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Introduction to internet materials for first two units

Unit – I

Introduction to internet

The Internet is a vast system of networks that use standardized communication protocols to
connect devices and allow data exchange. It operates on the TCP/IP protocol suite, which ensures
reliable data transfer across diverse hardware and software platforms.

How the Internet Works

1. Infrastructure:
o Composed of servers, routers, cables, and satellites.
o Data travels in packets across these interconnected devices.
2. Protocols:
o HTTP/HTTPS: For accessing websites.
o SMTP/IMAP: For email communication.
o FTP: For file transfers.
3. Domain Name System (DNS):
o Converts human-readable domain names (e.g., www.google.com) into IP addresses.
4. Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
o Companies that provide Internet access to users.

Applications of the Internet

1. Communication: Email, instant messaging, social media, video conferencing.

2. Information Sharing: Search engines, online encyclopedias, e-books.
3. E-Commerce: Online shopping, banking, and payment services.
4. Entertainment: Streaming videos, gaming, music platforms.
5. Education: E-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, online resources.
6. Business: Remote work, cloud services, digital marketing.
7. Healthcare: Telemedicine, health monitoring, research.

Growth of internet

The Internet has seen exponential growth since its inception, transforming from a small research
project into a global phenomenon connecting billions of people and devices
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Internet Growth

1. Technological Advancements:
o Faster networks (e.g., 4G, 5G).
o Improved hardware like smartphones, laptops, and tablets.
o Development of efficient communication protocols.
2. Globalization:
o Increasing interconnectivity of economies, businesses, and cultures.
o Demand for cross-border communication and collaboration.
3. Affordability:
o Reduced costs of Internet-enabled devices.
o Cheaper data plans and free Wi-Fi hotspots.
4. Government Initiatives:
o Policies promoting digital inclusion and infrastructure development.
o Universal Service Funds to provide rural connectivity.
5. Innovation:
o Rise of e-commerce, social media, and online entertainment.
o Growth of digital services like telemedicine, e-learning, and fintech.

Anatomy of computers

The term 'Internet' includes both the hardware (satellites, cable, routing devices and computers)
and the software (programs and network protocols) that enable computers to communicate with each
other.

When information is sent across the Internet, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP: the
networking-language computers use when communicating over the Internet) first breaks the
information up into packets of data. The client computer sends those packets to the local network,
Internet service provider (ISP), or online service. From here, the packets travel through many levels of
networks, computers, and communications lines until they reach their final destinations.

Many types of hardware help the packets on their way. These are:

Hubs, which link groups of computers together and let them intercommunicate through multiple ports.
Bridges, which link local area networks (LANs) with each another.
Gateways, which act like bridges, but also convey data between dissimilar networks.
Repeaters, which amplify the data at intervals so that the signal doesn't weaken.
Routers, which ensure packets of data arrive at their proper destination across different technologies,
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media, and frame formats.

Servers, which deliver web pages and other services as requested.
Client computers, which make the initial request for Internet services, and run applications to handle
those services.
Cables and/or satellite communications, which make the hardware connections.

All hardware units need common operating methods, basic instructions called protocols that specify to
all parties how the data will be handled.

Internet Connections

Physical Internet connections are effected with:

1. Twisted wire: two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs for ordinary telephone communications,
and 4 pairs of copper cabling for Internet networks. Transmission speeds range from 2 Mbps to 100
Mbps. (Transmission speed or bandwidth is measured in bits per second, where K a thousand, M a
million, and G is a thousand million.)

2. Coaxial cables: copper or aluminum wire wrapped with an insulating and flexible material: widely
used for cable television systems, office buildings, and for local area networks generally. Transmission
speeds range from 200 Gbps to over 500 Gbps.

3. Optical fiber cable: one or more filaments of glass fiber wrapped in protective layers: not affected
by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speeds may exceed 1000 Gbps.

History of WWW

WWW stands for World Wide Web and is commonly known as the Web. The WWW was started
by CERN in 1989. WWW is defined as the collection of different websites around the world,
containing different information shared via local servers(or computers).
It is a created, by Tim Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at CERN.
System Architecture :
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How is it Works?

