Classification of Memory

In computers, memory is the most essential component of the normal functioning of any
system. The computer system categorizes the memory for different purposes and uses. In
this section, we have discussed the classification of memory in detail. Also, we will
discuss types of memory, features of memory, RAM, ROM, SRAM, DRAM, and its
advantages and disadvantages.

What is computer memory?

Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction
temporarily or permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary
information in the form of bits. The memory block is split into a small number of
components, called cells. Each cell has a unique address to store the data in memory,
ranging from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of computer
memory is 64k words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The
address of the memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.

Why do we need a computer memory?

In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data like
text, images, video, audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is required.
For example, when we write and execute any computer program, it is initially stored in
primary memory. If the processor does not need particular items for a longer time, the
program or data is automatically saved into the permanent or secondary memory. Then
the data is called from secondary memory to main memory and performs the execution of
codes.

Features of Memory
Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:

1. Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a

computer. The internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known
as primary memory. the example of primary memory are registers, cache and main
memory. Whereas, external memory is the separate storage device from the
computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.

2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity

can vary in external and internal memory. External devices' storage capacity is
measured in terms of bytes, whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes
or words. The storage word length can vary in bits, such as 8, 16 or 32 bits.

3. Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.

o DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method

that allows input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or
from the main memory.

o Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data

storage device to read stored data sequentially from the computer memory.
Whereas, the data received from random access memory (RAM) can be in
any order.

o Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from

memory. This method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A to
Z in random access, we can directly jump to any specified location. In the
Sequential method, we have to follow all intervening from A to Z to reach
at the particular memory location.

o Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes

search performance through defined data to directly access the stored
information based on a memory address.
4. Unit of transfer: As the name suggests, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate
of bits that can be read or write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate
of data can be different in external and internal memory.

o Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the word size.

o External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word
length. It is always greater than a word or may be referred to as blocks.

5. Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.

o Access Time: In random access memory, it represents the total time taken
by memory devices to perform a read or write operation that an address is
sent to memory.

o Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and
additional required time before starting second access.

o Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory
to or from an external or internal memory device. Bit transfer can be
different for different external and internal devices.

6. Physical types: It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer such as
magnetic, semiconductor, magneto-optical and optical.

7. Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.

8. Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like

volatile, non-volatile or non-erasable memory. Volatile memory is known as
RAM, which requires power to retain stored information, and if any power loss
has occurred, stored data will be lost. Non-volatile memory is a permanent storage
memory that is used to obtain any stored information, even when the power is off.
Non-erasable memory is a type of memory that cannot be erased after the
manufactured like ROM because at the time of manufactured ROM are
programmed.

Classification of Memory
The following figure represents the classification of memory:

Primary or Main Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that
communicates directly within the CPU, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main
memory is used to kept programs or data when the processor is active to use them. When
a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads instructions or
programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts
execution. Accessing or executing of data from primary memory is faster because it has a
cache or register memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to
the CPU. The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if
it is not saved when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary memory, and the
main memory capacity is limited as compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of main memory accessed
directly by the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data,
programs or program results. It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is
working. It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or the computer is turned
off, the information stored in RAM will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can
be read or accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

o SRAM

o DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the
dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The
cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the
transistor is so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM
chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor
needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the
power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM

1. It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.

2. It is slower than SRAM

3. It holds a large amount of data

4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor

5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM

6. Less power consumption

SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data
in the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer
system has a power supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have
occurred.

Characteristics of Static Ram

1. It does not require to refresh.

2. It is faster than DRAM

3. It is expensive.

4. High power consumption

5. Longer life

6. Large size

7. Uses as a cache memory

SRAM Vs. DRAM

SRAM DRAM
It is a Static Random-Access Memory. It is a Dynamic Random Access Memory.

The access time of SRAM is slow. The access time of DRAM is high.

It uses flip-flops to store each bit of information. It uses a capacitor to store each bit of information.

It does not require periodic refreshing to preserve the It requires periodically refreshing to preserve the
information. information.

It uses in cache memory. It is used in the main memory.

The cost of SRAM is expensive. The cost of DRAM is less expensive.

It has a complex structure. Its structure is simple.

It requires low power consumption. It requires more power consumption.

