

(8) The following information is applicable to a three-phase, 50 Hz, core-type transformer:

Emf/turn 10 V
Maximum core flux density 1,4 T
Current density 2,6 A/mm2
Window space factor 0,32
Distance between limb centres 0,34 m
Depth of the window 0,55 m

Calculate:

(a) the net area of the limb

(b) the diameter of the circumscribed circle
(c) the window area
(d) the kVA rating (assume a three- step core)

(0,03217 m2 ; 231,75 mm; 0,05963 m2 ; 374,34 kVA)

(9) The following data are applicable to a 150 kVA, 2200/500 V, 50 Hz, single-phase core­type
255
transformer:

Maximum core flux density 1,2 T

Stacking factor 0,9

Window factors 0,4

Current density 2 MA/m2

Transformer constant 1,1

Specific iron loss 1.7 W/kg

Density of the iron 8 g/cm3

Average length of the magnetic circuit 105 cm

Magnetic field strength at the applicable flux density 700 A/m

Allowance for joints in the core 0,5 mm

Calculate:

(a) the emf per turn

(b) the number of primary and secondary turns
(c) the actual flux density
(d) the gross cross sectional area ofthe limb
(e) the window area
(f) the iron loss
(g) the full-load copper loss if maximum efficiency is at 65% of full-load
(h) the magnetising current

(13.47 V/turn; 40; 176; 1,113 T; 0,0606 M2; 0,05089 m2; 0,71527 kW; 1,693 kW; 4,732 A)

(10) A 50 kVA, 6600 V, 50 Hz, single-phase core-type transformer with a square section
limb must have a window of 130 mm in breadth. The flux density must be 1,2 T and the
window factor 0,24. The transformer constant must be 0,5 and the current density
must be 2 A/mm2. Calculate:

(a) the total breadth of the core

256
(b) the height of the window

(0,55 m; 0,0391 m)

257
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

CHAPTER
6:

INDUCTION MOTORS

CONTENTS

6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

6.2 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION

6.3 MAXIMUM TORQUE CRITERION

6.4 MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT CRITERION

6.5 EFFECT OF ROTOR RESISTANCE ON MOTOR PERFORMANCE

6.6 INDUCTION MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

6.7 SLIP CONTROL

6.8 DOUBLY FED SHUNT COMMUTATOR MOTOR

EXERCISE 6.1

6.9 THE SCHRAGE MOTOR

6.10 RANGE OF FREE RUNNING SPEED (SCHRAGE AND SHUNT COMMUTATOR

MOTORS)

EXERCISE 6.2

258
6.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• explain the maximum efficiency criterion, maximum torque criterion,

maximum power output criterion, and speed and slip controls
• calculate the maximum efficiency criterion, maximum torque criterion,
maximum power output criterion, and speed and slip controls
• explain how a doubly fed shunt commutator motor works
• explain how a Schrage motor works

6.2 MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY CRITERION

The slip of the motor adjusts itself when the mechanical load coupled to its shaft
changes. This therefore causes a change in the rotor circuit. If we differentiate the
equation of the motor with respect to the rotor current and set that equal to zero,
we will arrive at a condition that should correspond to the maximum efficiency of
the motor. However, the preceding equation for the efficiency of the motor
contains another variable current, I1 , where:

I1 = I2 + I0

re jXe
I1

I0
+
VTH jXm
−

Figure 6.1

As h changes, so does the voltage across the magnetising branch, thereby causing the
change in the current in the magnetising branch. However, we can make the
approximation that the change in I0 is so small that it can be neglected. Instead of
making such assumptions, let’s take a look at the equivalent circuit of the motor.
259
Figure 6.1 shows an equivalent circuit of the motor where the magnetising branch
consists of nothing but the magnetising reactance. It has been assumed in this circuit
that the core losses are part of the rotational losses and therefore will be subtracted
from the power developed by the motor. This equivalent circuit can be modifie d
using Thevenin's theorem. Such a modified circuit is shown in figure 6.3. In this
circuit:

This is the Thevenin 's equivalent of the applied voltage. RTH + jXTH is the total
impedance as viewed from terminals a and b of the equivalent circuit, where:

ZTH = RTH + jXTH

(r1 + jx 1 )jX m
=
r1 + jx 1 + X m

Let I2 be the current in the circuit. Then:

VTH
I2 =
  r2  
R TH +   + j(X TH + X 2 )
  s  

The total power input is:

Where: φ = angle between the voltage and the current

The power output becomes:

Po = 3.VTH.I2 .cos φ − 3. I 22 (RTH + r2 ) − Prot

The efficiency becomes:

260
Po
η=
Pin

3.VTH .I 2 .cosφ − 3.I 22 (R TH + r2 ) − Prot

=
3.VTH .I 2 .cosφ

Now the only current variable is I2 . Thus, differentiating efficiency with respect to h
and setting the derivative equal to zero, the following equation is obtained:

0 = 3.VTH .I 2 .cos φ[3.VTH .cos φ − 6.I 2 (RTH + r 2 )] − 3.VTH .cos φ[3.VTH .cos φ − 3. I22 (RTH + r 2 ) − Prot

Or: Prot = 3[ I 22 (RTH + r2 )]

This expression states that the efficiency is a maximum when the constant losses are equal to
the variable losses. The torque developed can be expressed as:

2  R2 
3.VTh  
 s 
Td = … (i)
 2 
  r  
ω s R TH +  2  + (X Th + X 2 )2 
 s
  

Thus, the torque developed by the motor is proportional to the square of Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage. However, this voltage is proportional to V1. Therefore, the
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is proportional to the square of the applied
voltage.

Thus, the torque developed by the motor is proportional to the square of Thevenin's
equivalent voltage. However, this voltage is proportional to V1. Therefore, the
electromagnetic torque developed by the motor is proportional to the square of the applied
voltage.

6.3 MAXIMUM TORQUE CRITERION

It is evident from equation (i) that for low values of slip, the torque is directly
proportional to the slip as there is no appreciable change in the value of the
denominator. Thus, the speed–torque characteristic is basically a straight line for
low values of slip. For high-efficiency motors, this relationship is true for slips as

261
high as 10%. Any further increase in slip will have a more pronounced effect on
the value of the denominator, and the speed–torque curve will deviate from the
straight- line relationship.

At one particular value of slip, which depends on the other parameters in the
torque expression, the value of the denominator will vary directly with the value of
slip. As the slip is further increased, the increase in the denominator will be faster
than in the numerator, and the torque developed by the motor will decrease. From
then on the decrease in torque will continue until the slip reaches unity.