Applications of internet

The internet has many applications, including:

 Communication: The internet allows people to communicate through email, chat, and video
conferencing.

 Web browsing: The internet allows people to browse the World Wide Web, which includes social
media, online shopping, and other services.

 Online research: The internet allows people to search for information and conduct research.

 File sharing: The internet allows people to copy files between computers.

 Streaming media: The internet allows people to stream video and music.

 Financial transactions: The internet allows people to conduct financial transactions.

 Navigation: The internet allows people to navigate using their car, smart scooter, or other devices.

 Games: The internet allows people to play interactive games and multiplayer online games.

 Education: The internet allows teachers to teach their students with the help of projectors and the
internet.
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 Job search: The internet allows people to search for jobs.

 Travel: The internet allows people to book holiday tours, hotels, and trains.

 Stock market updates: The internet allows people to get stock market updates.

Basic Internet Terminologies

 IP address: A unique string of numbers that identifies a device on the internet. IP addresses are
written as four sets of numbers separated by dots.

 Domain name: A human-friendly name that's associated with an IP address. For example, bbc.co.uk is
a domain name.

 Domain Name Service (DNS): A directory that translates domain names into IP addresses.

 Internet Service Provider (ISP): A company or government organization that connects a user to the
internet.

 Router: A hardware device that manages network signals from the ISP to a home or business.

 Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): A language used to create web pages.

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A networking language that manages data packets over the
internet.

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): A secure network communication method.

 Hyperlink: A linked graphic or text that connects a user to other websites, parts of websites, or web-
enabled services.

 Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The address of a computer file on a computer server.

 Web server: A computer that contains web pages and sends them to requests.

 Website: A collection of web pages or files.

 Browser: A piece of software that allows a computer to access and display documents, pictures,
sound, and video clips from the World Wide Web.

 Email: An electronically transmitted message.

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A standard method for downloading and uploading files over the
internet.
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Commerce on the internet:

Commerce on the internet, also known as e-commerce or electronic commerce, is the buying and
selling of goods and services online. It's a convenient and accessible way to do business, and it's
become increasingly popular in recent years.

Here are some things to know about e-commerce:

How it works

E-commerce businesses have virtual storefronts where customers can browse and purchase products
or services. Customers can also buy and sell things to other individuals on their own websites or
through e-commerce platforms like Amazon, eBay, and Etsy.

 Types of e-commerce transactions

E-commerce transactions can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C), or

consumer-to-consumer.

 Benefits of e-commerce

E-commerce can be profitable and offer many benefits, including:

 Timeliness: Websites are accessible 24/7, and email queries can be handled quickly.

 Reduced marketing costs: Online catalogs are cheaper to produce and maintain than paper catalogs.

 Better targeting: Internet communities are self-selecting, so customers find you rather than the other
way around.

 Greater market reach: Distance is no object, so you can send information or exchange messages at a
low cost.
Governance on the internet
Internet governance is the process of developing and applying shared principles, rules, and decision-
making procedures to shape the evolution and use of the internet. It involves:
 Technical standards: Developing and coordinating technical standards

 Infrastructure: Operating critical infrastructure

 Public policy: Addressing public policy issues

 Regulatory frameworks: Setting regulatory frameworks

 Policymaking: Responding to social, economic, and security matters

 Accountability: Ensuring accountability

 Jurisdiction: Establishing jurisdiction

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Internet governance involves a variety of actors, including: governments, the private sector, civil
society, and the technical community.

Internet governance is important because it affects: International trade and economic growth, The
potential for sustainable human development, The building of inclusive knowledge societies, and The
free flow of information and ideas.

Some ways to get involved in internet governance include:

 Educating yourself on the issues

 Following debates

 Attending public meetings

 Engaging with elected officials

 Contacting tech companies and online platforms

 Joining civic organizations

Impact of internet on Society:

The internet has had many impacts on society, both positive and negative:
Positive impacts
The internet has improved communication, education, and access to information:
 Communication: The internet has made it easier to communicate with friends and family. It also allows
people to access the latest news from anywhere in the world.

 Education: The internet has made education easier with online courses, access to books and journals,
and research opportunities.