Advantages of RAM

o It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

o It requires less power to operate.

o Program loads much faster

o More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.

o Perform read and write operations.

o The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

o Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

o Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.

o It is expensive than ROM

o It is unreliable as compared to ROM

o The Size of RAM is limited.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store

information inside a chip. It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information,
data or programs, but we cannot write or modify anything. A ROM contains some
important instructions or program data that are required to start or boot a computer. It is
a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be lost even when
the power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured
by the integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program
or instruction stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.

2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of
information or program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user
can write the desired content or program only once using the special PROM programmer
or PROM burner device; after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.

3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed
only once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when
there is no power supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In
EPROM, if we want to erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass
the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in
EPROM.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase
stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-
volatile memory whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In
EEPROM, the stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and
the data erase one byte at a time.

5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed
in small units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer
memory, and the contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is
also used to transfer data between the computer and digital devices.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned
off.

2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.

3. Data can be stored permanently.

4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.

5. These cannot be changed accidently

6. It is cheaper than RAM.

7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.

8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.

Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.

2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.

3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet
light.

RAM Vs. ROM

RAM ROM

It is a Random-Access Memory. It is a Read Only Memory.

Read and write operations can be Only Read operation can be performed.
performed.

Data can be lost in volatile memory when Data cannot be lost in non-volatile memory when
the power supply is turned off. the power supply is turned off.

It is a faster and expensive memory. It is a slower and less expensive memory.

Storage data requires to be refreshed in Storage data does not need to be refreshed in
RAM. ROM.

The size of the chip is bigger than the ROM The size of the chip is smaller than the RAM chip
chip to store the data. to store the same amount of data.

Types of RAM: DRAM and SRAM Types of ROM: MROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data.

Secondary memory is also known as external memory that representing the various
storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs) on which the computer
data and program can be saved on a long term basis. However, it is cheaper and slower
than the main memory. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed
directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM
(Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data.
Secondary memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an
optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Features of Secondary Memory

o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.

o Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.

o It can store large collections of different types, such as audio, video, pictures, text,
software, etc.

o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a permanent storage
area; even the power is turned off.

o It has various optical and magnetic memories to store data.

Types of Secondary Memory

The following are the types of secondary memory devices:

Hard Disk

A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk that

permanently stores data, programs, and files, and cannot lose store data when the
computer's power source is switched off. Typically, it is located internally on computer's
motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one or more rigid fast rotating disk
platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large storage device, found on every computer
or laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text documentation, videos,
operating system, and data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic
coating disks for holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy
Diskette that comes in three sizes like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data
of a floppy disk can be accessed through the floppy disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only
way through a new program installed on a computer or backup of the information.
However, it is the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store data up to 1.44
MB. Since most programs were larger, that required multiple floppy diskettes to store
large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not used due to very low memory storage.

CD (Compact Disc)

A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device used
to store various data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other
information useful to a computer. The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height,
which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It uses laser light to read and write
data from the CDs.
Types of CDs

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass like
audio CDs, software and computer games at the time of manufacture. Users can only read
data, text, music, videos from the disc, but they cannot modify or burnt it.

2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact Disc used to write once by the
user; after that, it cannot be modified or erased.

3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD disc, often used to write or

delete the stored data.

DVD Drive/Disc

DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or Digital Versatile
Disc. It has the same size as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact
disc. It was developed in 1995 by Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics
companies. DVD drives are divided into three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only
Memory), DVD R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or Erasable). It can store
multiple data formats like audio, videos, images, software, operating system, etc. The
storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.

Blu Ray Disc (BD)

Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data or high
definition of video recording and playing other media files. It uses laser technology to
read the stored data of the Blu-ray Disk. It can store more data at a greater density as
compared to CD/ DVD. For example, compact discs allow us to store 700 MB of data, and
in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB of storage capacity, while Blu-ray Discs provide 28 GB of
space to store data.

Pen Drive

A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also known as a
USB flash drive. It is commonly used to store and transfer the data connected to a
computer using a USB port. It does not have any moveable part to store the data; it uses
an integrated circuit chip that stores the data. It allows the users to store and transfer data
like audio, videos, images, etc. from one computer to any USB pen drive. The storing
capacity of pen drives from 64 MB to 128 GB or more.

