`C++ is a popular programming language.

C++ is used to create computer programs.

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << "Hello World!";

return 0;

Output

What is C++?

C++ is a cross-platform language that can be used to create high-performance applications.

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, as an extension to the C language.

C++ gives programmers a high level of control over system resources and memory.

The language was updated 3 major times in 2011, 2014, and 2017 to C++11, C++14, and C++17.

Why Use C++

C++ is one of the world's most popular programming languages.

C++ can be found in today's operating systems, Graphical User Interfaces, and embedded systems.

C++ is an object-oriented programming language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to be reused, lowering development costs.

C++ is portable and can be used to develop applications that can be adapted to multiple platforms.

C++ is fun and easy to learn!

As C++ is close to C# and Java, it makes it easy for programmers to switch to C++ or vice versa

It is not necessary to have any prior programming experience.

C++ Get Started

To start using C++, you need two things:

 A text editor, like Notepad, to write C++ code

 A compiler, like GCC, to translate the C++ code into a language that the computer will understand

There are many text editors and compilers to choose from. In this tutorial, we will use an IDE (see below).

C++ Install IDE

An IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is used to edit AND compile the code.

Popular IDE's include Code::Blocks, Eclipse, and Visual Studio. These are all free, and they can be used to both edit and debug C++ code.

Note: Web-based IDE's can work as well, but functionality is limited.

We will use Code::Blocks in our tutorial, which we believe is a good place to start.

You can find the latest version of Codeblocks at http://www.codeblocks.org/downloads/26. Download the mingw-setup.exe file, which will install the text editor with a
compiler.

C++ Quickstart

Let's create our first C++ file.

Open Codeblocks and go to File > New > Empty File.

Write the following C++ code and save the file as myfirstprogram.cpp (File > Save File as):

myfirstprogram.cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

Example explained

Line 1: #include <iostream> is a header file library that lets us work with input and output objects, such as cout (used in line 5). Header files add functionality to
C++ programs.

Line 2: using namespace std means that we can use names for objects and variables from the standard library.

Don't worry if you don't understand how #include <iostream> and using namespace std works. Just think of it as something that (almost) always appears in your
program.

Line 3: A blank line. C++ ignores white space.

Line 4: Another thing that always appear in a C++ program, is int main(). This is called a function. Any code inside its curly brackets {} will be executed.
Line 5: cout (pronounced "see-out") is an object used together with the insertion operator (<<) to output/print text. In our example it will output "Hello World".

Note: Every C++ statement ends with a semicolon ;.

Note: The body of int main() could also been written as:
int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; return 0; }

Remember: The compiler ignores white spaces. However, multiple lines makes the code more readable.

Line 6: return 0 ends the main function.

Line 7: Do not forget to add the closing curly bracket } to actually end the main function.

Omitting Namespace

You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard namespace library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and replaced with
the std keyword, followed by the :: operator for some objects:

Example
#include <iostream>

int main() {
std::cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not.

C++ Output (Print Text)

The cout object, together with the << operator, is used to output values/print text:

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}

You can add as many cout objects as you want. However, note that it does not insert a new line at the end of the output:

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World!";
cout << "I am learning C++";
return 0;
}

C++ New Lines

New Lines

To insert a new line, you can use the \n character:

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World! \n";
cout << "I am learning C++";
return 0;
}

Tip: Two \n characters after each other will create a blank line:

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World! \n\n";
cout << "I am learning C++";
return 0;
}

Another way to insert a new line, is with the endl manipulator:

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
cout << "I am learning C++";
return 0;
}

Both \n and endl are used to break lines. However, \n is used more often and is the preferred way.

C++ Comments

Comments can be used to explain C++ code, and to make it more readable. It can also be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code. Comments can be
singled-lined or multi-lined.

Single-line Comments

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).

Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by the compiler (will not be executed).

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

Example
// This is a comment
cout << "Hello World!";

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Example
cout << "Hello World!"; // This is a comment

C++ Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the compiler:

Example
/* The code below will print the words Hello World!
to the screen, and it is amazing */
cout << "Hello World!";

Single or multi-line comments?

It is up to you which you want to use. Normally, we use // for short comments, and /* */ for longer.

C++ Variables

Variables are containers for storing data values.

In C++, there are different types of variables (defined with different keywords), for example:

 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
 double - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
 char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
 string - stores text, such as "Hello World". String values are surrounded by double quotes
 bool - stores values with two states: true or false

Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:

Syntax
type variable = value;

Where type is one of C++ types (such as int), and variable is the name of the variable (such as x or myName). The equal sign is used to assign values to the
variable.