At any slip (i.e. under standstill or blocked-rotor conditions) a definite torque is

developed by the motor. This is known as the starting torque. For some value of
slip the developed torque will be a maximum. The condition for maximum
breakdown torque can be obtained by differentiating the torque expression with
respect to slip and setting it equal to zero. That is:

0 = [(s.RTH + r 2 )2 + s 2 .(XTH + X2 )2 ] − s[2.RTH (s.RTH + r 2 ) + 2.s(XTH + X2 )2 ]

Simplification yields:

r2
= 2
R TH + (X TH + X 2 )2
sb

Where: s has been replaced by Sb to indicate that this is the required slip at which
the breakdown torque occurs.

The slip at breakdown torque is:

r2
sb =
2
R TH + (X TH + X 2 )2

This is the exact expression for the breakdown slip in terms of the motor circuit
parameters. Substituting the preceding value of slip in the torque equation, we can
obtain the following expression for the maximum developed torque:

262
2  
3.VTH 1
Tdm =  
2.ω s  R TH + (X TH + X 2 ) 
2

Example 6.1

A three-phase, star-connected, 120 V, 50 Hz, four-pole induction motor has the

following parameters:
Zs = (10 + j25) Ω/phase

Zr = (3 + j25) Ω/phase

Z0 = j75 Ω/phase

Determine the breakdown slip and the maximum developed torque by the motor.
(0,067; 0,424 Nm)

6.4 MAXIMUM POWER OUTPUT CRITERION

In the preceding section we examined the conditions for maximum efficiency and
torque for a three-phase motor. In this section we determine the condition that leads
to the maximum power developed by the motor.

When the motor is operating at no load, close to its synchronous speed, the torque
developed by the motor is just sufficient to overcome the rotational losses and the
net power output is zero. On the other hand, the net output power is also zero for
unity slip (blocked-rotor condition). Thus, the motor must provide maximum output at
some speed between standstill and synchronous speed.

When the speed–torque characteristic of the motor is examined, it is found that the
motor operates very closely to synchronous speed under no-load conditions. Any
increase in the load causes a decrease in the speed of the motor. The reduction in
speed continues until the load is balanced by the torque developed by the motor.
This is also the stable region of operation of the motor. The corresponding speed–
torque curve is depicted in figure 6.2. Note that this characteristic is very similar to
that of a dc shunt motor. Since the variation in speed is very small, an induction motor
is also considered to be a constant speed motor.

263
However, if the load torque is more than the maximum torque that the motor can
develop, the motor will not be able to sustain the load and it will stall. At some
speed in the stable operating region, the power output of the motor will be a maximum.

Speed

ωm DC shunt motor

ωdm

Tdm Td Torque

Figure 6.2: Speed–torque curve

Thevenin's equivalent circuit of the motor can be redrawn as shown in figure

6.3, where:

re = RTH + r2

And: Xe = XTH + X2

re jXe

I2 a
+
VTH
−
b

Figure 6.3: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

From figure 6.3, the gross power developed by the motor is:

1-s 
Pd = 3.I 22 .r2  
 s 

VTH
I2 = …
 1 - s 
re + r2   + jX e
 s 

264
2 1−s 
3.VTH .r2  
Thus: Pd =  s  … (ii)
2
  1 − s  2
re + r2   + X e
  s 
The condition for maximum power output can be found by differentiating equation (ii)
with respect to the slip s and setting the derivative equal to zero. That is:

 2 
  1 - s  2  1   1 - s   1 − s    r2 
r +
 e 2 r  + x e  − 2  − 2  re + r2   −  = 0
   s    s   s    s  s 2 
 

Which simplifies to

2
  1 − sp 
re2 + x e2 = r2   …
  s p 


s has been replace by sp to indicate the slip at maximum power output.

But:

2
re2 + x e2 = z e

 1- sp 
Thus: ze = r2  
 sp 
 

Hence, the power output of an induction motor is maximum when its dynamic
resistance is equal to the leakage impedance of the motor at standstill.

The slip at which the motor develops the maximum power is given as:

r2
sp = … (iii)
r2 + z e

Compare this expression for slip with that of the breakdown slips. The denominator in
equation (iii) is larger than that of the breakdown slip. Thus, the motor develops
maximum power at a slip lower than that at which it develops maximum torque.

Substituting for Sp in the expression for the power output of the motor, an expression
for the maximum power output is obtained:
265
2
3  VTH 

Pdm =
2  re + z e 


The net power output is of course less than the gross power output by the amount of
the rotational loss in the motor.

6.5 EFFECT OF ROTOR RESISTANCE ON MOTOR PERFORMANCE

Earlier the expression obtained for the torque developed by an induction motor was
given as:

 
  r2  
2  
3.VTH   s  
Td =  2 
ωs   r2  2
 R TH +   + (X TH + X 2 ) 
 s
  

At standstill, the rotor slip is unity and the starting torque developed by the motor is:

  r2  
2    
Td =
3.VTH   s   …
ωs  (R + r )2 + (X + X )2 
 TH 2 TH 2

 

The starting current is:

VTH
I2s =
(R TH + r2 ) + j(X TH + X 2 )

r2
At rated speed the slip is low, therefore the ratio of is high. This high value of
s
hypothetical rotor resistance controls the current in the rotor as well as the stator
windings. When s = 1, the rotor circuit resistance is very small. Thus, the starting
current is many times higher than the rated full-load current. However, the starting
current can be controlled by adding additional resistance to the rotor circuit. In a
wound rotor machine, the additional resistance is added in series with the rotor
windings through the slip rings.

266
In die-cast rotors, the change in resistance from a high value at the time of starting
to a low value at the rated speed is accomplished by the double- cage construction of
the rotor. The increase in rotor resistance also increases the starting torque of the
motor. The starting torque is a maximum when the rotor resistance is:

r2= 2
R TH + (X TH + x 2 )2

≅ r12 + (X 1 + X 2 )2

This is when Xm and Rc are high compared to r 1 and X1 . The effect of the rotor
resistance on the maximum torque can be found in the expression torque developed
by the motor under approximate conditions when the hypothetical rotor resistance is
large compared to the impedance of the stator winding:
2
 VTH 
3  
Tdm =
2.ω s  X2 
 

If the applied voltage is held constant and the equivalent circuit parameter Xz is
assumed to be constant, the maximum torque developed by the motor will be
constant. In other words, the maximum torque is independent of the rotor
resistance. However, it is found that for the maximum torque to exist:
r2
X2 =
sb

Therefore, the expression for the maximum torque can also be given as:

2
3.VTH .s b
Tdm =
2.ω s .r2

This equation is in terms of the rotor resistance and slip. For the maximum
r2
torque to be constant, it is evident from the expression that the ratio of must be
s
constant.

6.6 INDUCTION MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

In general there is no effective method of speed control for induction motors. All
methods used are either too elaborate, too expensive, too involved or inefficient.