Cache Memory

It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory that lies between the CPU and the main
memory. It is a faster, high performance and temporary memory to enhance the
performance of the CPU. It stores all the data and instructions that are often used by
computer CPUs. It also reduces the access time of data from the main memory. It is faster
than the main memory, and sometimes, it is also called CPU memory because it is very
close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels of cache memory.
1. L1 Cache: The L1 cache is also known as the onboard, internal, or primary cache. It is
built with the help of the CPU. Its speed is very high, and the size of the L1 cache varies
from 8 KB to 128 KB.

2. L2 Cache: It is also known as external or secondary cache, which requires fast access time
to store temporary data. It is built into a separate chip in a motherboard, not built into the
CPU like the L1 level. The size of the L2 cache may be 128 KB to 1 MB.

3. L3 Cache: L3 cache levels are generally used with high performance and capacity of the
computer. It is built into a motherboard. Its speed is very slow, and the maximum size up
to 8 MB.

Advantages of Cache Memory

1. Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the main memory.

2. It stores all data and instructions that are repeatedly used by the CPU for improving the
performance of a computer.

3. The access time of data is less than the main memory.

Disadvantage of Cache Memory

1. It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and the Secondary memory.
2. It has limited storage capacity.

Register Memory

The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing and transferring the data and
the instructions to a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer. It is a
part of computer memory located in the CPU as the form of registers. The register
memory is 16, 32 and 64 bits in size. It temporarily stores data instructions and the
address of the memory that is repeatedly used to provide faster response to the CPU.

Primary Vs. Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

It is also known as temporary memory. It is also known as a permanent memory.

Data can be access directly by the processor or Data cannot be accessed directly by the I/O
CPU. processor or CPU.

Stored data can be a volatile or non-volatile The nature of secondary memory is always non-
memory. volatile.

It is more costly than secondary memory. It is less costly than primary memory.

It is a faster memory. It is a slower memory.

It has limited storage capacity. It has a large storage capacity.

It required the power to retain the data in It does not require power to retain the data in
primary memory. secondary memory.
Examples of primary memory are RAM, Examples of secondary memory are CD, DVD,
ROM, Registers, EPROM, PROM and cache HDD, magnetic tapes, flash disks, pen drive, etc.
memory.
What is an FPGA?
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) are semiconductor devices that are based
around a matrix of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) connected via programmable
interconnects. FPGAs can be reprogrammed to desired application or functionality
requirements after manufacturing. This feature distinguishes FPGAs from Application
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), which are custom manufactured for specific design
tasks. Although one-time programmable (OTP) FPGAs are available, the dominant types

are SRAM based which can be reprogrammed as the design evolves. - Learn More

FPGA Applications

Due to their programmable nature, FPGAs are an ideal fit for many different markets. As
the industry leader, Xilinx provides comprehensive solutions consisting of FPGA devices,
advanced software, and configurable, ready-to-use IP cores for markets and applications
such as:
• Aerospace & Defence - Radiation-tolerant FPGAs along with intellectual property
for image processing, waveform generation, and partial reconfiguration for SDRs.

• ASIC Prototyping - ASIC prototyping with FPGAs enables fast and accurate SoC
system modelling and verification of embedded software

• Automotive - Automotive silicon and IP solutions for gateway and driver assistance
systems, comfort, convenience, and in-vehicle infotainment. - Learn how Xilinx
FPGA's enable Automotive Systems

• Broadcast & Pro AV - Adapt to changing requirements faster and lengthen product
life cycles with Broadcast Targeted Design Platforms and solutions for high-end
professional broadcast systems.

• Consumer Electronics - Cost-effective solutions enabling next generation, full-

featured consumer applications, such as converged handsets, digital flat panel
displays, information appliances, home networking, and residential set top boxes.

• Data Center - Designed for high-bandwidth, low-latency servers, networking, and

storage applications to bring higher value into cloud deployments.

• High Performance Computing and Data Storage - Solutions for Network Attached
Storage (NAS), Storage Area Network (SAN), servers, and storage appliances.

• Industrial - Xilinx FPGAs and targeted design platforms for Industrial, Scientific and
Medical (ISM) enable higher degrees of flexibility, faster time-to-market, and lower
overall non-recurring engineering costs (NRE) for a wide range of applications such
as industrial imaging and surveillance, industrial automation, and medical imaging
equipment.