 Access to information: The internet has improved access to health information and options. It also
allows people to access vital health information and medical care.
Negative impacts:
The internet can have negative impacts on society, including:
 Information overload: The internet can lead to information overload, which can make it difficult to
understand issues and make decisions.

 Social isolation: Excessive use of the internet, especially social media, can lead to loneliness and social
isolation.

 Blurring of boundaries: The internet can blur the distinction between private and public, and between
different spheres of life.

 Damage to communities: The internet can lead to the partial migration of human activities from offline
communities to the internet.
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Packet Swirching :
Packet Switching is a method of data transmission used in computer networks, where data is broken
into small, manageable units called packets before being sent. These packets are transmitted independently
over the network and reassembled at the destination. Packet switching is a core technology of modern
networking, including the Internet.
 How it works

Packet switching allows users to send files across networks as smaller packets instead of one large
file. The packets are forwarded independently over the network to their destination, where they are
reassembled to reconstruct the original data.

 Benefits

Packet switching improves efficiency, has less bandwidth network wastage, and works at an optimal
speed with a less latency factor.

 Disadvantages
Packet switching can be more complex than other types of networks, like circuit switching. It can
also cause a slight delay as the data is reassembled if packets arrive out of order.

Internet Protocol:
Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer to another
on the internet. Each computer -- known as a host -- on the internet has at least one IP address that uniquely
identifies it from all other computers on the internet
Types of Internet Protocol
IP (Internet Protocol):

o This is the primary protocol responsible for addressing, routing, and packetizing data.
o It works at the network layer of the OSI model.
o IP itself is connectionless and does not guarantee data delivery or error recovery. This
functionality is handled by other protocols (e.g., TCP).

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):

o TCP is responsible for ensuring reliable communication by handling data transmission

errors, sequencing, and acknowledgment.
o IP handles addressing and routing.
o TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that allows for reliable data transmission across the
Internet.
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Routers

A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. It
acts as a traffic controller for the Internet or local networks, directing data from the source to the
destination across networks, based on their IP addresses.

1. Routing:
o Routers determine the optimal path for data packets to travel across networks. They
examine the destination IP address in each data packet's header to forward it toward
the correct destination network.
2. Packet Forwarding:
o Routers forward packets from one network to another. This is done by examining the
routing table and sending packets to the next hop (another router or the destination
network).
3. Network Address Translation (NAT):
o Routers often perform NAT, which allows multiple devices in a private network to
share a single public IP address when communicating with the Internet. This is
typically used in home and office routers.

4. Traffic Management:
o Routers manage network traffic by directing packets efficiently. They help in balancing
network load, controlling congestion, and minimizing delays by selecting the best
available routes.
5. Security:
o Many routers have built-in security features, such as firewalls, to prevent unauthorized
access to the network. Routers may filter traffic based on IP addresses, protocols, or
ports.
6. Connecting Different Networks:
o Routers enable communication between networks with different IP address schemes,
such as connecting a local area network (LAN) to a wide area network (WAN), or
linking a private network to the Internet.

Internet Addressing Schemes:

The internet addressing scheme includes:

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 IP addresses

Each host on a TCP/IP network has a unique 32-bit IP address that's divided into two parts: the
network number and the host number. IP addresses are represented in dot-decimal notation, with
each byte separated by a dot.

 Subnet addressing

Allows multiple networks to share the same internet address.

 Broadcast addresses

Allows TCP/IP to send data to all hosts on a local network or to all hosts on all directly connected
networks.

 Local loopback addresses

The special network address 127.0.0.1 is defined as a local loopback address.

 IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 was the first version of the IP addressing scheme, and was developed in the 1980s. IPv6 was
developed to address the issue of IPv4 addresses becoming exhausted as the internet grew. IPv6 uses
128-bit addresses, which provides a much larger pool of unique addresses.

E- mail Addresses

An internet email address is a unique string of characters that identifies an email account:

 Format

An email address is made up of three parts: a local-part, an “@” symbol, and a domain:

 Local-part: This part can include letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. It tells the server where to
deliver the email message.

 Domain: This part can be a domain name, like example.com, or an IP address, like 192.0.2.0. The
domain name signifies the city where the recipient lives.
 Length

The maximum number of characters for an email address is 320, but the recommended length is 254
characters.

