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CHAPTER - 1
Introduction to Automatic Control Systems
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
The objective of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with the following subjects:
1. What a control system is.
2. Why control systems are important.
3. What the basic components of a control system are.
4. Types of control systems.
5. Why feedback is incorporated into most control systems.
6. Some examples of control system applications.
A basic control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in a manner to
command, direct or to regulate itself or another system. Any control system requires an input and the controlled
quantity becomes the output which follows the input. The difference between the input and the output is called
error. In a sentence control systems are in abundance in modern civilization.
In recent years, control systems have assumed an increasingly important role in the development and
advancement of modern civilization and technology. Practically every aspect of our day-to-day activities is
affected by some type of control systems. Control systems are found in abundance in all sectors of industry, such
as quality control of manufactured products, automatic assembly line, machine-tool control, space technology and
weapon systems, computer control, transportation systems, robotics, MicroElectroMechanical Systems(MEMS),
nanotechnology, and many others. Even the control of inventory and social and economic systems may be
approached from the theory of automatic control.
1.2. BASIC COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM:
The basic ingredients of a control system can be described by:
1. Objectives of control.
2. Control-system components.
3. Results or outputs.
The basic relationship among these three components is illustrated in fig1.2.1. In more technical terms,
the objectives can be identified with inputs, or actuating signals, u, and the results are also called outputs, or
controlled variables, y. In general, the objective of the control system is to control the outputs in some prescribed
manner by the inputs through the elements of the control system.
Objectives Results
Control System r

Figure 1.2.1 Basic components of a control system.

1.3. TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS:
The control system can be divided into two groups namely open-loop and closed-loop control system.
1.3.1. Open-Loop Control System:
The open loop control system is also known as control system without feedback or non feedback control
systems. In open loop systems the control action is independent of the desired output. In this system the output is
not compared with the reference input.

The component of the open loop systems are controller and controlled process, as shown by the block
diagram of fig 1.3.1. An input signal or command r is applied to the controller, whose output acts as the actuating
signal u; the actuating signal then controls the controlled process so that the controlled variable y (desired output)
will perform according to some prescribed standards. In simple cases, the controller can be an amplifier,
mechanical linkage, filter, or other control elements, depending on the nature of the system. In more sophisticated
cases, the controller can be a computer such as a microprocessor. Because of the simplicity and economy of
open loop control systems, we find this type of system in many non critical applications.
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Reference input r Actuating signal u Controlled variable y
Controller Controlled
Process
Figure 1.3.1 Elements of an open-loop control system.
Examples of open-loop control systems:
1. Automatic washing machine is the example of the open loop systems. In the machine the operating time is
set manually. After the completion of set time the machine will stops, with the result we may or may not
get the desired (output) amount of cleanliness of washed cloths because there is no feedback is provided
to the machine for desired output.
2. Immersion rod is another example of open loop system. The rod heats the water but how much heating is
required is not sense by the rod because of no feedback to the rod.
3. A field control d.c motor is the example of open loop system.
4. An electric switch in which a man-made control system controls the flow of electricity. The apparatus or
person flipping the switch is not a part of this control system. Flipping the switch on or off may be
considered as the flow or non-flow of electricity. This becomes an open loop control system because the
control action is independent.
5. The operation of ordinary traffic signals which control traffic at roadway intersections is another example
of an open loop control system wherein all control signals are pre-set by timing mechanisms.
 Advantages of open-loop control systems:
1. Open loop control systems are simple.
2. Open loop control systems are economical.
3. Less maintenance is required and not difficult.
4. Proper calibration is not a problem.
 Disadvantages of open-loop control systems:
1. Open loop systems are inaccurate.
2. These are not reliable.
3. Optimization is not possible.
1.3.2. Closed-Loop Control System:
Closed loop control systems are also known as feedback control systems. In closed loop control systems the
control action is dependent on the desired output. If any system having one or more feedback paths forming a
closed loop system. In closed loop systems the output is compared with the reference input and error signal is
produced. The error signal is fed to the controller to reduce the error and desired out put is obtained. Fig 1.3.2
illustrates the block diagram of a basic closed-loop control system in which the control action (input) is dependent
upon the controlled variable (output). The output variable c(t) is compared with the reference input r(t).This
comparison is done by an element called error detector. The output of the error detector is the actuating signal
e(t).
Error
signal
Reference Amplifier Controller Controlled
Controlled
Input r(t) + Process
Output c(t)


Feedback

Figure 1.3.2 Block diagram of closed-loop system.

Examples of closed-loop control systems:
1. In a room we need to regulate the temperature & humidity for comfortable living. Air conditioners are
provided with thermostat. By measuring the actual room temperature & compared it with desired temperature, an
error signal is produced, the thermostat turns ON the compressor or OFF the compressor. The block diagram is
shown in fig 1.3.3,
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Desired temp.