• Medical - For diagnostic, monitoring, and therapy applications, the Virtex FPGA and
Spartan® FPGA families can be used to meet a range of processing, display, and I/O
interface requirements.
• Security - Xilinx offers solutions that meet the evolving needs of security
applications, from access control to surveillance and safety systems.

• Video & Image Processing - Xilinx FPGAs and targeted design platforms enable
higher degrees of flexibility, faster time-to-market, and lower overall non-recurring
engineering costs (NRE) for a wide range of video and imaging applications.

• Wired Communications - End-to-end solutions for the Reprogrammable

Networking Linecard Packet Processing, Framer/MAC, serial backplanes, and more

• Wireless Communications - RF, base band, connectivity, transport and networking

solutions for wireless equipment, addressing standards such as WCDMA, HSDPA,
WiMAX and others.
Classification and Characteristics of
Digital Logic Family

Digital logic family is a group of logic gates constructed using passive devices like a
resistor, transistor, diodes, etc. Such devices have compatible logic levels and
supply voltage with certain characteristics.

According to the components used, there are different types of logic families. Some
of the logic families include

Resistor-Transistor logic (RTL),

Diode-Transistor logic (DTL),

Transistor-transistor logic (TTL),

Emitter coupled logic (ECL),

PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS circuits

They are classified into several types as shown below.

Characteristics of the digital logic family
Propagation delay
It is the time interval between the application of the input pulse and the
occurrence of the output. It is an important characteristic of the digital logic
family. If the propagation delay is less, then the speed at which the IC operates
will be faster.

Let THL is the propagation delay when the output changes from logic 0 to 1 and
TLH is the delay when the output changes from logic 1 to 0. The maximum value of
THL and TLH is considered as the propagation delay for that logic gate.

Fan in and Fan out

Fan-in refers to the number of inputs in a digital logic gate family. For the example
given in the figure below, the EX-OR gate has three inputs. So fan-in for the given
EX-OR gate is 3.
Both fan-in and fan-out values are given by the manufacturer at the time of
designing and the data is specified in the datasheet. When the number of inputs or
outputs are changed, it may cause some malfunction to the device.

Power dissipation
It is the amount of power that the digital circuit dissipates. The power dissipated is
determined by the average current, that is drawn from the supply voltage.

The average current is the average value of the current at LOW gate output (logic
‘o’) and the current at HIGH gate output (logic ‘1’).

Noise Immunity and Noise margin

What is Noise?

It is an unwanted signal that is superimposed on the normal operating signal. Noise

may be due to various factors like operating environment, radiations, stray
electrical and magnetic fields.
In digital logic circuits, the binary values 0 and 1 represent the LOW and HIGH
voltage levels. Due to the interference of the noises, the voltage levels may
increase or decrease. This may lead to the wrong operation of the device.

The noise immunity is the ability of the logic device to tolerate the noise without
causing spurious change to the output voltage. Noise margin allows the logic
device to function properly within the specified limits.

Figure of merit
For an efficient operation of any device, whether it may be digital or analog, the
power dissipation and the speed are notable characteristics. Achieving a higher
speed with less power dissipation is a highly challenging task.

In the digital logic circuit, a trade-off exists between these two characteristics.
That is, for higher speed, the power dissipation will be more.

The figure of merit or Speed Power Product is a common means of measuring the
performance of circuits in the digital logic family.

Digital Logic Families

In Digital Designs, our primary aim is to create an Integrated Circuit (IC). A Circuit
configuration or arrangement of the circuit elements in a special manner will result in a
particular Logic Family. Electrical Characteristics of the IC will be identical. In other
words, the different parameters like Noise Margin, Fan In, Fan Out etc will be identical.
Different ICs belonging to the same logic families will be compatible with each other.

The basic Classification of the Logic Families are as follows:

A) Bipolar Families
B) MOS Families
C) Hybrid Devices
A) Bipolar Families:
1. Diode Logic (DL)
2. Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
3. Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
4. Transistor- Transistor Logic (TTL)
5. Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) or Current Mode Logic (CML)
6. Integrated Injection Logic (IIL)
B) MOS Families:
1. P-MOS Family
2. N-MOS Family
3. Complementary-MOS Family
i) Standard C-MOS
ii) Clocked C-MOS
iii) Bi-CMOS
iv) Pseudo N-MOS
v) C-MOS Domino Logic
vi) Pass Transistor Logic
C) Hybrid Family:
Bi-CMOS Family

Diode Logic
In DL (diode logic), only Diode and Resistors are used for implementing a particular
Logic. Remember that the Diode conducts only when it is Forward Biased.
Disadvantages of Diode Logic
Diode Logic suffers from voltage degradation from one stage to the next.
Diode Logic only permits OR and AND functions.