To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:

Example

Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int myNum = 15;

cout << myNum;

return 0;

You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int myNum;

myNum = 15;

cout << myNum;

return 0;

Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int myNum = 15; // Now myNum is 15

myNum = 10; // Now myNum is 10

cout << myNum;

return 0;

C++ Data Types

As explained in the Variables chapter, a variable in C++ must be a specified data type:

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

// Creating variables

int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)

float myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number

double myDoubleNum = 9.98; // Floating point number

char myLetter = 'D'; // Character

bool myBoolean = true; // Boolean

string myString = "Hello"; // String

// Print variable values

cout << "int: " << myNum << "\n";

cout << "float: " << myFloatNum << "\n";

cout << "double: " << myDoubleNum << "\n";

cout << "char: " << myLetter << "\n";

cout << "bool: " << myBoolean << "\n";

cout << "string: " << myString << "\n";

return 0;

Basic Data Types

The data type specifies the size and type of information the variable will store:

Data Size Description

Type

int
4 Stores whole numbers, without decimals
bytes

float
4 Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more
bytes decimals. Sufficient for storing 7 decimal digits

double
8 Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more
bytes decimals. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits

boolean
1 Stores true or false values
byte

char
1 Stores a single character/letter/number, or ASCII values
byte

Numeric Types

Use int when you need to store a whole number without decimals, like 35 or 1000, and float or double when you need a floating point number (with decimals), like
9.99 or 3.14515.

int
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

int myNum = 1000;

cout << myNum;

return 0;

float
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

float myNum = 5.75;

cout << myNum;

return 0;

double
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

double myNum = 19.99;

cout << myNum;

return 0;
}

float vs. double

The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value can have after the decimal point. The precision of float is only six or seven decimal digits,
while double variables have a precision of about 15 digits. Therefore it is safer to use double for most calculations.

Scientific Numbers

A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to indicate the power of 10:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

float f1 = 35e3;

double d1 = 12E4;

cout << f1 << "\n";

cout << d1;

return 0;

Boolean Types

A boolean data type is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the values true or false. When the value is returned, true = 1 and false = 0.

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

bool isCodingFun = true;

bool isFishTasty = false;

cout << isCodingFun << "\n";

cout << isFishTasty;

return 0;

}
Character Types

The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be surrounded by single quotes, like 'A' or 'c':

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

char myGrade = 'B';

cout << myGrade;

return 0;

Alternatively, you can use ASCII values to display certain characters:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

char a = 65, b = 66, c = 67;

cout << a;

cout << b;

cout << c;

return 0;

String Types

The string type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). This is not a built-in type, but it behaves like one in its most basic usage. String values must be
surrounded by double quotes:

Example
string greeting = "Hello";
cout << greeting;

To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code, the <string> library:
Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string greeting = "Hello";

cout << greeting;

return 0;

C++ Operators

Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 100 + 50;

cout << x;

return 0;

Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the example above, it can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or a variable
and another variable:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)

int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)

int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)

cout << sum1 << "\n";

cout << sum2 << "\n";

cout << sum3;

return 0;

C++ divides the operators into the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators

 Assignment operators

 Comparison operators

 Logical operators

 Bitwise operators

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.

Operator Name Description Example

+ Addition Adds together two values x+y

- Subtraction Subtracts one value from x-y

another

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y

/ Division Divides one value by another x / y

% Modulus Returns the division x%y

remainder
++ Increment Increases the value of a ++x
variable by 1

-- Decrement Decreases the value of a --x

variable by 1

Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable called x:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 10;

cout << x;

return 0;

The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 10;

x += 5;

cout << x;

return 0;

}
A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values.

Note: The return value of a comparison is either true (1) or false (0).

In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if 5 is greater than 3:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 5;

int y = 3;

cout << (x > y); // returns 1 (true) because 5 is greater than 3

return 0;

A list of all comparison operators:

Operator Name Example

== Equal to x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:

Operator Name Description Example

&& Logical Returns true if both x < 5 && x <

and statements are true 10

|| Logical Returns true if one of the x < 5 || x < 4

or statements is true
! Logical Reverse the result, returns !(x < 5 && x
not false if the result is true < 10)

String Concatenation

The + operator can be used between strings to add them together to make a new string. This is called concatenation:

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

string firstName = "John ";

string lastName = "Doe";

string fullName = firstName + lastName;

cout << fullName;

return 0;

In the example above, we added a space after firstName to create a space between John and Doe on output. However, you could also add a space with quotes ("
" or ' '):

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

string firstName = "John";

string lastName = "Doe";

string fullName = firstName + " " + lastName;

cout << fullName;

return 0;
}

Append

A string in C++ is actually an object, which contain functions that can perform certain operations on strings. For example, you can also concatenate strings with
the append() function:

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

string firstName = "John ";

string lastName = "Doe";

string fullName = firstName.append(lastName);

cout << fullName;

return 0;

It is up to you whether you want to use + or append(). The major difference between the two, is that the append() function is much faster. However, for testing and
such, it might be easier to just use +.