267
A dc machine is eminently more suitable for speed control. Consider the following
formula:

f (1 − s)
NR =
p

The speed can be changed by changing the supply frequency or the number of poles,
or by changing the slip. Frequency changers are complex motor-generator type
converters. Static thyristor converters are complex equipment that are difficult to
maintain.

Pi = PE + PH

= kE.B2 .f 2 + kH.B.f

The iron loss consists of eddy current loss and hysteresis loss, both of which are
frequency dependent. An increase in frequency will increase the speed as well as
the iron loss, which can lead to overheating and will cause the rating of the machine
to be lowered. Electronic equipment has a ripple frequency that also causes a rise in
iron loss.

R = k.Φ.I

And: E = kf.kw.Φ.f

Note: If the frequency is changed, the applied voltage must also be changed in
𝐸𝐸
order to keep the ratio constant to keep the torque constant.
𝑓𝑓

Pole changing causes a change in speed, although this is a stepped change and not
continuous. The speed range is from 3 000 r/min to say 1 000 r/min for two to six
poles.

6.7 SLIP CONTROL

A change in the slip of slip-ring induction motors and similar machines can be
brought about by the injection of dc in the rotor slip rings, which causes a change in
speed. The synchronous induction motor is an example of injecting dc to obtain
synchronous speed.

268
An operating speed that is higher than synchronous speed is called super-synchronous
speed, while an operating speed lower than synchronous speed is called
subsynchronous speed. Subsynchronous and super-synchronous speeds can be
obtained by injecting ac at the correct frequency. This method of speed control is
known as slip-power recovery. Consider the equivalent rotor circuit of an induction
motor in figure 6.4:

Three-phase supply

Slip rings
Slip

Vj
Induction

Figure 6.4: Speed control by means of slip regulation

Normally the slip rings of an induction motor are short-circuited and the rotor induced
emf is s.E2 volt/phase. This causes a current IR, which lags the voltage because the
rotor circuit is inductive. Instead of a shorted rotor, a voltage Vj can be injected from
a slip regulator.

s.E2 = I2 .R2 + I2 .s.X0 ± Vj

+ = anti-phase with s.E2

− = in phase with s.E2

s.E 2 ± Vj∠(180° − α )
I2 =
R 2 + js.X o

If for the same torque (see figure 6.5) a voltage is injected in phase with s.E2, it
means that s.E2 will have to decrease with an increase in Vj. E2 is a constant. The
rotor emf/phase is at standstill if Vj increases, the slip decreases and the speed
increases, and 12 is more in phase with E2 .

269
R X2

s.E2 I2

Figure 6.5(a): Rotor equivalent circuit

Φ
I 2 .R2 φ

s.E2 = s.I 2 .Z2

s.I 2 .X0

Figure 6.5(b): Phasor diagram for rotor equivalent circuit

R2 X2

s.E2 Vj

Figure 6.5(c): Equivalent circuit with injected voltage

Φ
φ0 φ1
I 2 .R2 s.E2 = s.I 2 .Z2

I2 s.I 2 .X0
Vj

Figure 6.5(d): Phasor diagram for in-phase injected voltage

Vj

s.I 2 .Z2
270
Figure 6.5(e): Condition for synchronous speed

I 2 .R2

Vj
s.I 2 .X0
I2

s.I 2 .X0

Figure 6.5(f): Condition for super-synchronous speed

I 2 .R s.I 2 .

I2 s I2

s E2 Vj

Figure 6.5(g): Vj in anti-phase, sub-synchronous speed

Φ
I 2 .R
I 2 Z2

I 2 .X2
I2
Vj Speed compensating
s.E2 α
Power-factor compensating

Figure 6.5(h): Vj at an angle α, phase compensating

Φ
φ
I 2 .R2
I 2 .Z2
I 2 .X2
I2
s.E2
Vj

Figure 6.5(i): Phase advancement, Vj at an angle 90°

271
With a further increase Vj, s.E2 as well as s and f become smaller, and the power
factor angle and the power factor are increased. A stage will be reached when the
slip will be zero, the speed will be synchronous speed and Vj will be dc. The motor
now operates as a synchronous induction motor.

If the voltage Vj is increased still further, then s.E2 will reappear on the other side.
The slip is then negative and the speed super- synchronous. The power factor is
leading and the voltage drop I2 s Xo is in the opposite direction.

If Vj is injected in anti-phase with s.E2 (see figure 6. 5[g]), it will cause the slip
to increase and the speed will drop. A bigger slip causes I2 s Xo to increase and the
power factor to decrease, which is a disadvantage that can be countered by not
injecting Vj in anti-phase but with an angle α.

Vj now have two components, namely Vm, which is a speed reducing component, and
Vk, which is a forward phase shifting component. The injected voltage is now
used to improve the power factor. In very large machines, the voltage is sometimes
injected in quadrature to the rotor voltage. The aim of this is to improve the
power factor of the motor. The equipment used to do this is called a phase advancer.

6.8 DOUBLY FED SHUNT COMMUTATOR MOTOR

Like all other three-phase machines, this motor has a normal three-phase stator. The
rotor is the same as the armature of a dc motor, with a closed loop lap or wave
winding connected to a commutator. Both windings are excited by three­phase
supply, hence the name. The rotor is supplied via a regulator, which may be an
induction regulator or a variable transformer, the aim of which is to vary the input
voltage. The purpose of the commutator and brushes is to double up as a
frequency converter that can change the supply frequency from the regulator to
rotor frequency in the rotor. By changing the position of the brush gear with
respect to the stator, the phase of Vj is changed.

The combination of the armature and the commutator has the same effect as the
slip regulator previously discussed. The calculations and phasor diagrams for the

272
doubly fed shunt commutator motor are identical to those for the slip regulator (see
figure 6.6):

120°

Figure 6.6 (a): Commutator

Three-phase supply

Regulator

Figure 6.6(b): Doubly fed shunt commutator motor

EXERCISE 6.1

(1) The stator and rotor standstill impedances of a three-phase, 3,3 kV, six-pole, 50 Hz,
star-connected, slip-ring induction motor are:

Zs (0,5 + j4,5) Ω/phase

Zr (0,006 + j0,07) Ω/phase

The effective turns ratio is 8 and the no-load current is 23 A at a power factor of 0,15.
The rotor is connected to a phase advancer with impedance of Za = (0,004 + j0,008)
Ω/phase. The injected voltage is 6,5 V/phase and the full- load speed is 728 r/min.
Use the equivalent circuit to determine the stator input current and the power factor.