Resistor Transistor Logic

In RTL (resistor transistor logic), all the logic are implemented using resistors and
transistors. One basic thing about the transistor (NPN), is that HIGH at input causes
output to be LOW (i.e. like a inverter). In the case of PNP transistor, the LOW at input
causes output to be HIGH.

Advantage:
• Less number of Transistors

Disadvantage:

• High Power Dissipation

• Low Fan In

Diode Transistor Logic

In DTL (Diode transistor logic), all the logic is implemented using diodes and transistors.
Disadvantage:
Propagation Delay is Larger
Transistor Transistor Logic

In Transistor Transistor logic or just TTL, logic gates are built only around transistors.
TTL Logic has the following sub-families:
Standard TTL.
High Speed TTL
Low Power TTL.
Schhottky TTL.
Low Power Schottky TTL
Advanced Schottky TTL
Advanced Low Power Schottky TTL
Fast Schottky
Emitter Coupled Logic
The main specialty of ECL is that it is operating in Active Region than the Saturation
Region. That is the reason for its high speed operation. As you can see in the figure, the
Emitters of the Transistors Q1 and Q2 are coupled together.

Disadvantage:
Large Silicon Area
Large Power Consumption
Some Characteristics we consider for the selection of a particular Logic Family are:
voltage range
Speed of response
Power dissipation
Input and output logic levels
Current sourcing and sinking capability
Fan in
Fan-out
Noise margin
Introduction of Digital logic families
Miniature, low-cost electronics circuits whose components are fabricated on a single,
continuous piece of semiconductor material to perform a high-level function. This IC is
usually referred to as a monolithic IC first introduced in 1958. The digital ICs are
categorized as,
1. Small scale integration SSI <12 no of gates
2. Medium scale integration MSI 12 to 99 no of gates
3. Large scale integration LSI 100 to 9999 no of gates
4. Very large-scale integration VLSI 10,000 or more
In this section, we will be concern only with the digital IC. Digital IC can be further
categorized into bipolar or unipolar IC.
Bipolar ICs are devices whose active components are current controlled while unipolar
ICs are devices whose active components are voltage controlled.
IC Packaging
1. IC packaging Protect the chip from mechanical damage and chemical contamination.
2. Provides a completed unit large enough to handle.
3. So that it is large enough for electrical connections to be made.
4. Material is molded plastic, epoxy, resin, or silicone. Ceramic used if higher thermal
dissipation capabilities required. Metal/glass used in special cases.
Three most common packages for ICs are
a) dual-in-line (DIPS) (most common)
b) flat pack
c) axial lead (TO5)

Characteristics of Digital ICs

Input /Output voltage level:
The following currents and voltages are specified which are very useful in the design of
digital systems.
High-level input voltage, VIH : This is the minimum input voltage which is recognized
by the gate as logic 1.
Low-level input voltage, VIL: This is the maximum input voltage which is recognized by
the gate as logic 0.
High-level output voltage, VOH: This is the minimum voltage available at the output
corresponding to logic 1.
Low-level output voltage, VOL: This is the maximum voltage available at the output
corresponding to logic 0.

High-level input current, IIH : This is the minimum current which must be supplied by a
driving source corresponding to 1 level voltage.

Low-level input current, IIL: This is the minimum current which must be supplied by a
driving source corresponding to 0 level voltage.

High-level output current, IOH: This is the maximum current which the gate can sink in
1 level.
Low-level output current, IOL: This is the maximum current which the gate can sink in 0
level.

High-level supply current, ICC (1): This is the supply current when the output of the gate
is at logic 1.

Low-level supply current, ICC (0): This is the supply current when the output of the gate
is at logic (0).

Propagation Delay:

Definition: The time required for the output of a digital circuit to change states after a
change at one or more of its inputs. The speed of a digital circuit is specified in terms of
the propagation delay time. The delay times are measured between the 50 percent voltage
levels of input and output waveforms. There are two delay times, tpHL: when the output
goes from the HIGH state to the LOW state and tpLH, corresponding to the output
making a transition from the LOW state to the HIGH state. The propagation delay time of
the logic gate is taken as the average of these two delay times.