Room temp comparison controller compressor

Error signal

Figure 1.3.3.
2. An auto pilot mechanism and the air plane is an example of a closed loop system. Its purpose
is to maintain a specified air plane heading despite atmospheric changes. It performs this task continuously by
measuring the actual air plane heading and automatically adjusting the air plane control surfaces, so as to bring
the actual air plane heading into correspondence with the specified heading. The human pilot is not a part of the
control system.
3. Human being as a control system. Consider for instance the case of a person who is to push a
door-bell. We will consider his action from his decision to reach the door – bell to the instant he reaches it.
Obviously the reference input is the co-ordinates of the position of the door–bell, while the position of his
particular finger to press the button is the output. His eyes act as the error sensing device which continuously
determine the distance of the finger from the door-bell and send via the controller, i.e , the brain, signals to the
power actuator, i.e., the arm which by means of the motor action is lifted in a direction to reduce the error, i.e., the
distance between the door-bell and the finger. The action continues till the error is zero. This is shown in the form
of a block diagram in fig 1.3.4. This is only one of the simplest jobs that a human being is capable of doing, and
indeed many more such control operations may be performed by his system.
Error sensor (eye)
Reference Input E M
+ Controller Plant ( Arm Controlled output
Brain Dynamics)
Position of the - Nerve Motor
Impuls reflex Position of
Door-bell.
the finger

Figure 1.3.4 the human feedback control system.

 Advantages of closed-loop control systems:
1. These systems are more reliable.
2. Closed loop systems are faster.
3. A number of variables can be handled simultaneously.
4. Optimization is possible.
 Disadvantages of closed-loop control systems:
1. Closed loop systems are expensive.
2. Maintenance difficult.
3. Complicated installation.
1.3.3 Comparison between open Loop & closed Loop :

Sl. No Open Loop System Closed Loop system

1 These are not reliable. These are reliable.
2 It is easier to build. It is difficult to build.
3 If calibration is good, they perform accurately. They are accurate because of feedback.
4 Open loop systems are generally more stable. These are less stable.
5 Optimization is not possible. Optimization is possible.
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1.4. ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS:
The various components of closed loop system are shown in fig 1.4.1

Command Reference Controlled

Input Control Controlled
Input element system Output
Element +


Feedback
element

Figure 1.4.1.
Command: The command is the externally produced input and independent of the feedback control system.
Reference input element: This produces the standard signals proportional to the command.
Error Detector: The error detector receives the measured signal and compares it with reference input. The
difference of two signals produces the error signal.
Control element : This regulates the output according to the signal obtained from error detector.
Controlled system : this represents what we are controlling by the feedback loop.
Feedback element : This element fed back the output to the error detector for comparison with the reference
input.
1.5. CONCEPT OF A SYSTEM:
A system is a co-ordinate unit of individual elements performing a specific function. It produces an output
corresponding to a given input according to some rule. Thus, electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
chemical, analog, digital etc. or any other elements, devices or processes and/ or interacting combinations thereof
may be regarded as system.
The input (or “forcing function”) and the output (or “response”) are usually both functions of time. The
output x however is determined by the input u, the characteristic of the system and in certain cases by an
appropriate number of initial conditions. This may be symbolically expressed as a
X = Tu ………………………..…………………...…. (1.5.1)
Where, T is an operator. A system may be represented by a block diagram as in fig 1.5.1(a) .

T
u T X u T1 T2 x

(a) (b)
Figure 1.5.1 Block diagram representation of a system.
If there are two sub-systems having the respective operators designated as T1 and T2 , such that the output
of T1 is fed to the input of second sub-system whose operator is T2 . This is shown in fig1.5.1(b). In this case x
takes the form
X= T1 T2 u = Tu ……..…………………………………………... (1.5.2)
Where, T is the overall operator.
It should be pointed out here that u may not necessarily be a single input, it may represent on the contrary
a set of input quantities, while x a set of output quantities. As such both u, and x may be considered as input and
output vectors respectively, in general, of different order. Thus equation 1.1 may also be expressed as
x j  t j (u1 , u 2, u 3 .....u r ) j = 1,2,3 ……. n ………….….. (1.5.3)
In general n ≠ r.
A more detailed block diagram of such a multi-variable system is shown in fig 1.5.2.
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u1 x1
u u2 x2 x
(r-vector) T (n-vector)
ur xn

Figure 1.5.2 Block diagram of an r-input or output system.