(215.58∟ – 69° A; 0.358 lagging)

(2) A 500 V, three-phase, four-pole, doubly fed shunt commutator motor has a star­

273
connected stator with an impedance Zs = (3 + j6) Ω/phase and a standstill rotor
impedance of Zr = (0,84 + j1,2) Ω/phase. The turns ratio is 2 and the no-load current
is 4∟– 70° A. An injected voltage of 15 V gives a speed of 1 650 r/min without power
factor correction. Draw the equivalent circuit and calculate the stator current and power
factor. Ignore the impedance of the regulator.

(5.49∟– 112.89 A; 0.388)

(3) The impedance of the stator winding of a 440 V, star-connected, three-phase inductio n
motor is (0,2 + j0,8) Ω per phase and that of the rotor is (0,06 + j0,25) Ω per phase at
standstill. The turns ratio is 2. Using the approximate equivalent circuit, calculate the
rotor current and the power factor when the slip is reduced to 25% by injecting
16,2 V/phase into the rotor circuit without any phase compensation.

(116.26 A; 0.542 lagging)

(4) A 900 kW, 3,3 kV, 50 Hz, six-pole, three-phase induction motor has a turns ratio of
3,2 and a no-load current of 54 A at a power factor of 0,342 lagging. At full load, the
speed and efficiency are 960 r/min and 93% respectively. Determine the approximate
rating of a phase advancer to be connected in the rotor circuit to improve the power
factor of the motor to unity if the magnitude of the injected voltage is 60% of the
stator supplied voltage.

(21,832 kVA)

(5) In a slip power recovery system, 22 V/phase are injected into the rotor circuit of a four­
pole, 50 Hz, 380 V, star-connected slip-ring induction motor, reducing its speed to
900 r/min. The stator impedance is (1,2 + j3,8) Ω/phase and the rotor impedance at
standstill is (0,4 + j0,8) Ω/phase. The admittance of the shunt magnetising circuit is
0,3∟– 70° S per phase and the effective turns ratio is 2. Use the approximate equivale nt
circuit and calculate:

(a) the rotor referred current and power factor

(b) the electromagnetic torque in Nm

(12.61 A; 0.596 lagging; 12.15 Nm)

274
6.9 THE SCHRAGE MOTOR

Above we explaine d how to obtain slip-frequency emf and inject it into the
secondary windings of an induction motor. This method is incorporated in a single
machine called the Schrage motor. It is basically an inverted three-phase induction
motor with the primary winding on the rotor and the secondary winding on the stator.
The resulting air-gap field rotates at synchronous speed ns with respect to the rotor,
and the rotor rotates at a speed n in the opposite direction when the stator winding
is shorted. As a consequence, the field rotates at a slip speed with respect to the
stator, inducing slip frequency current in it that causes torque production. The rotor
also accommodates a dc winding in the same slots as the primary conductors, but placed
nearer to the slot openings.

This arrangement keeps the leakage inductance of the dc winding coils low, thereby
facilitating commutation. This dc winding is called tertiary or regulating winding. It
is connected to a commutator on which are placed three sets of movable brush pairs
to collect the three-phase emfs for injection into the secondary winding for the control
of speed and power factor. Since the rotating field moves at slip speed with respect
to the brushes, the frequency of the brush emf is always the slip frequency. The
schematic diagram of a two-pole Schrage motor is shown in figure 6.7:

Brush axis
Secondary
β
Primary
Tertiary

CommutatoBrushes rotatable by hand wheel or

Figure 6.7 : Schematic diagram of a two-pole Schrage motor

275
If a suitable gear mechanism is used, the brush pairs can be moved towards or away
from each other (or both in the same direction), giving a mechanical control over the
magnitude and phase of the injected emf, and thereby achieving control over the
speed and power factor of the motor.

When the brushes are moved so that the injected emf opposes the secondary current, the
speed is decreased (positive slip). For movement in the opposite direction, the speed
is increased, which means the slip is negative. When the brushes are on the same
commutator segment (i.e. if the brush separation angle is zero), the secondary windin g
is shorted in itself and the motor runs at its natural slip as an inverted induction
motor. For an electrical brush separation of β , the no-load motor speed is n ≈ ns (1
– c sin 0,5 β). c is a constant whose value depends on the turns ratio of the stator
and rotor commutator winding.

For each given brush separation, the motor power factor can be controlled by moving
each brush of the brush pairs in the same direction.

Starting can be effected by direct switching with a brush separation of 180°e (i.e.
one pole-pitch) in the lowest speed position (emf opposing the rotor current). The
speed of the Schrage motor can be varied over a range from 0,4 ns to 1,4 ns. The
efficiency of the machine on load is slightly lower than that of a corresponding
induction motor, because the Schrage motor has additional components
(commutator and brushes) and there are additional losses in the third winding.
Commutation problems and design considerations limit the rated output to around
25 kW/pole; t h e placing of the primary winding on the rotor keeps the supply
voltage restricted to around 600 V.

The Schrage motor is used as a constant torque drive and the power developed
varies directly with the speed. It is usually applied in printing presses, textile
mills, cranes and so on.

276
6.10 RANGE OF FREE RUNNING SPEED (SCHRAGE AND SHUNT
COMMUTATOR MOTORS)

Let so be the free running slip; Vj the voltage between each brush pair on the
commutator; and E2 the voltage on the stator phase at rest. The maximum injected
voltage is obtained when the brushes are diametrical. When running light, the rotor
current is so small that it can be ignored.

s.E 2 ± V j
I2 =
Z e2

From this equation it can be said that Vj.s o.E2 (taking the negative sign in the equation). Therefore:

Vj
so =
E2

Also, β is the brush separation angle and the brush shift angle is:

β
θ = …
2

AB
sin θ =
OA

0,5.V j
=
0,5.V jmax

β
∴ sin θ = sin  
2

⇒ Vj = Vjmax.sin θ

V jmax .sinθ
so = … (iv)
E2

The free running speed is:

n = ns (1 – so) … (v)
277
Substituting equation (iv) into equation (v):

 V jmax .sinθ 
n = n s 1 −  …
 E2 
 

To obtain a maximum or minimum, differentiate and equate to zero:

dn n s .V j max . cos θ
=−
dθ E2

=0

⇒ θ = 90°

Thus, the range of the speed is:

 V jmax . sin θ 
nmax = n s 1 + 
 E2 
 

 V jmax 
Or: nmax = n s 1 + 
 E2 
 

Where: θ = 90°

 V jmax . sin θ 
nmin = n s 1 - 
 E2 
 

 V jmax 
Or: nmin = n s 1 − 
 E2 
 

Where: θ = 270°

278
EXERCISE 6.2

(1) Show by means of diagrams that the free running speed of a Schrage motor is given
by:

 β
ns = n s 1 ± c.sin 
 2

Where: β is the angle of separation of the brushes

During a standstill test on a four-pole, three-phase Schrage motor, the maximum voltage
across a brush pair was 17,2 V, while the secondary induced emf was 32,5 V. Calculate
the range of free running speed.