Adding Numbers and Strings

WARNING!

C++ uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.

Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.

If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {
int x = 10;

int y = 20;

int z = x + y;

cout << z;

return 0;

If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

string x = "10";

string y = "20";

string z = x + y;

cout << z;

return 0;

If you try to add a number to a string, an error occurs:

Example
string x = "10";
int y = 20;
string z = x + y;

C++ Strings

Strings are used for storing text.

A string variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes:

Example

Create a variable of type string and assign it a value:

string greeting = "Hello";

To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code, the <string> library:

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string greeting = "Hello";

cout << greeting;

return 0;

String Length

To get the length of a string, use the length() function:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";

cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.length();

return 0;

Tip: You might see some C++ programs that use the size() function to get the length of a string. This is just an alias of length(). It is completely up to you if you
want to use length() or size():

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main() {

string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";

cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.size();

return 0;

Access Strings

You can access the characters in a string by referring to its index number inside square brackets [].

This example prints the first character in myString:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string myString = "Hello";

cout << myString[0];

return 0;

Note: String indexes start with 0: [0] is the first character. [1] is the second character, etc.

This example prints the second character in myString:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string myString = "Hello";

cout << myString[1];

return 0;
}

Change String Characters

To change the value of a specific character in a string, refer to the index number, and use single quotes:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string myString = "Hello";

myString[0] = 'J';

cout << myString;

return 0;

User Input Strings

It is possible to use the extraction operator >> on cin to display a string entered by a user:

Example
tring firstName;
cout << "Type your first name: ";
cin >> firstName; // get user input from the keyboard
cout << "Your name is: " << firstName;

// Type your first name: John

// Your name is: John

However, cin considers a space (whitespace, tabs, etc) as a terminating character, which means that it can only display a single word (even if you type many words):

Example
string fullName;
cout << "Type your full name: ";
cin >> fullName;
cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;

// Type your full name: John Doe

// Your name is: John

From the example above, you would expect the program to print "John Doe", but it only prints "John".

That's why, when working with strings, we often use the getline() function to read a line of text. It takes cin as the first parameter, and the string variable as
second:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string fullName;

cout << "Type your full name: ";

getline (cin, fullName);

cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;

return 0;

Omitting Namespace

You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard namespace library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and replaced with
the std keyword, followed by the :: operator for string (and cout) objects:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

int main() {

std::string greeting = "Hello";

std::cout << greeting;

return 0;

C++ Math

C++ has many functions that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on numbers.

Max and min

The max(x,y) function can be used to find the highest value of x and y:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << max(5, 10);

return 0;

And the min(x,y) function can be used to find the lowest value of x and y:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << min(5, 10);

return 0;

C++ <cmath> Header

Other functions, such as sqrt (square root), round (rounds a number) and log (natural logarithm), can be found in the <cmath> header file:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << sqrt(64) << "\n";

cout << round(2.6) << "\n";

cout << log(2) << "\n";

return 0;

}
Other Math Functions

A list of other popular Math functions (from the <cmath> library) can be found in the table below:

Function Description

abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x

acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x

asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x

atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x

cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x

ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer

cos(x) Returns the cosine of x

cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x

exp(x) Returns the value of E x

expm1(x) Returns e -1
x

fabs(x) Returns the absolute value of a floating x

fdim(x, y) Returns the positive difference between x and y

floor(x) Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer

hypot(x, y) Returns sqrt(x +y ) without intermediate overflow or underflow

2 2

fma(x, y, z) Returns x*y+z without losing precision

fmax(x, y) Returns the highest value of a floating x and y

fmin(x, y) Returns the lowest value of a floating x and y

fmod(x, y) Returns the floating point remainder of x/y

pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y

sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians)

sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value

tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle

tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value

C++ Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:

 YES / NO

 ON / OFF

 TRUE / FALSE

For this, C++ has a bool data type, which can take the values true (1) or false (0).

Boolean Values

A boolean variable is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the values true or false:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

bool isCodingFun = true;

bool isFishTasty = false;

cout << isCodingFun << "\n";

cout << isFishTasty;

return 0;

From the example above, you can read that a true value returns 1, and false returns 0.

Boolean Expression

A Boolean expression is a C++ expression that returns a boolean value: 1 (true) or 0 (false).

You can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator to find out if an expression (or a variable) is true:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 10;

int y = 9;

cout << (x > y);

return 0;
}

Or even easier:

Example
.#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << (10 > 9);

return 0;

In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 10;

cout << (x == 10);

return 0;

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << (10 == 15);

return 0;

}
Booleans are the basis for all C++ comparisons and conditions.