 Security
An email account is secured by a password that only the account owner can access.
Here are some examples of email addresses: [email protected], [email protected], and
jsmith@[192.168.1.2.
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Some popular email service providers include:

 Yahoo! Mail

 Gmail

Resource Addresses

The address for a resource on the internet is a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A URL is
a unique identifier that specifies a resource's location on a computer network and how to retrieve it.

URLs are commonly used to reference web pages, but can also be used for other applications, such
as: File transfer (FTP), Email (mailto), and Database access (JDBC).

To access a web resource, a URL must include the correct domain name and the appropriate protocol,
such as "http://" or "https://".

 In theory, each valid URL points to a unique resource, but there are some exceptions. For example, a
URL might point to a resource that no longer exists or has moved.

 The owner of the web server is responsible for managing the resource and its associated URL.

 URLs that use HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) are not encrypted, so sending sensitive data over
them may not be safe. HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) URLs are encrypted and provide
a secure connection for transmitting data.

 Fragments can appear at the end of a URL, starting with a hashtag (#) symbol. These are internal page
references that refer to a specific section within the page.
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Unit – II

InternetConnectivity

Internet connectivity refers to the ability of devices to connect to the internet.

Types of Internet Connectivity:

1. Wired Connections:
o DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): Uses telephone lines for internet.
o Fiber Optic: Offers high-speed data transfer using light signals.
o Cable Internet: Uses coaxial cables from television service providers.
2. Wireless Connections:
o Wi-Fi: Local wireless networks within a limited range.
o Mobile Networks (4G/5G): Cellular network-based connectivity.
o Satellite Internet: Connects to the internet via satellites, useful in remote areas.
3. Broadband and Dial-up:
o Broadband: High-speed, always-on connections.
o Dial-up: Slower and outdated, requiring telephone line access.

Factors Affecting Connectivity:

 Bandwidth and Speed: The data rate of the connection.

 Latency: Time delay in data transfer.
 Reliability: Consistency of the connection.
 Infrastructure: Availability of cables, satellites, and towers in the region.

Hardware Requirements

To connect to the internet, specific hardware is necessary depending on the type of internet service and
devices involved. Here's an overview of the hardware requirements:

1. Network Interface Hardware

 Modem: Connects your home network to the internet service provider (ISP).
o Types: DSL modem, cable modem, fiber optic ONT (Optical Network Terminal).
 Router: Distributes the internet connection to multiple devices via wired or wireless
connections.
o Can be a standalone device or integrated with the modem (modem-router combo).
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 Network Interface Card (NIC):

o Built into computers, laptops, or devices to enable internet access.
o Wired NICs for Ethernet cables and wireless NICs for Wi-Fi connections.

2. Wired Internet Hardware

 Ethernet Cable: Connects devices to the modem or router for a stable, wired connection.
o Common standards: Cat5e, Cat6, or Cat7 cables.
 Switch (Optional): Allows connecting multiple wired devices to a network.

3. Wireless Internet Hardware

 Wireless Router: Distributes internet wirelessly (Wi-Fi) to devices.

 Wi-Fi Extenders or Mesh Systems (Optional): Boost Wi-Fi signal coverage in larger spaces.
 Access Points: Provide Wi-Fi in locations where the primary router signal is weak.

4. Satellite Internet Hardware

 Satellite Dish: Communicates with satellites for internet access.

 Satellite Modem: Connects the dish to devices.

5. Cellular Internet Hardware

 Mobile Hotspots: Portable devices providing internet via 4G/5G.

 SIM Cards: Enable internet on compatible devices through cellular networks.
 Dongles: USB devices for mobile internet connectivity.

6. Power-Related Hardware

 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) (Optional): Provides backup power for modems and
routers during outages.

Selection of a modem :

When choosing a modem for your internet connection, you can consider things like:

 Speed: The modem's speed should match your internet plan, which is measured in megabits per
second (Mbps).

 Compatibility: Make sure the modem is compatible with your internet service provider's (ISP)
infrastructure.

 Range: Think about how large the area is that you need Wi-Fi coverage for.
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 Security: Look for a modem with strong security features to protect your network.