(706 r/min to 2 294 r/min)

(2) A six-pole, 50 Hz Schrage motor has 40 effective secondary windings/phase and a total
of 198 tertiary windings. Calculate the no-load speed for a brush separation of 45°e
speed reducing. The tertiary winding is lap connected and kws = 0,955 (789 r/min).

279
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III EEM3701

CHAPTER 7:

FAULTS AND FAILURES

CONTENTS

7.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.2 CAUSES OF FAULTS AND FAILURES OF MACHINES

7.2.1 Alternator gives no voltage
7.2.2 Alternator gives too small voltage on no load
7.2.3 Troubles in alternators when operating singly or in parallel

7.3 STARTING TROUBLES OF MOTORS

7. 3.1 Mechanical causes of starting problems
7.3.2 Starting problems of synchronous induction motors

7.4 STARTING TROUBLES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

7.4.1 Starting voltage too small
7.4.2 Damper winding broken
7.4.3 Rotating field winding is short-circuited

7.5 TROUBLES IN SYNCHRONISING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

7.5.1 Load torque too high
7.5.2 Starting voltage too low
7.5.3 Excessive resistance of the damper winding
7.5.4 Reversed polarity
7.5.5 Short circuits in the starting transformer
7.5.6 Troubles due to starting motors

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7.1 LEARNING OUTCOM ES

After you have completed this chapter, you should be able to

• list the types of faults and failures of machines

• classify the types of faults and failures of machines
• discuss the causes of faults and failures of machines

7.2 CAUSES OF FAULTS AND FAILURES OF MACHINES

7.2.1 Alternator gives no voltage

(a) Defects in the exciter

In the majority of cases an alternator f a ils to produce a voltage as the result of

defects in the exciter. The most common problem is a dirty commutator. Exciter
problems are the same as those problems that occur in dc machines and include the
following:

• The exciter circuit is broken or has abnormal resistance. Tests to determine breaks
and bad contacts should be carried out. These may occur in the field coils, or in the
coil cross-connections due to the breaking of a wire or insufficiently secure termina ls,
or in the shunt regulator as the result of broken wires or loose contacts. Sometimes
corrosion of the contacts is sufficient to raise the contact resistance so that self-
excitation is impossible.

However, if the generator excites initially, but the voltage is lost at a certain position
of the shunt regulator, it may be that a few contacts stand back in the regulator
position under consideration and the sliding contact cannot touch them. Loose
contacts may also be the cause.

If the problem is a bad contact, it is not easily located. With the usual large supply
voltages, the increased contact drop is of no importance. However, contact drop may
affect the excitation in the case of the small residual voltages of machines. In such
cases it is best to disconnect and examine the most accessible contacts. Repairs that
are not carried out expertly on field coils or their connections can cause bad contacts
due to varnish accumulation on the wrong parts or careless soldering.

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• Reversed field winding or reversed coils are present. When the field winding of a
self-excited generator is reversed, the armature voltage induced by the residual
magnetism in the field sets up a current in such a direction through the field winding
that it weakens the residual field. In such cases, self-excitation is opposed.

The reversed connection of the field winding of a separately excited generator does
not stop the excitation, but alters the polarity of the generator. If single coils in a field
winding are reversed, it usually results in failure to excite.

• The field regulator is reversely connected. Most field regulators have three
connecting terminals. When the generator is connected wrongly, for example on 1
and 3 instead of on 2 and 3, the operation is reversed. Those resistance steps that
carry the least current and have the greatest resistance are switched out at the end
instead of at the beginning of the regulating process. In such cases the regulation is
insufficient and the regulator may become too hot.

• The commutator contact resistance is too great. This problem usually occurs on low-
voltage machines as the result of a dirty or oxidised commutator, an insuffic ie nt
brush pressure, an unsuitable grade of brush, the marked chattering of brushes
(possibly caused by high commutator segments or high micas) or out-of-round
commutators. It is often sufficient to increase brush pressure in order to reduce the
resistance to establish self-excitation.

• The brush position is wrong. It sometimes happens that the brush holder is replaced
the wrong way round after the machine has been overhauled. As a result the brushes
are out of the neutral zone (although the rocker is apparently aligned with the right
marks).

• The direction of rotation is reversed. The direction of rotation may be wrong relative
to the connections of the field winding. The cure for this is to reverse either the field
connections or the direction of rotation.

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• The residual magnetism is lost. Generators that have lost their residual magnetism must
be properly excited again from an external source. Remove the field connection from
the generator; b r i e f l y apply a small dc supply to the field; a nd then reconnect.
If the generator is to be connected in parallel with other machines, check the polarities
before paralleling.

• Armature winding is open-circuited, short-circuited or wrongly connected. When there

is a break in the armature of a self-excited generator, the generator will usually not
excite. If the machine is being tested and therefore driven with separate excitation,
violent sparking occurs when there is a break in the armature circuit, and the segments
where the break occurs soon become black and burnt.

If there is a short circuit in the armature winding that is caused by the metallic
connection of adjacent turns of the coil, build-up will not occur. If the generator is
separately excited, sparking will occur, the segments concerned will blacken and the
faulty part of the segment will overheat.

It has been found that a generator will not excite after being fitted with a spare
armature. This happens when the armature is not wound in the same way as the origina l;
that is, if a retrogressive instead of progressive winding has been used. To solve this,
the field winding connections must be interchanged.

• The armature circuit is short-circuited externally. A shorted self-excited shunt

generator will not excite. On the other hand, if the brushes are displaced backwards,
a false self-excitation can occur as a result of the compounding effect of the
armature reaction field. When this happens, the current in the shorted loop is many
times the rated current, the commutator sparks and the generator continues to
generate, even with the field circuit broken. This can only be remedied by stopping
the machine or by tripping the overloads.

• The shunt field winding is broken in the direction of the earth or the main circuit.
One breakdown in the connection between the field winding a n d the iron does not
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affect the running of the generator – as long as there is not a second breakdown.
If a second breakdown occurs so that a large portion of the field winding is short-
circuited, then the generator will not excite. Short-circuited portions of the field remain
cold, therefore very different degrees of heating are exhibited by individual poles of a
field winding. First check whether the coil remains cool.

Breakdowns in other windings through which the main current flows, whether the
compound winding or the interpole winding, may have different results according to
their position. The shunt winding can be partly or wholly short-circuited as a result
of the very low resistance of the interpoles.

The winding can then come into contact with one side of the interpole and divert
some current, which then cause very bad commutation. It can come into contact
with the commutation pole and diminish its effect.