C++ Conditions and If Statements

C++ supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b

 Greater than: a > b

 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

 Equal to a == b

 Not Equal to: a != b

You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.

C++ has the following conditional statements:

 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true

 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false

 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false

 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed.

The if Statement

Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be executed if a condition is true.

Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}

Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.

In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition is true, print some text:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

if (20 > 18) {

cout << "20 is greater than 18";

return 0;

We can also test variables:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int x = 20;

int y = 18;

if (x > y) {

cout << "x is greater than y";

return 0;

Example explained

In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater
than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y".

The else Statement

Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.

Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {

cout << "Good day.";

} else {

cout << "Good evening.";

return 0;

}
Example explained

In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Because of this, we move on to the else condition and print to the screen "Good
evening". If the time was less than 18, the program would print "Good day".

The else if Statement

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.

Syntax
if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false
}

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int time = 22;

if (time < 10) {

cout << "Good morning.";

} else if (time < 20) {

cout << "Good day.";

} else {

cout << "Good evening.";

return 0;

Example explained

In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false. The next condition, in the else if statement, is also false, so we move on to
the else condition since condition1 and condition2 is both false - and print to the screen "Good evening".

However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)

There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of three operands. It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a
single line. It is often used to replace simple if else statements:
Syntax
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;

Instead of writing:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {

cout << "Good day.";

} else {

cout << "Good evening.";

return 0;

You can simply write:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int time = 20;

string result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";

cout << result;

return 0;

C++ Switch Statements

Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to be executed.

Syntax
switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}

This is how it works:

 The switch expression is evaluated once

 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case

 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed

 The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter

The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int day = 4;

switch (day) {

case 1:

cout << "Monday";

break;

case 2:

cout << "Tuesday";

break;

case 3:

cout << "Wednesday";

break;

case 4:

cout << "Thursday";

break;

case 5:

cout << "Friday";

break;

case 6:

cout << "Saturday";

break;

case 7:

cout << "Sunday";

break;

return 0;

The break Keyword

When C++ reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.

This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.

When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no need for more testing.

A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all the rest of the code in the switch block.

The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int day = 4;

switch (day) {

case 6:

cout << "Today is Saturday";

break;

case 7:

cout << "Today is Sunday";

break;

default:

cout << "Looking forward to the Weekend";

return 0;

}
Note: The default keyword must be used as the last statement in the switch, and it does not need a break.

C++ While Loop

C++ Loops

Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.

Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.

C++ While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:

Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}

In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable (i) is less than 5:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int i = 0;

while (i < 5) {

cout << i << "\n";

i++;

return 0;

Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!

The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long
as the condition is true.

Syntax
do {
// code block to be executed
}
while (condition);

The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least once, even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed before the
condition is tested:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int i = 0;

do {

cout << i << "\n";

i++;

while (i < 5);

return 0;

Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!

C++ For Loop

When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for loop instead of a while loop:

Syntax
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
// code block to be executed
}

Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.

Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.

The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

cout << i << "\n";

return 0;

Example explained

Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).

Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If the condition is true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop will end.

Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been executed.

Another Example

This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {

cout << i << "\n";

return 0;

}
C++ Break and Continue
C++ Break

You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a switch statement.

The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.

This example jumps out of the loop when i is equal to 4:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {

break;

cout << i << "\n";

return 0;

C++ Continue

The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.

This example skips the value of 4:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {

continue;

}
cout << i << "\n";

return 0;

Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:

Break Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

cout << i << "\n";

i++;

if (i == 4) {

break;

return 0;

Continue Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

if (i == 4) {

i++;

continue;

cout << i << "\n";

i++;

return 0;

C++ Arrays

Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate variables for each value.

To declare an array, define the variable type, specify the name of the array followed by square brackets and specify the number of elements it should store:

string cars[4];

We have now declared a variable that holds an array of four strings. To insert values to it, we can use an array literal - place the values in a comma-separated list,
inside curly braces:

string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

To create an array of three integers, you could write:

int myNum[3] = {10, 20, 30};

Access the Elements of an Array

You access an array element by referring to the index number.

This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

cout << cars[0];

return 0;

Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.

Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:

Example
cars[0] = "Opel";

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

cars[0] = "Opel";

cout << cars[0];

return 0;

C++ Arrays and Loops

Loop Through an Array

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop.
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for(int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {

cout << cars[i] << "\n";

return 0;

The following example outputs the index of each element together with its value:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for(int i = 0; i < 4; i++) {

cout << i << ": " << cars[i] << "\n";

return 0;

Omit Array Size

You don't have to specify the size of the array. But if you don't, it will only be as big as the elements that are inserted into it:

string cars[] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // size of array is always 3

This is completely fine. However, the problem arise if you want extra space for future elements. Then you have to overwrite the existing values:

string cars[] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"};

string cars[] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda", "Tesla"};

If you specify the size however, the array will reserve the extra space:

string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // size of array is 5, even though it's only three elements inside it

Now you can add a fourth and fifth element without overwriting the others:

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"};

cars[3] = "Mazda";

cars[4] = "Tesla";

for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

cout << cars[i] << "\n";

return 0;

Omit Elements on Declaration

It is also possible to declare an array without specifying the elements on declaration, and add them later:

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string cars[5];
cars[0] = "Volvo";

cars[1] = "BMW";

cars[2] = "Ford";

cars[3] = "Mazda";

cars[4] = "Tesla";

for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

cout << cars[i] << "\n";

return 0;

Creating References

A reference variable is a "reference" to an existing variable, and it is created with the & operator:

string food = "Pizza"; // food variable

string &meal = food; // reference to food

Now, we can use either the variable name food or the reference name meal to refer to the food variable:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string food = "Pizza";

string &meal = food;

cout << food << "\n";

cout << meal << "\n";

return 0;

}
Memory Address

In the example from the previous page, the & operator was used to create a reference variable. But it can also be used to get the memory address of a variable; which
is the location of where the variable is stored on the computer.

When a variable is created in C++, a memory address is assigned to the variable. And when we assign a value to the variable, it is stored in this memory address.

To access it, use the & operator, and the result will represent where the variable is stored:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string food = "Pizza";

cout << &food;

return 0;

Note: The memory address is in hexadecimal form (0x..). Note that you may not get the same result in your program.

And why is it useful to know the memory address?

References and Pointers (which you will learn about in the next chapter) are important in C++, because they give you the ability to manipulate the data in the
computer's memory - which can reduce the code and improve the performance.

Creating Pointers

You learned from the previous chapter, that we can get the memory address of a variable by using the & operator:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string food = "Pizza";

cout << food << "\n";

cout << &food << "\n";

return 0;

}
A pointer however, is a variable that stores the memory address as its value.

A pointer variable points to a data type (like int or string) of the same type, and is created with the * operator. The address of the variable you're working with is
assigned to the pointer:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string food = "Pizza"; // A string variable

string* ptr = &food; // A pointer variable that stores the address of food

// Output the value of food

cout << food << "\n";

// Output the memory address of food

cout << &food << "\n";

// Output the memory address of food with the pointer

cout << ptr << "\n";

return 0;

Example explained

Create a pointer variable with the name ptr, that points to a string variable, by using the asterisk sign * (string* ptr). Note that the type of the pointer has to
match the type of the variable you're working with.

Use the & operator to store the memory address of the variable called food, and assign it to the pointer.

Now, ptr holds the value of food's memory address.

Tip: There are three ways to declare pointer variables, but the first way is preferred:

string* mystring; // Preferred

string *mystring;
string * mystring;
C++ Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

Functions are used to perform certain actions, and they are important for reusing code: Define the code once, and use it many times.

Create a Function

C++ provides some pre-defined functions, such as main(), which is used to execute code. But you can also create your own functions to perform certain actions.

To create (often referred to as declare) a function, specify the name of the function, followed by parentheses ():

Syntax
void myFunction() {
// code to be executed
}

Example Explained

 myFunction() is the name of the function

 void means that the function does not have a return value. You will learn more about return values later in the next chapter
 inside the function (the body), add code that defines what the function should do

Call a Function

Declared functions are not executed immediately. They are "saved for later use", and will be executed later, when they are called.

To call a function, write the function's name followed by two parentheses () and a semicolon ;

In the following example, myFunction() is used to print a text (the action), when it is called:

Example

Inside main, call myFunction():

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void myFunction() {

cout << "I just got executed!";

int main() {

myFunction();

return 0;

}
A function can be called multiple times:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void myFunction() {

cout << "I just got executed!\n";

int main() {

myFunction();

myFunction();

myFunction();

return 0;

Function Declaration and Definition

A C++ function consist of two parts:

 Declaration: the function's name, return type, and parameters (if any)

 Definition: the body of the function (code to be executed)

void myFunction() { // declaration

// the body of the function (definition)
}

Note: If a user-defined function, such as myFunction() is declared after the main() function, an error will occur:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

myFunction();

return 0;
}

void myFunction() {

cout << "I just got executed!";

However, it is possible to separate the declaration and the definition of the function - for code optimization.

You will often see C++ programs that have function declaration above main(), and function definition below main(). This will make the code better organized and
easier to read:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Function declaration

void myFunction();

// The main method

int main() {

myFunction(); // call the function

return 0;

// Function definition

void myFunction() {

cout << "I just got executed!";

C++ Function Parameters

Parameters and Arguments

Information can be passed to functions as a parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the function.

Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma:

Syntax
void functionName(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) {
// code to be executed
}

The following example has a function that takes a string called fname as parameter. When the function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the
function to print the full name:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

void myFunction(string fname) {

cout << fname << " Refsnes\n";

int main() {

myFunction("Liam");

myFunction("Jenny");

myFunction("Anja");

return 0;

When a parameter is passed to the function, it is called an argument. So, from the example above: fname is a parameter,
while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.

Default Parameter Value

You can also use a default parameter value, by using the equals sign (=).

If we call the function without an argument, it uses the default value ("Norway"):

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

void myFunction(string country = "Norway") {

cout << country << "\n";

int main() {
myFunction("Sweden");

myFunction("India");

myFunction();

myFunction("USA");

return 0;

A parameter with a default value, is often known as an "optional parameter". From the example above, country is an optional parameter and "Norway" is the default
value.

Multiple Parameters

Inside the function, you can add as many parameters as you want:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

void myFunction(string fname, int age) {

cout << fname << " Refsnes. " << age << " years old. \n";

int main() {

myFunction("Liam", 3);

myFunction("Jenny", 14);

myFunction("Anja", 30);

return 0;

Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the function call must have the same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the arguments
must be passed in the same order.

Return Values
The void keyword, used in the previous examples, indicates that the function should not return a value. If you want the function to return a value, you can use a data
type (such as int, string, etc.) instead of void, and use the return keyword inside the function:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int myFunction(int x) {

return 5 + x;

int main() {

cout << myFunction(3);

return 0;

This example returns the sum of a function with two parameters:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int myFunction(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

int main() {

cout << myFunction(5, 3);

return 0;

You can also store the result in a variable:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int myFunction(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

int main() {

int z = myFunction(5, 3);

cout << z;

return 0;

Pass By Reference
Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

void swapNums(int &x, int &y) {

int z = x;

x = y;

y = z;

int main() {

int firstNum = 10;

int secondNum = 20;

cout << "Before swap: " << "\n";

cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n";

swapNums(firstNum, secondNum);

cout << "After swap: " << "\n";

cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n";

return 0;

Function Overloading

With function overloading, multiple functions can have the same name with different parameters:

Example
int myFunction(int x)
float myFunction(float x)
double myFunction(double x, double y)

Consider the following example, which have two functions that add numbers of different type:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int plusFuncInt(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

double plusFuncDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;

int main() {

int myNum1 = plusFuncInt(8, 5);

double myNum2 = plusFuncDouble(4.3, 6.26);

cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n";

cout << "Double: " << myNum2;

return 0;

Instead of defining two functions that should do the same thing, it is better to overload one.

In the example below, we overload the plusFunc function to work for both int and double:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int plusFunc(int x, int y) {

return x + y;

double plusFunc(double x, double y) {

return x + y;

int main() {

int myNum1 = plusFunc(8, 5);

double myNum2 = plusFunc(4.3, 6.26);

cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n";

cout << "Double: " << myNum2;

return 0;

Note: Multiple functions can have the same name as long as the number and/or type of parameters are different.

What is OOP?
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.

Procedural programming is about writing procedures or functions that perform operations on the data, while object-oriented programming is about creating objects that
contain both data and functions.

Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural programming:

 OOP is faster and easier to execute

 OOP provides a clear structure for the programs

 OOP helps to keep the C++ code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug

 OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development time

Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the repetition of code. You should extract out the codes that are common for the application, and
place them at a single place and reuse them instead of repeating it.

C++ What are Classes and Objects?

Another example:

So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class.

When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the variables and functions from the class.

C++ Classes/Objects

C++ is an object-oriented programming language.

Everything in C++ is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has attributes,
such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and brake.

Attributes and methods are basically variables and functions that belongs to the class. These are often referred to as "class members".
A class is a user-defined data type that we can use in our program, and it works as an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class

To create a class, use the class keyword:

Example

Create a class called "MyClass":

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier
int myNum; // Attribute (int variable)
string myString; // Attribute (string variable)
};

Example explained

 The class keyword is used to create a class called MyClass.

 The public keyword is an access specifier, which specifies that members (attributes and methods)
of the class are accessible from outside the class. You will learn more about access
specifiers later.
 Inside the class, there is an integer variable myNum and a string variable myString. When variables are
declared within a class, they are called attributes.
 At last, end the class definition with a semicolon ;.

Create an Object

In C++, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class named MyClass, so now we can use this to create objects.

To create an object of MyClass, specify the class name, followed by the object name.