 Build quality: Consider the build quality of the modem.

 Latest technology features: Consider whether the modem has the latest technology features.

 Price range: Consider the price range of the modem.

Internet Accounts by ISP and ISDN :

Internet Accounts by ISP

ISPs provide internet connectivity to individuals, businesses, and organizations. They offer different
types of accounts and plans based on the required speed, data usage, and technology.

Types of ISP Accounts

1. Residential Accounts:
o Designed for personal or household use.
o Plans include fixed-line connections like DSL, cable, or fiber optic.
o Common features: Wi-Fi routers, monthly data limits, and varying speeds.
2. Business Accounts:
o Tailored for enterprises needing reliable, high-speed connectivity.
o Include features like static IP addresses, advanced security, and priority support.
o Often delivered via fiber optics or leased lines.
3. Mobile Internet Accounts:
o Provide internet access via cellular networks (3G, 4G, 5G).
o Associated with SIM cards in smartphones or hotspots.
o Suitable for on-the-go users.
4. Pay-As-You-Go or Prepaid Accounts:
o Internet access based on usage or pre-purchased data.
o Popular for travelers or temporary users.
5. Dedicated or Leased Line Accounts:
o Provide a fixed bandwidth connection directly to the user.
o High-cost but reliable, used for critical business operations.

Internet Accounts via ISDN

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) was a popular method of digital communication before
broadband and fiber technologies became mainstream. It integrates voice and data services over
standard telephone lines.
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Types of ISDN Accounts

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI):

o Two data channels (B channels) and one signaling channel (D channel).
o Ideal for small offices or home users needing a stable internet connection.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI):
o Multiple data channels (23 in North America, 30 in Europe) and one signaling channel.
o Used by larger organizations for higher bandwidth needs

3. ISDN Dial-Up Accounts:

o Require ISDN modems and active ISDN lines.
o Users dial into their ISP's network, and charges are based on connection time.
4. Flat-Rate Accounts:
o Unlimited usage for a fixed monthly fee.
o Commonly used before broadband became widespread.

Network definition :

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such
as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network
may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Common terminologies

Firewall

A security measure that prevents unauthorized access to data on a network or computer. Firewalls
are especially useful for web users to protect them from cyber criminals and spyware.

HTTP

Stands for hypertext transfer protocol, which is a protocol that defines verbs to tell a remote system
what is being requested.

Browser

A service used to access website pages, such as Google Chrome, Firefox, Internet Explorer, or
Safari.

DNS

Stands for Domain Name Service, which is a directory that translates a domain name into an IP
address when it is typed into a web browser.
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URL

The address of a computer file that is on a computer server and can be accessed on the internet.

Cloud computing

A term that describes software that is online and can be borrowed instead of purchased and installed
on a computer. Web-based email is an example of cloud computing.

Wireless network

Also known as Wi-Fi, this is a way to connect a computer to the internet without using cables or
wires.

ISP

Stands for Internet Service Provider, which is a company that provides an internet connection. ISPs
can be telephone companies, cable TV companies, or companies that specialize in providing internet
connections to businesses or home users.

Router
A device that passes traffic back and forth, such as a home router that passes incoming traffic from
the internet to devices and outgoing traffic from local devices to the internet.

Node,Host & Workstation :

In the context of the internet, nodes, hosts, and workstations are fundamental components
that interact within networks.

1. Node

A node is any physical or virtual device that participates in a network and can send, receive, or
forward data.

Examples of Nodes:

 End Nodes: Devices like computers, smartphones, IoT devices, and printers.
 Intermediate Nodes: Networking devices like routers, switches, and gateways.

Node Functions:

 Data Transmission: Sending or receiving data packets.

 Routing: Forwarding data to other nodes in the network.
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2. Host

A host is a specific type of node with an IP address that can send and receive data over the internet or
a network.

Key Features:

 Unique Identifier: Every host has a unique IP address.

 Services and Applications: Hosts often provide services, such as web hosting, email servers,
or file storage.

Examples of Hosts:

 Servers (web servers, email servers).

 Personal computers and laptops connected to the internet.
 Cloud instances and virtual machines.