• Switch-gear faults may occur. Failure of machine voltage due to switch-gear faults
can easily be traced back to the associated instruments and switches. When such
problems occur, it is best to start looking whether or not the instruments and their
leads are in order.

(b) Stator winding open-circuited or reverse connected

A break in the stator winding can be detected either by running it at no load and
measuring the voltage or, when the machine is standing still, by measuring the
resistance. When one conductor of a star-connected, three-phase alternator is broken, a
voltage can only be measured at two terminals, but measurement on a delta-connected
winding gives approximately equal voltage between all three terminals.

If the phase connections are on the outside of the machine, the faulty lead can
easily be detected by separating all the leads. If the leads cannot be separated,
resistance measurement must be used for detection purposes. It might be found that
the resistance measured between two faulty terminals is twice as large as the
r e s is t a nc e be t w e e n remaining terminals.

If a phase consists of more than one parallel winding circuit and only one is broken,
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then the ratio between the resistances stated no longer holds true, but at no load the
alternator gives the same voltages between terminals.

The reverse connection of the stator winding can only cause a lack of voltage if
two parallel paths of one phase are connected in such a way that they have the effect
of cancelling each other.

7.2.2 Alternator gives too small voltage on no load

(a) Troubles in the exciter

In every case the exciter should be tested first. The following problems may occur:

• Speed is too low. This fault usually occurs in small plants with only one alternating
set, and the driving machine is often the cause. The water quantity, the head of
water, or the steam pressure could be too low, or defects in the governor gear may
prevent proper control. In addition, great slipping of the driving belt or rope and
slipping of the centrifugal couplings can all lower the speed.

Exciter speed is usually measured by means of a tachometer or a frequency meter. The

change in voltage will be greater or smaller according to whether the machine is self-
excited or separately excited, and whether the exciter is also affected by the speed
variation.

• The rotating field has windings t h a t a r e either cross-connected or short- circuited.

Crossed connections of the poles can only occur when, after repair, the field coils
are either replaced in a reverse position or the connections are reversed. Poles can
only be cut out if both leads can make contact. Both problems cause a voltage
drop and vibration. Machines with parallel circuits in the stator winding may also
have large circulating currents.

In order to find the faulty pole, the resistance of single coils must be measured. With
direct current measurement, only the larger defects are detectable, because the

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difference of the resistances of the individual poles can often be relatively large
when compared to a few short-circuited turns. The resistances of individual poles

measured with dc may vary by ± 2% from the average value.

It is better to carry out the resistance test with ac. Short circuits of even single turns
are quite noticeable due to the considerable differences of impedances and the
excessive heating of the affected part. In addition, wrongly connected poles or pole
parts are more easily detected with ac than with dc. For this purpose a voltage
between 110 and 220 V is sufficient.

• The rotating field has short circuits between turns or layers. These are only apparent at
low voltage if a large portion of the whole winding is short-circuited as a result of the
problem. More or less vibration occurs on excitation, which with increased excitation
disappears. If 380 V is available, all poles can be connected in series, otherwise they
must be divided into groups by undoing the pole connections; alternatively the poles
must be measured singly. When measuring with alternating current, the rotating
field should be dismantled from the stator if possible, because considerable voltages
may be induced in the stator winding.

It is appreciable more difficult to locate a pole short circuit that only occurs as a
result of the centrifugal force caused by rotation. Here the resistance is measured
with direct current, while the rotating field is run at different speeds. The sudden
change of resistance when a certain speed is reached shows when the short circuit
occurs.

A short covering a small number of turns might not be revealed with dc, while
considerable voltage differences occur with ac. Rotating field systems should be
removed for measurements of this kind, since dangerous voltages may be induced in
the stator windings under certain circumstances.

Instead of supplying the dismantled rotating field system, the stator winding can ( in
the case of a built-in rotating field) be connected for a short time to a suitable
source of current at reduced voltage.
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Usually 15 to 25% of the rated voltage are sufficient to give a current approximate ly
the same as the rated current. The rotor field coils have emfs induced in them by the
stator field. If there is a short-circuited turn in one of the pole coils, a considerable
current will pass and heat it up appreciably.

In addition, the voltages can be measured in the individual pole coils and the
affected pole detected by its smaller voltage. With this test, dangerously high
voltages may occur in the rotating field winding, therefore contact with parts of
the winding is dangerous.

It is more difficult to discover short circuits between turns that only exist while the
machine is running, for example under the influence of centrifugal force ( as in the
rotors of alternators). Unless whole coils are put out of action by the short circuit
and can be recognised by differences in temperature rise, results can only be obtained
with dc during operation by extremely careful measurement of the resistance when
sufficient turns are short-circuited for the resistance to drop by a small percentage.

• A stator winding is wrongly connected. This is only likely to arise after repair when
single coils are reverse connected. To determine the fault, careful measurements of
the individual voltage of the winding phases are necessary. Another possible but
unlikely cause is that a three-phase stator winding may have been connected in
delta instead of in star. In such a case the terminal voltage of the alternator only
attains slightly more than half its proper value.

7.2.3 Troubles in alternators whethe r operating singly or in parallel

(a) Excessive excitation on the load

• Low power factor. In an alternator, the voltage variation between no load and
full load, and the field current depend very much on the wattless load and therefore
on the power factor. Increasing the wattless load necessitates an increase in field
current. The main cause of too great a field current on load can therefore be
attributed to a wattless load that is too great.

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If an alternator that is supplied to operate at a power factor of 0,9 lagging has
to give full apparent power at a lagging power factor of 0,6, the excitation current
must be increased to a degree likely to result in overheating of the rotating field
winding. When it is found that an alternator is no longer supplying the right voltage,
the power factor at which it is working must be taken into account to ensure a
solution can be found.

• Speed too low. If the speed of an alternator decreases dramatically, the network
frequency may have changed. If the alternator is not running i n parallel, troubles
in the driving machinery may make it impossible to maintain the rated speed on
full load and the exciter current is increased too much in an attempt to maintain
the voltage.

(b) Fluctuations of the load and the load curre nt

Power and current fluctuations, apart from those caused by the consumer, may be
due to troubles in the driving machines.

In hydraulic turbines the sticking of the governor gear, slipping of driving belts, or
excessive play on gear drives may cause temporary variations in output. Troubles
may occur in the rotors of motor–alternator sets driven by asynchronous motors.

Troubles arise in the alternator itself result from rotating fields that are very out of
round, usually in conjunction with an out- of-round stator. Troubles in the exciter
and on the slip rings are often the result of temporary breaks in these circuits, vibrating
contacts in the field regulator or temporary short circuits in the rotating field.