To access the class attributes (myNum and myString), use the dot syntax (.) on the object:

Example
Create an object called "myObj" and access the attributes:

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier

int myNum; // Attribute (int variable)

string myString; // Attribute (string variable)

};
int main() {

MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass

// Access attributes and set values

myObj.myNum = 15;

myObj.myString = "Some text";

// Print values

cout << myObj.myNum << "\n";

cout << myObj.myString;

return 0;

Multiple Objects

You can create multiple objects of one class:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

class Car {

public:

string brand;

string model;

int year;

};

int main() {
Car carObj1;

carObj1.brand = "BMW";

carObj1.model = "X5";

carObj1.year = 1999;

Car carObj2;

carObj2.brand = "Ford";

carObj2.model = "Mustang";

carObj2.year = 1969;

cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << "\n";

cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year << "\n";

return 0;

Class Methods

Methods are functions that belongs to the class.

There are two ways to define functions that belongs to a class:

 Inside class definition

 Outside class definition

In the following example, we define a function inside the class, and we name it "myMethod".

Note: You access methods just like you access attributes; by creating an object of the class and using the dot syntax (.):

Inside Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier

void myMethod() { // Method/function

cout << "Hello World!";

};

int main() {

MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass

myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method

return 0;

define a function outside the class definition, you have to declare it inside the class and then define it outside of the class. This is done by specifiying the name of the
class, followed the scope resolution :: operator, followed by the name of the function:

Outside Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier

void myMethod(); // Method/function declaration

};

// Method/function definition outside the class

void MyClass::myMethod() {

cout << "Hello World!";

int main() {

MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass

myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method

return 0;
}

Parameters

You can also add parameters:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Car {

public:

int speed(int maxSpeed);

};

int Car::speed(int maxSpeed) {

return maxSpeed;

int main() {

Car myObj;

cout << myObj.speed(200);

return 0;

Constructors

A constructor in C++ is a special method that is automatically called when an object of a class is created.

To create a constructor, use the same name as the class, followed by parentheses ():

Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier

MyClass() { // Constructor

cout << "Hello World!";

};

int main() {

MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass (this will call the constructor)

return 0;

Note: The constructor has the same name as the class, it is always public, and it does not have any return value.

Constructor Parameters

Constructors can also take parameters (just like regular functions), which can be useful for setting initial values for attributes.

The following class have brand, model and year attributes, and a constructor with different parameters. Inside the constructor we set the attributes equal to the
constructor parameters (brand=x, etc). When we call the constructor (by creating an object of the class), we pass parameters to the constructor, which will set the
value of the corresponding attributes to the same:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Car { // The class

public: // Access specifier

string brand; // Attribute

string model; // Attribute

int year; // Attribute

Car(string x, string y, int z) { // Constructor with parameters

brand = x;

model = y;

year = z;

};

int main() {

// Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values

Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999);

Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969);

// Print values

cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << "\n";

cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year << "\n";

return 0;

Just like functions, constructors can also be defined outside the class. First, declare the constructor inside the class, and then define it outside of the class by specifying
the name of the class, followed by the scope resolution :: operator, followed by the name of the constructor (which is the same as the class):

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Car { // The class

public: // Access specifier

string brand; // Attribute

string model; // Attribute

int year; // Attribute

Car(string x, string y, int z); // Constructor declaration

};
// Constructor definition outside the class

Car::Car(string x, string y, int z) {

brand = x;

model = y;

year = z;

int main() {

// Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values

Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999);

Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969);

// Print values

cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " << carObj1.year << "\n";

cout << carObj2.brand << " " << carObj2.model << " " << carObj2.year << "\n";

return 0;

Access Specifiers

By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in all of our class examples:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class MyClass { // The class

public: // Public access specifier

int x; // Public attribute (int variable)

};
int main() {

MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass

// Access attributes and set values

myObj.x = 15;

// Print values

cout << myObj.x;

return 0;

The public keyword is an access specifier. Access specifiers define how the members (attributes and methods) of a class can be accessed. In the example above, the
members are public - which means that they can be accessed and modified from outside the code.

However, what if we want members to be private and hidden from the outside world?

In C++, there are three access specifiers:

 public - members are accessible from outside the class

 private - members cannot be accessed (or viewed) from outside the class
 protected - members cannot be accessed from outside the class, however, they can be accessed in inherited classes. You will learn more
about Inheritance later.

In the following example, we demonstrate the differences between public and private members:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class MyClass {

public: // Public access specifier

int x; // Public attribute

private: // Private access specifier

int y; // Private attribute

};
int main() {

MyClass myObj;

myObj.x = 25; // Allowed (x is public)

myObj.y = 50; // Not allowed (y is private)

return 0;

Note: It is possible to access private members of a class using a public method inside the same class. See the next chapter (Encapsulation) on how to do this.