1.6. CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS:
Systems, in particular, control systems may in general, be classified independently in respect of several
aspects.
 Depending upon the condition of state:
Static Systems: When all the variables in a system arrives at its steady-state values instantly and remains in a
lasting steady state with the application of a d.c, input, the system is termed as a static system. This however is not
met in practice. For, in any system, the response due to a given input takes some time for its excursion from the
initial to final steady state condition. This period is known as transient period.
Dynamic Systems: When in a system, there is always a change of state, the system is known as to dynamic. The
dynamic character of a system is essentially due to the possibility of storage of energy in certain elements of the
system.
 Depending upon the number of inputs and outputs:
Single-input-single-output (SISO) System : A single-input-single-output system is one, in which –as the name
signifies-only a single controlled variable or output (i.e. the response) is of importance. The output is slowly
produced by single input. Thus a single chain of signal passes through the system (with, of course appropriate
modification, due to system property). Voltage regulators, position servo-systems the temperature controlled etc.
are representative examples of single-input-single-output systems.
Multiple-input Multiple-output (MIMO) systems: Many practical physical systems however have multiple
inputs and multiple outputs. Often, in these systems, several adjacent sub-systems have cross-feeding of signals.
In such systems, therefore, any change in one of the outputs cause a subsequent change in the other outputs both
during transient and steady-state conditions. Such systems are known as Multi-variable systems. It may be noted
however that in some such cases it is possible to provide special arrangement to decouple the system into several
single variable, i.e. single-input-single-output systems.
Typical example of multi-variable system is a boiler, where the controlled variables are steam pressure,
temperature and water-level. Another example is that of a turbo-jet engine, where the engine speed and the turbine
outlet temperature are controlled by propeller blade angle and input fuel injection rate.
 According to the nature of the system signals flowing:
Continuous system: A continuous system is one in which the signal at all points of inter-connection and the
parameters of elements or sub-systems are continuous as an example of a d.c servo-system, consider the
automatic positioning arrangement known as position servo.
Discontinuous or Discrete systems: A discontinuous system is one in which the signal are not inter-connection
at all points and the parameters of elements or sub-systems are not continuous. When the control signal is sampled
at discrete intervals, and signals in some part of the system are in the form of a pulse train, such systems are
termed as sampled data systems. A radar tracking system is an example of sampled data system. In this system the
information of elevation and azimuth is obtained in the form of pulsed data from the scanning operation.
Computer control systems operating with pulsed data is another example.
 Depending upon superposition principle:
Linear systems: A linear system may be defined as one which obeys the principle of super-position. Stated in
general mathematical terms a system having an operator T is linear if and only if
T (u1+u2) = Tu1 + Tu2 ………………….……………………… (1.6.1)
For all admissible functions or sequences u1 and u2.
In other words if x1 and x2 are the responses to inputs u1 and u2 respectively then the response due to the sum of
these inputs, i.e due to u = u1+u2 will be the sum of the respective responses i.e. x = x1+x2 .
A closer inspection of equation (1.6.1) reveals that the principle of superposition consists of the following two
properties:
(a) Homogeneity : If all the r-inputs are multiplied by a constant factor k then all the outputs are also multiplied
by the same factor k. Stated otherwise, effect is proportional to the cause.
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(b) Additivity : The resultant output x = (x1,x2,x3,………xn) due to an input
u = ( u '1 u"1 , u ' 2 u"2 ,.........u ' r u"r ) is equal to the sum of the outputs resulting separately from the two
inputs u ' = ( u '1 u ' 2 , u '3 ......u ' r ) and u"  u"1 , u"2 , u"3 ......u"r . Stated otherwise, the causes add their effects.
Non-Linear systems: As any system which does not obey the principle of superposition is defined as a non-linear
system, the class of non-linear systems is very wide and rather diverse in nature. Thus, linear systems may be
analyzed is not realizable in case of non-linear systems. What more, each class of non-linearity has to be treated in
its own merit? There is indeed no such general technique applicable to any and every non-linear systems.
If all the parameters of a system is stationary, i.e. do not change with time, the system is classified as a
time-invariant or stationary system, if not, it is classified as time-variant system. When the parameters of a
control system are stationary with respect to time during the operation of the system, the system is called a time-
invariant system. In practice, most physical systems contain elements that drift or vary with time. For example,
the winding resistance of an electric motor will vary when the motor is being first excited and its temperature is
rising. Another example of a time-varying system is a guided missile control system in which the mass of the
missile decreases as the fuel on board is being consumed during flight. Although a time-varying system without
nonlinearity is still a linear system the analysis and design of this class of systems are usually much more complex
than that of the linear-invariant systems.
Depending upon whether or not the system parameters may be considered as lumped the system may be a lumped
parameter or distributed parameter system.
1.7. WHAT IS THE FEEDBACK AND WHAT ARE ITS EFFECTS?
Feed back is used to reduce the error between the reference input and the system output. However, the
significance of the effects of feedback in control systems is more complex. The reduction of system error is
merely one of the many important effects that feedback may have upon a system. We show in the following
sections that feedback also has effects on such system performance characteristics as stability, bandwidth,
overall gain, impedance, and sensitivity. Feedback exists whenever there is a closed sequence of cause and
effect relationships. Effects of the feedback are given bellow:
1. Feedback may increase the gain of a system in one frequency range but decrease it in another.
2. Feedback can improve stability or be harmful to stability. (Note : A system is unstable if its
output is out of control).
3. Feedback can increase or decrease the sensitivity of a system.
4. Feedback can reduce the effect of noise and disturbance on system performance.
5. Feedback also can affect bandwidth, impedance, transient and frequency responses.

Exercise - 1
1. List the advantages and disadvantages of an open-loop system.
2. List the advantages and disadvantages of a closed-loop system.
3. Give the definitions of ac and dc control systems.
4. Give the advantages of a digital control system over a continuous-data control system.
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