(c) Unequal load distribution of machines operating in parallel

An alternator does not alter its output when the excitation is increased. Increase
excitation only affects the wattless load. The effective output can only be regulated
by altering the output of the driving machinery. To achieve automatic sharing of the
effective output of alternators in parallel, the governor gears of the primary movers

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must have the same characteristics, and if the wattless load is to be shared equally
by the alternators, the voltage regulation must be equal.

When several alternators are jointly controlled by coupling their field regulators
mechanically, the exciters should have similar voltage curves and the same voltage
regulation. In addition, the stepping of the field regulators should be the same.

(d) Hunting of machines operating in parallel

The hunting phenomenon only occurs in synchronous machines if a disturbing force

o r i m p u l s e is applied to the machine from the outside. This may be a mechan ica l
impulse that comes from the primary movers or from the electrical supply. Hunting
caused by mechanical means is likely to arise in synchronous alternators driven by
reciprocating engines, such as steam engines or internal combustion engines. The
torque of these varies periodically during one revolution and, as a result of this
variation, the driven rotating field is alternately accelerated and retarded, In other
words, it varies periodically from a certain average velocity.

These variations in speed are usually only apparent as small changes from average
readings shown on the current and watt meters, and the alternator is said to hunt.
However, the current and load fluctuations may increase so much that the alternator
ultimately falls out of step.

This trouble can generally not be ascribed to the frequency of the torque pulse, since
the machine is designed so that the impulse frequency is much higher than the
natural frequency of the alternator.

Problems in the driving machine or its governor may cause temporary periodica l
torque impulses with a frequency near the natural frequency of the alternator and so
cause hunting. Such problems include varying steam pressure resulting in different
outputs from different cylinders, faults in the governor or unsuitable natural frequency
of the governor.

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Hunting can also be caused from the supply side when alternators or synchronous
motors coupled to reciprocating machines are on the same supply and when these
transmit periodical load impulses as a result of faults either in the driven or driving
parts. If the frequency of these is nearly the same as the natural frequency of the
governor, hunting may develop. If hunting in an alternator reaches a dangerous
magnitude, the driving machine and the supply must be inspected first to determine
whether they are the cause of the hunting. If the cause cannot be found, it may be
necessary to alter the alternator by adding the strongest damper winding possible to it.
Altenatively choke coils can be used, but they increase the voltage drop.

(e) Circulating currents due to parallel operation

When the excitation of alternators working in parallel is properly adjusted, no

circulating current will flow between the machines ( provided that the waveforms
are not appreciable different). In modem machines this is not a problem and such
troubles rarely develop.

Alternators operating in parallel with the star points brought out to provide the ac
supply with a neutral conductor may have waveforms t h a t differ greatly from one
another. This can give rise to circulating currents over the bus-bar neutral conductors.

(f) Reversal of polarity and demagnetisation of exciters

If the field of an exciter is quickly decreased (or even interrupted and switched in
again after an interval of only a few seconds) a reversal of the exciter polarity may
occur as a result of the effect of the magnetic energy of the main rotating field.
Reversal of polarity depends very much on the brush placing of the exciter and the
time taken for the switching out and switching in again of the field windings.
Instead of having the polarity reversed, the exciter may merely become demagnetised.
Its residual voltage is so reduced by this that it is no longer sufficient to establish
excitation with the existing resistances in the exciter circuit. Reversal of polarity may
also be caused by the interaction between the alternator stator and the main field,
which occurs at the sudden short- circuiting of the stator winding.

Various measures can be taken to prevent reversal of polarity and demagnetising:

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• The brushes of the exciter may be displaced two segments in the opposite
direction of rotation.
• An auxiliary compound winding may be introduced on the field winding of the
exciter to support the effect of the shunt winding.
• Short-circuit turns may be placed around the field poles of the exciter.
• The time between the switching out and in of the excitation may be lengthened.
• A rapid increase in shunt resistance may be lessened by slowly adjusting the field
regulator.

7.3 STARTING TROUBLES OF MOTORS

7.3.1 Mechanical causes of starting proble ms

• The driven apparatus is out of order. The sticking or wearing of bearings due to
excessively tight pulleys, obstructions in mills, erroneously closed exhaust valves
of reciprocating compressors, open dampers in exhaust fans or open pressure
valves in blowers and pumps may cause the required starting torque to increase
excessively. The torque of the motor is then not sufficient to accelerate the
machine up to full speed, or else the machine will not operate at full speed due
to an increased load.

This is particularly common in ac squirrel-cage induction motors that are started

with decreased voltage ( and consequently decreased torque) to reduce the
starting current. This happens for example when star–delta starters or
autotransformers are used.

In the case of asynchronous motors with starting resistances on the rotor and that
have their steps short-circuited successively by centrifugal switches during
acceleration, the switching out of one or more steps may be prevented due to
a great load torque. The motor "locks in" at too low a speed and the resistance
in circuit may be burnt out. When the drives have many bearings, the torque
may be increased excessively solely because the machinery has been standing for
too long.

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• The motor has mechanical faults. The most important mechanical faults in the
motor itself is rubbing of the rotor due to t he melting out of bearings or a bent
shaft, seized up bearings or a jammed rotor.

7.3.2 Starting problems of synchronous induction motors

• Leads are open-circuited or crossed over. AC motors will not start if there is an
open circuit in even one stator lead – they will only move in jerks with a marked
humming noise. However, i f the motor is running at normal speed and an open
circuit in a lead occurs, it will continue to run with normal torque. Note that current
and slip are then so greatly increased that there is the danger of the windings
being burnt out if the stator is not properly protected. Motors with star–delta
starters may have starting troubles due to mistakes in the connections between
motor and starter ( i.e. the running connection may be in star instead of delta).
• Low supply voltage. If the supply voltage is much reduced, asynchronous motors
will still develop sufficient starting torque if enough resistance is switched out in
the starter or, in the case of a squirrel- cage motor with star–delta starting, if
these are switched directly on to the delta position. When the starting voltage is
too low in squirrel-cage motors equipped with autotransformers, the transformer
tapping should be altered to a higher value.
• Open circuit in the rotor starter. Even when a n asynchronous motor has an open
circuit in the connections in the rotor starter, it will still run light. It will give 10
to 20% of the rated torque without drawing excessive current. However, it will
stall at higher loads.
• Starter is unsuitable. An ac motor develops maximum starting torque at a certain
fixed (most favourable) value of rotor resistance. If this value is either exceeded
or not reached, the developed torque is less than the fixed amount. The speed at
which the maximum torque occurs varies according to the value of the resistance.
Note that the starting current peak depends on this point as well as on the speed at
which the starter is operated. When wrongly connected, the motor may be switched
out by the overload trips.
• Stator or rotor winding is open-circuited. The motor will either not start or start
with very low torque if the stator or rotor winding is open-circuited. When this

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occurs while the motor is running, it will reduce the maximum torque and increase
the current and slip.