3. Workstation

A workstation is a type of host, typically a high-performance personal computer used for professional
or technical tasks.

Characteristics of Workstations:

 Connected to a Network: Workstations are usually part of a LAN (Local Area Network) or
the internet.
 Enhanced Capabilities: Often more powerful than standard PCs, used for tasks like graphic
design, programming, or simulations.

Roles in a Network:

 Accessing resources from other hosts (e.g., servers).

 Running network applications like browsers, email clients, or file transfer programs.

Network Administrator :
A network administrator is responsible for the smooth and secure operation of an
organization's network systems. They manage the network's devices, applications, and data, and ensure
that the network is functional and efficient.
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Network administrators are the backbone of an organization's IT infrastructure. They facilitate

effective communication and data management across the organization.

Skills for a network administrator include:

 Communication: Being able to communicate effectively with others

 Teamwork: Being able to work well with a team

 Adaptability: Being able to adapt to different situations

 Time management: Being able to manage their time effectively

 Practicality: Being able to be practical when needed

 Network configuration: Being proficient in network configuration

Network Security :
Network security is the protection of a network's infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, or
theft. It involves creating a secure environment for devices, applications, and users.

Some types of network security include:

 Firewalls

A device that monitors and controls network traffic based on security rules. Firewalls act as a barrier
between internal and external networks.

 Intrusion prevention systems (IPSs)

Respond to network security risks by blocking them. IPSs scan network traffic and connect it to
databases of known attack methods.

 Access control

Defines who or what has access to network applications and systems. Access control can be
integrated with Identity and Access Management (IAM) products.

 Virtual private networks (VPNs)

Route a user's internet traffic through a secure server. VPNs encrypt data transmissions between a
user's device and a remote server.
Other types of network security include:

 Network access control

 IT security policies
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 Application security

 Vulnerability management

 Network penetration testing

 Data loss prevention

 Antivirus software

Network Components :
Network components are hardware or software pieces that connect devices and enable data flow
within a network. Some common network components include:

 Routers

Connect multiple networks and forward data packets between them. Routers use a MAC address for
L2 or an IP address for L3 to route packets.

 Switches

Connect devices within a network and forward data packets to their intended destinations. Switches
are multi-port devices that can receive, process, and forward data to multiple devices.

 Network interface cards (NICs)

Connect a desktop or server to a network. NICs are integrated into computer circuit boards and are
also known as network adapters, LAN adapters, or physical network interfaces.

 Firewalls

Monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined security
rules. Firewalls provide granular control over what can and cannot access the network.

 Gateways

Provide compatibility between networks by converting transmission speeds, protocols, codes, or

security measures.

 Repeaters

Receive a signal and retransmit it at a higher level or power, or onto the other side of an
obstruction.

 Bridges
Connect multiple network segments. Bridges are smarter hubs that only pass data to the destination
port.

Client Server
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In a client-server model, the client sends requests for services or resources, and the server provides
those services or resources.

Client:

 Role: The client is the requesting party. It initiates communication by making requests for data
or services.
 Devices: Can be personal computers, smartphones, tablets, or any device capable of accessing
a network and running client software (e.g., web browsers, email clients).
 Responsibilities:
o Requesting data or services from the server.
o Displaying the data or providing the service to the user.
o Running the application (e.g., web browser, email client) that interfaces with the server.
 Characteristics:
o May request and consume services without storing or processing large amounts of data.
o Clients can be thin (relying heavily on server resources) or thick (performing some
processing locally).

Server:

 Role: The server is the provider. It responds to client requests by offering resources, services,
or processing power.

3. Client-Server Interaction

1. Request-Response:
o The client sends a request to the server, usually over the network (e.g., using HTTP for
web browsing).
o The server processes the request and sends a response back to the client.

Example: A user in a web browser (client) types a URL (request), and the web server responds
with the requested web page (response).

Communication media

Communication media is the means used to send and receive information, and the internet is a modern
form of communication media. Some examples of communication media used on the internet include:

 Email: A popular way to communicate on the internet

 Social media: A powerful communication medium that has become an integral part of people's lives
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 VoIP: An internet-based calling service

 Instant messaging: A popular way to communicate on the internet

 Video conferencing: A popular way to communicate on the internet

Types of Networks :
A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share
information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows
users to communicate more easily. A computer network is a collection of two or more computer
systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established using
either cable or wireless media

 Personal area network (PAN): The smallest and simplest network, PANs connect devices within a
person's range, typically no more than 10 meters. Most PANs are wireless and use infrared technology
for short-range connectivity.