Fan-in

Definition: Fan-in (input load factor is the number of input signals that can be connected
to a gate without causing it to operate outside its intended operating range. expressed in
terms of standard inputs or units loads (ULs).

Fan-out

Definition: Fan-out (output load factor) is the maximum number of inputs that can be
driven by a logic gate. A fanout of 10 means that 10 unit loads can be driven by the gate
while still maintaining the output voltage within specifications for logic levels 0 and 1.

Digital IC gates are classified not only by their logic operation, but also by the specific
logic circuit family to which it belongs. Each logic family has its own basic electronic
circuit upon which more complex digital circuits and functions are developed.

TTL Logic family

The evolution from Diode transistor Logic to transistor transistor Logic can be seen by
observing the placement of p-n junctions. For example, the diode in the DTL can be
replaced by a transistor whose collector is pulled up to the power supply. The p-n
junction of diode is replaced by the BE junction of transistor and with the current gain of
the transistor, the current going into the base of transistor is greatly increased, increasing
the fanout. The input diodes are replaced by the multi-emitter NPN transistor. Later on,
we will make additional modifications to this circuit to improve its performance further.
The analysis of this circuit follows very much the same path as the analysis of the DTL
gate. For the most part, we will consider the input transistor, act just like two diodes.

TTL inputs: multiple-emitter

A two-input standard TTL NAND gate is a multiple emitter transistor for the inputs A
and B. the output transistors Q3 and Q4 form a totem-pole output arrangement.
Operation:
If A or B is low, the base-emitter junction of Q1 is forward biased and its base-collector
junction is reverse biased. Then there is a current from Vcc through R1 ti the base emitter
junction of Q1 and into the LOW input, which provides a path to the ground for the
current. Hence there is no current into the base of Q2 and making it into cur-off. The
collector of Q2 is HIGH and turns Q3 into saturation. Since Q3 acts as a emitter follower,
by providing a low impedance path from Vcc to the output, making the output into
HIGH. At the same time, the emitter of Q2 is at ground potential, keeping Q4 OFF.
When A and B are high, the two input base emitter junctions of Q1 are reverse biased and
its base collector junction is forward biased. This permits current through R1 and the base
collector junction of Q1 into the base of Q2, thus driving Q2 into saturation. As a result
Q4 is turned ON by Q2, and producing LOW output which is near ground potential. At
the same time, the collector of Q2 is sufficiently at LOW voltage level to keep Q3 OFF.

TTL outputs: Totem pole/ active pull-up

It is possible in TTL gates the charging of output capacitance without corresponding

increase in power dissipation with the help of an output circuit arrangement referred to
as an active pull-up or totem-pole output. In this case,

• Outputs must never be connected together.

• Connecting outputs causes excessively high currents to flow
• Outputs will eventually be damaged.
• The standard TTL output configuration with a HIGH output and a LOW output
transistor, only one of which is active at any time.
• A phase splitter transistor controls which transistor is active.

One of the problems with the TTL gate circuit is that the pull-up resistor on the output
transistor will prevent rapid charging of any wiring capacitance on the output. One way
to improve the rise time is to reduce the resistance value as is often done, but this also
increases the power dissipation when the output is low. If we look at the circuit, we
observe that when the transistor is saturated, it presents a very low effective resistance to
ground. The problem arises when the output is high and the pull-up resistor is too large.
Ideally we would like to have a very low resistance pull-up when the output is high, but a
very high pull-up resistance when the output is low. In this way, we could get quick
charging and very low power dissipation. The totem-pole output stage for TTL, shown in
Figure .

The TTL family includes,

standard TTL designed as 74 or 54

low-power TTL designed as 74L or 54L

high-power TTL designed as 74H or 54H

low-power Schottky TTL designed as 74LS or 54LS

Schottky TTL designed as 74S or 54S

advanced low-power Schottky TTL designed as 74ALS or 54ALS

advanced Schottky TTL designed as 74AS or 54AS

Fast TTL designed as 74F or 54F

An alphabetic code preceding this indicates the name of the manufacturer. A two-, three-
or four-digit numerical code indicates the logic function performed by the IC.