If squirrel-cage rotors have a few bars that are badly jointed, the torque may be
reduced and starting m a y b e adversely affected. Loosely soldered coil ends on
wound rotors or loose contacts on the short-circuiting mechanism will also spoil
the torque.

All these troubles can be identified by the fluctuations they cause in the stator
current. In low- capacity supply systems, flickering of the lamps connected to
the same supply may even occur. Sudden humming noises together with the
vibration of the motor, which become louder and more pronounced as the motor
is loaded, are signs of these problems.

• Short circuits in stator or rotor windings. These s h o r t c i r c u i t s may cause

the motor to stall on load. While shorts in the stator allow the motor to accelerate
with decreased torque, a motor with shorts in the rotor may not start and can
only move in jerks. Considerable heating and humming occur.

The stator current will also vary if the rotor is moved out of a position of rest.
Similar phenomena occur when single turns and layers are short­ circuited or
when a whole winding or phase is cut out, whether this is due to insulation faults
on the coil or phase connections, or wrong connections on the terminal bar of
the motor. In ac motors, which are connected to the supply with an earthed
neutral, a breakdown to earth of a part of the winding always causes a short
circuit.

7.4 STARTING TROUBLES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

The defects in the stator winding described in the previous paragraph apply equally well
to synchronous motors. In synchronous motors with salient poles, the starting torque
is created by the joint effect of the stator rotating field and the rotor currents. The
latter occur either in the solid pole shoes or in special damper windings that are

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built in the pole shoes for the purpose of increasing the starting torque.

7.4.1 Startin g voltage too small

When synchronous motors start by using a tapped transformer, they have a reduced
starting voltage that is not adjustable in practice. With synchronous motors running
up to speed light, it amounts to 20 to 30% of normal voltage. In motors that have
to overcome a certain load torque when starting up, the starting voltage is between
40 and 75%, according to the value of this torque.

In general, the starting voltage should be sufficiently high so that at least 10%
excess voltage is available in the worst starting conditions with cold bearings and
bad rotor position.

7.4.2 Dampe r winding broken

Damper windings used for starting are either made of copper, brass or bronze.
The damper bars are usually riveted to the damper rings and silver soldered.
Heating may cause them to come unsoldered and spoil the starting. The junction
pieces between the segments that form the ring may also have bad contacts or even
be left out with similar results.

7.4.3 Rotating field winding is short-circu ite d

Synchronous motors accelerate better when their field winding is either left open
or connected in series with a resistance value many times greater than the winding
resistance. The starting is usually bad with a short-circuited field. The starting can
also be spoilt by short circuits between the turns of individual field coils.

7.5 TROUBLES IN SYNCHRONISING SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

7.5.1 Load torque too high

A synchronous motor can only be synchronised with certainty against a definite

maximum load torque. If this is exceeded owing to any trouble on the driving
machine, it is no longer possible for the motor to pull into step.

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The load torque may be too high on compressor and blower drives where bad sealing
of the pipes in the exhaust side causes the motor load to be too great. In the case of
pumps, insufficiently closed valves may cause too large an increase in the torque
during acceleration.

7.5.2 Starting voltage too low

Synchronous motors that are only used for power-factor correction, and consequently
run unloaded, will usually pull into step with the correct polarity on reaching the
rated speed on the starting step, and without excitation. When the voltage is too low,
the machine can be brought into step by applying the proper excitation. This is not
the case with machines that are loaded at the start and that must pull into step from
a definite slip with applied excitation. Voltage that is too low causes excessive slip of
the machine while it is running asynchronously and it cannot be synchronised.

Synchronous motors running up to speed, unloaded, usually pull into step without
excitation at about 15 to 25% of the normal voltage. When running up to speed has
to be done under load, the value of the voltage to ensure synchronising, even with
sufficiently small slip, is much higher according to the actual load torque.

According to the procedure adopted, the change-over from starting voltage to full
voltage may take place in one or two steps. The switching in of the excitation in the
latter case is made at that voltage at which the motor previously pulled into step
without excitation. When it is permissible from the point of view of the current peak,
the machine may even be switched on full voltage and afterwards excited. To reduce
the peak at switching in it is better to synchronise first and then to switch it on to full
supply voltage.

If the starting voltage is actually too low and synchronising is impossible, the
transformer must be altered by choosing another tapping. Transformers are usually
supplied with two or more tappings to facilitate a raising of the starting voltage by
5 to 10%.

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7.5.3 Excessive resistance of the damper winding

Synchronous motors for starting on load often have laminated poles and a damper
winding instead of solid pole shoes in order to produce sufficient starting torque.
The synchronising of such motors may be made difficult by excessive heating, bad
contacts, t h e breaking of damper bars or too high resistance and consequently too
great slip.

7.5.4 Reversed polarity

When this occurs, the synchronous machine pulls into step with the wrong polarity.
This condition is recognisable when the stator current does not drop to its minimum
value at unity power factor after the excitation is switched on. The stator current may
even first rise with increasing excitation, exceed a maximum value of 50 to 100% of
normal current and then decrease to become a minimum at the proper excitation.

At the instant the stator current reaches its highest value, the machine slips a pole.
If this happens at full supply voltage, the current is usually larger than the full­
load current at the moment of slipping.

7.7.5 Short circuits in the starting transformer

Special switches are normally used for short circuits in the starting transformer. The two
pieces of apparatus, starting switch 1 and running switch 2, are coupled mechanically
in such a way that the first is switched out forcibly if the contacts of the latter are
touching.

Supply
1 2

Starting transformer

Figure 7.1
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The switches are constructed in such a way that they cannot be closed simultaneous ly.
The switches also have a buffer resistance to ensure switching over without current
interruption and to prevent short-circuiting of the whole transformer. If they are not
mechanically interlined, they must be electrically interlocked to prevent shorts.

7.5.6 Troubles due to starting motors

Large synchronous motors that have to operate on no load as synchronous condensers

( or as machines that regulate the voltage by running with a wattless load) are chiefly
started by special starting motors. Simple asynchronous motors or synchronous
induction motors are u s u a l l y used. While induction motors have a smaller number
of poles than synchronous motors, a synchronous induction motor for this particular
purpose has the same number of poles as the main synchronous machine.

Asynchronous starting motors are usually adjusted to the correct synchronising speed
by rotor resistances. After a synchronous machine has attained the correct voltage and
phase position, it is connected in parallel with the supply. When using a
synchronous induction motor as a starting motor, the synchronous machine can be
directly connected on to the supply without current peaks after the starting motor has
been synchronised with the right polarity and the proper voltage h a s b e e n attained.

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