 Local area network (LAN): LANs connect devices within a limited geographical area, such as a
school, office building, or hospital. LANs use links like wires, Ethernet cables, fiber optics, or Wi-Fi
to transmit data quickly.

 Wide area network (WAN): WANs cover larger areas, such as states, countries, and large cities.

 Metropolitan area network (MAN): A large computer network that spans across a city.

 Campus area network (CAN): A collection of interconnected LANs, used by larger entities like
universities and governments.

DNS :

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on different systems, pass
the messages to each other.

o DNS stands for Domain Name System.

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o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the network
and its numerical address.
o DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users of
networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of remembering
the IP addresses.
o For example, suppose the FTP site at EduSoft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most
people would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name is
more reliable than IP address.

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is divided into three
different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.

Network Topology :

Network topology refers to the arrangement or structure of how different devices (nodes) and
components in a network are connected and how data flows between them. The topology defines the
physical or logical layout of the network, and it directly impacts the network's performance,
scalability, and reliability.

1.1. Bus Topology

 Description: In bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus). Data
sent by any device travels in both directions along the bus.
 Characteristics:
o Simple and cost-effective for small networks.
o All devices share the same communication medium.
o Performance degrades as more devices are added.
o If the central bus fails, the entire network is affected.
 Advantages:
o Easy to implement and extend.
o Less cabling compared to other topologies.
 Disadvantages:
o Difficult to troubleshoot.
o Can be slow with increased traffic.
o Limited scalability.

Example: Early Ethernet networks (10BASE-2).

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1.2. Star Topology

 Description: In star topology, each device is connected to a central node (often a hub or
switch). The central node acts as a mediator, and data is sent through the central node to reach
other devices.
 Characteristics:
o Centralized structure makes management and troubleshooting easier.
o Each device is only connected to the central hub, not directly to other devices.
o If the central hub fails, the entire network is affected.
 Advantages:
o Easy to add new devices without affecting the rest of the network.
o High performance due to direct connections between devices and the central hub.
o Simple to troubleshoot.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires more cabling than bus topology.
o If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.

Example: Modern office networks, Wi-Fi networks.

1.3. Ring Topology

 Description: In ring topology, devices are connected in a circular fashion, where each device
connects to exactly two others. Data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions
(bidirectional) around the ring.
 Characteristics:
o Data travels in a continuous loop.
o Each device acts as a repeater to boost the signal, helping data reach its destination.
o A failure in one device or connection can disrupt the entire network.
 Advantages:
o Simple and predictable data flow.
o Can work well in smaller networks.
 Disadvantages:
o One failure can disrupt the entire network.
o Difficult to add or remove devices without affecting the rest of the network.

Example: Early Token Ring networks.

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1.4. Mesh Topology

 Description: In mesh topology, each device is connected to every other device in the network,
providing multiple paths for data to travel. This type of topology can be fully connected or
partially connected.
 Characteristics:
o High redundancy and fault tolerance.
o If one link fails, data can take an alternate path.
o Typically used in large, high-performance networks that require reliability.
 Advantages:
o Very fault-tolerant; high redundancy.
o Excellent for large-scale or mission-critical networks.
o Provides high reliability and speed.
 Disadvantages:
o Expensive and complex to set up.
o Requires a large amount of cabling for full mesh networks.
o Difficult to maintain and expand.

Example: Large enterprise networks, wide-area networks (WANs) for high-availability systems.

1.5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

 Description: Tree topology is a combination of star and bus topologies. It consists of groups of
star-configured networks connected to a central bus backbone.
 Characteristics:
o Hierarchical structure, where each "branch" can have multiple levels.
o Easy to scale by adding new branches.
o Each node is connected to a central backbone.
 Advantages:
o Scalable and flexible.
o Fault isolation is easier compared to bus and ring topologies.
 Disadvantages:
o If the central backbone fails, communication between devices in different branches will
be interrupted.
o Requires more cabling than star topology.

