PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS (Prelims)

WEEK 3: Presentation of Data

Lesson Objectives:
• Define and produce a frequency distribution and explain why it is useful
• Identify other forms of presentation of data

Lesson Discussion
A. Frequency Distribution
• Definition: An organized tabulation of the number of individuals located in different
categories in different levels of measurements.
• Used to group scores together which allow researchers to get a glance among the set of
scores
• Two types: Categorical and Grouped Frequency Distribution
B. Categorical Frequency Distribution
• Definition: Used to organize nominal-level type of data
• Example Scenario: 20 applicants were given a performance evaluation appraisal. The
data set are:

High High High Low

Average Average Low Average

Average High Average Low

Average Average High High

Low Low Average High

STEPS
1. Construct a table as shown below:

Class Tally Frequency Percent

High

Average

Low

2. Tally the raw data.

3. Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.

4. Determine the percentage using: After doing so, you will have this table:
C. Grouped Frequency Distribution
Example Scenario: A psychometrician in a university conducted a study on the scores yielded
from the screening test by those who applied for scholarship. The gathered data are as follows:

45 62 40 75 81

46 61 55 53 53

59 47 85 90 66

71 77 70 62 80

94 84 60 69 57

63 74 47 92 56

STEPS
1. Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.

40 53 61 70 81

45 55 62 71 84

46 56 62 74 85

47 57 63 75 90

47 59 66 77 92

53 60 69 80 94

2. Determine the classes.

• Find the highest and lowest values (HV and LV).
• Find the Range: difference of the highest value and the lowest value in a distribution.
• Determine the classes using the “2 to the k rule” such that 2k is greater than the number
of observations (n).

• Determine the class interval (width): Distance between the lower class boundary and
the upper class boundary; denoted by the “i.”
or

Note: Round the value of interval up to the nearest whole number.

2nd Note: When using the alternative role that uses the log, you do not have to use “2 to
the k rule” anymore.

Solution: 2k Solution > 30

• Range: HV – LV (HV=94, LV=40) 21 2 30
o 94-40=54 22 4 30
• # of classes (using the “2 to the k rule”) 23 8 30
o 25 >30 = 32 > 30 24 16 30
o # of classes: 5 25 32 30
• Interval: i = 54/5 = 10.8 or 11

• Select as starting point for the lower-class limit (apparent limit).

• Class limit: Highest and lowest value of a class
• Set the individual class limit by adding the value of “i” until you reach the target number
of classes.
• Set the class boundaries in each class (real limits): Upper and lower values of a class
whose values has additional decimal place more than the class limits and end with the
digit, 5.
o To obtain class boundaries, subtract 0.5 from each lower-class limit and add 0.5
to each upper class limit.

3. Tally the raw data.

4. Convert the tallied data into numerical frequencies.
5. Determine the relative frequency (rf): Value obtained when the frequencies in each
class are divided by the total number of values.
6. Determine the percentage: Obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%.
7. Determine the cumulative frequency: Sum of frequencies accumulated up to the
upper boundary of a class in a frequency distribution.
8. Determine the midpoints: Point halfway between the class limits of each class and is
representative of the data within that class.
o Can be found by getting the average of the upper limit and lower limit in each
class.
Class Class f rf % cf Midpoints
limits Boundaries
40-50 39.5-50.5 5 0.17 17% 5 45
51-61 50.5-61.5 8 0.27 27% 13 56
62-72 61.5-72.5 7 0.23 23% 20 67
73-83 72.5-83.5 5 0.17 17% 25 78
84-94 83.5-94.5 5 0.17 17% 30 89
Total: 30 1.01 101%
Summary: Steps in constructing a grouped frequency distribution
1. Arrange the data (ascending/descending).
2. Determine the classes (range, # of classes, interval, CB).
3. Tally the raw data.
4. Convert the data into numerical frequencies.
5. Determine the relative frequency.
6. Determine the percentage.
7. Determine the cumulative frequency.
8. Determine the midpoints.

D. Guidelines in Graphing Data

• The graph/chart should include a title.
• The scales for all axes should be included.
• The scale on the x and y-axis should start at zero.
• The graph/chart should not distort the data.
• The axes should be properly labeled.
• The graph/chart should not contain unnecessary decorations.

E. Types of Graphs
1. Histogram: Graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis (x-axis) and
the class frequencies on the vertical axis (y-axis)
a. Focuses on the frequency of each class and sacrifices whatever information was
contained in the actual observation.
Class Class f rf % cf Midpoints
limits Boundaries
40-50 39.5-50.5 5 0.17 17% 5 45
51-61 50.5-61.5 8 0.27 27% 13 56
62-72 61.5-72.5 7 0.23 23% 20 67
73-83 72.5-83.5 5 0.17 17% 25 78
84-94 83.5-94.5 5 0.17 17% 30 89
Total: 30 1.01 101%
2. Frequency Polygon: Displays data using points which are connected by lines.
a. Frequencies are represented by the heights of the points at the midpoints of the
classes.
b. The vertical axis represents the frequency of the distribution while the horizontal
axis represents the midpoints.
Class Class f rf % cf Midpoints
limits Boundaries
40-50 39.5-50.5 5 0.17 17% 5 45
51-61 50.5-61.5 8 0.27 27% 13 56
62-72 61.5-72.5 7 0.23 23% 20 67
73-83 72.5-83.5 5 0.17 17% 25 78
84-94 83.5-94.5 5 0.17 17% 30 89
Total: 30 1.01 101%

3. Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive): Graph that displays the cumulative

frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.
a. The vertical axis represents the cumulative frequency of the distribution while the
horizontal axis represents the upper-class boundaries.
Class Class f rf % cf Midpoints
limits Boundaries
40-50 39.5-50.5 5 0.17 17% 5 45
51-61 50.5-61.5 8 0.27 27% 13 56
62-72 61.5-72.5 7 0.23 23% 20 67
73-83 72.5-83.5 5 0.17 17% 25 78
84-94 83.5-94.5 5 0.17 17% 30 89
Total: 30 1.01 101%
4. Bar graph: Frequency distribution for a nominal or ordinal data where the heights of the
bar represent the frequency of members under that category.
Example: Construct a bar graph on the rate of students diagnosed for each neurodevelopmental
disorders at Able Minds Therapy Center.

Disorders # of Students

IDD 35

Learning Disorder 17

ASD 41

ADHD 28

Others 13

5. Pareto chart: Used to

represent a frequency
distribution for a categorical
data and frequencies are
displayed by the heights of
vertical bars which are arranged
in order from highest to lowest.
6. Pie Graph: Circle divided into portions
that represent relative frequencies
(percentages) of the data belonging to
different categories. Data should be
categorical.

7. Time Series Graph: Represents data that occur over a specific period of time under
observation.
Example: Create a time series graph on the number of people clinically assessed with having
depression in QC.

Year # of Clients w/ Depression

2015 509

2016 419

2017 701

2018 638

8. Scatter Plot: Used to examine possible relationships between 2 numerical variables.

Example: The owner of chain of halo-halo stores would like to study the effect of atmospheric
temperature on sales during the summer season. A sample of 10 days is selected and the results
are as follows:

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Temp 79 76 78 84 90 83 93 94 97 85
(F)

Sales 147 143 147 168 206 155 192 211 209 187
9. Pictograph: Represents data through pictures arranged in a row/column.
Example: Create pictograph on the number of ice cream sales during the 3rd week of November
2018.

Days Sales

Mon 30

Tue 25

Wed 35

Thu 20

Fri 25