Example: Large enterprise networks, internet service provider (ISP) networks.

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1.6. Hybrid Topology

 Description: Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different topologies (e.g., a

combination of star and mesh topologies) to meet specific needs.
 Characteristics:
o Can provide the benefits of different topologies in a single network.
o Typically used in large organizations with complex network requirements.
 Advantages:
o Flexible and adaptable to different needs.
o Allows for optimal performance based on different parts of the network.
 Disadvantages:
o Complex to design, implement, and maintain.
o Can be expensive due to the combination of multiple topologies.

Example: A large corporate network with multiple departments, each using different topologies.

Ethernet :

Ethernet is defined as a networking technology that includes the protocol, port, cable, and
computer chip needed to plug a desktop or laptop into a local area network (LAN) for speedy data
transmission via coaxial or fiber optic cables

Key Features of Ethernet

Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current Ethernet standards
supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.
Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range of devices and
operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a growing number of users and
devices.
Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction techniques to ensure that
data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely available and easy to
implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring minimal ongoing support.
Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and authentication,
to protect data from unauthorized access.
Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking technologies,
making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.
Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in almost any setting,
from homes and small offices to large data centers and enterprise-level networks.
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Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It does not
require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and configure, making it accessible to a
wide range of users

FDDI And ATM

FDDI

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

FDDI is a high-speed, fiber-optic-based network standard used primarily for local area networks
(LANs)

Key Features of FDDI:

1. Transmission Medium:
o FDDI uses fiber optic cables as the transmission medium, providing high bandwidth
and immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
o It typically uses multimode fiber, though single-mode fiber can also be used for longer
distances.
2. Speed:
o FDDI supports data transfer speeds of up to 100 Mbps.
3. Topology:
o FDDI networks use a dual ring topology, with two fiber rings (primary and secondary)
that provide redundancy and fault tolerance.
o If one ring fails, the data can still be transmitted in the opposite direction using the
second ring, ensuring continuous network operation.
4. Token Passing:
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o FDDI uses a token-passing method for media access control (MAC). In this method, a
token (a special data frame) circulates around the network, and the device holding the
token can transmit data. This prevents collisions and ensures orderly data transmission.
5. Reliability:
o The dual ring design and fault-tolerant features make FDDI highly reliable. The
network can automatically recover from failures in one of the rings.
6. Distance:
o FDDI supports long-distance transmission of up to 200 kilometers (124 miles) using
single-mode fiber.
7. Usage:
o FDDI was widely used in the 1990s as the backbone for large enterprise networks, but
it has been largely replaced by Gigabit Ethernet and 10-Gigabit Ethernet due to their
lower cost and higher speeds.

ATM :

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

ATM is a networking technology designed for high-speed, high-performance data transmission. It

was developed in the 1980s by the ANSI Key Features of ATM:

1. Cell-based Transmission:
o ATM is cell-based, meaning it breaks data into fixed-size packets known as cells. Each
cell is 53 bytes long, consisting of a 5-byte header and a 48-byte payload.
o This fixed-size structure makes it easier to handle different types of data (e.g., voice,
video, and data) in a consistent manner.
2. Speed:
o ATM can support data rates ranging from 25 Mbps to over 100 Gbps, making it
suitable for high-throughput applications.
3. Quality of Service (QoS):
o ATM allows for high-quality service guarantees (such as low latency and jitter),
which is ideal for applications like voice and video conferencing where timing is
crucial.
o It supports different traffic classes (e.g., Constant Bit Rate (CBR), Variable Bit Rate
(VBR), Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR), and Available Bit Rate (ABR)) to optimize
network resources based on the type of data.
4. Connection-Oriented:
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o ATM is a connection-oriented protocol, meaning that a virtual circuit (or ATM

virtual connection) is established between the sender and receiver before data
transmission begins.
o Once the connection is established, data can be transferred continuously in small, fixed-
size cells, which are routed through the network.
5. Multiplexing:
o ATM supports multiplexing, allowing multiple types of traffic (e.g., voice, video, and
data) to share the same physical network infrastructure.