Tip: It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as private (as often as you can). This will reduce the possibility of yourself (or others) to mess up the
code.

Note: By default, all members of a class are private if you don't specify an access specifier:

Example
class MyClass {
int x; // Private attribute
int y; // Private attribute
};

Encapsulation

The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden from users. To achieve this, you must declare class variables/attributes
as private (cannot be accessed from outside the class). If you want others to read or modify the value of a private member, you can provide
public get and set methods.

Access Private Members

To access a private attribute, use public "get" and "set" methods:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Employee {

private:

int salary;

public:
void setSalary(int s) {

salary = s;

int getSalary() {

return salary;

};

int main() {

Employee myObj;

myObj.setSalary(50000);

cout << myObj.getSalary();

return 0;

Example explained

The salary attribute is private, which have restricted access.

The public setSalary() method takes a parameter (s) and assigns it to the salary attribute (salary = s).

The public getSalary() method returns the value of the private salary attribute.

Inside main(), we create an object of the Employee class. Now we can use the setSalary() method to set the value of the private attribute to 50000. Then we call
the getSalary() method on the object to return the value.

Why Encapsulation?

 It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as private (as often as you can). Encapsulation ensures better control of your data, because
you (or others) can change one part of the code without affecting other parts

 Increased security of data

Inheritance
1)Simple

2) Multiple

3) Hierachy

4) Multi-Level only used in c++

In C++, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the "inheritance concept" into
two categories:

 derived class (child) - the class that inherits from another class
 base class (parent) - the class being inherited from

To inherit from a class, use the : symbol.

In the example below, the Car class (child) inherits the attributes and methods from the Vehicle class (parent):

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

// Base class

class Vehicle {

public:

string brand = "Ford";

void honk() {

cout << "Tuut, tuut! \n" ;

};

// Derived class

class Car:: public Vehicle {

public:

string model = "Mustang";

};

int main() {

Car myCar;
myCar.honk();

cout << myCar.brand + " " + myCar.model;

return 0;

Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a new class.

Multilevel Inheritance
A class can also be derived from one class, which is already derived from another class.

In the following example, MyGrandChild is derived from class MyChild (which is derived from MyClass).

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Parent class

class MyClass {

public:

void myFunction() {

cout << "Some content in parent class." ;

};

// Child class

class MyChild: public MyClass {

};
// Grandchild class

class MyGrandChild: public MyChild {

};

int main() {

MyGrandChild myObj;

myObj.myFunction();

return 0;

Multiple Inheritance
A class can also be derived from more than one base class, using a comma-separated list:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Base class

class MyClass {

public:

void myFunction() {

cout << "Some content in parent class.\n" ;

};
// Another base class

class MyOtherClass {

public:

void myOtherFunction() {

cout << "Some content in another class.\n" ;

};

// Derived class

class MyChildClass: public MyClass, public MyOtherClass {

};

int main() {

MyChildClass myObj;

myObj.myFunction();

myObj.myOtherFunction();

return 0;

Access Specifiers
You learned from the Access Specifiers chapter that there are three specifiers available in C++. Until now, we have only
used public (members of a class are accessible from outside the class) and private (members can only be accessed within
the class). The third specifier, protected, is similar to private, but it can also be accessed in the inherited class:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Base class

class Employee {

protected: // Protected access specifier

int salary;

};

// Derived class

class Programmer: public Employee {

public:

int bonus;

void setSalary(int s) {

salary = s;

int getSalary() {

return salary;

};

int main() {

Programmer myObj;

myObj.setSalary(50000);

myObj.bonus = 15000;

cout << "Salary: " << myObj.getSalary() << "\n";

cout << "Bonus: " << myObj.bonus << "\n";

return 0;
}

Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to each other by
inheritance.

Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes and methods from another
class. Polymorphism uses those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to perform a single action in different
ways.

For example, think of a base class called Animal that has a method called animalSound(). Derived classes of Animals could
be Pigs, Cats, Dogs, Birds - And they also have their own implementation of an animal sound (the pig oinks, and the cat
meows, etc.):

Example

// Base class
class Animal {
public:
void animalSound() {
cout << "The animal makes a sound \n" ;
}
};

// Derived class
class Pig : public Animal {
public:
void animalSound() {
cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n" ;
}
};

// Derived class
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
void animalSound() {
cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n" ;
}
};

Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the : symbol to inherit from a class.

Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and override the animalSound() method:

Example

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

// Base class

class Animal {

public:

void animalSound() {

cout << "The animal makes a sound \n" ;

};

// Derived class

class Pig : public Animal {

public:

void animalSound() {

cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n" ;

};

// Derived class

class Dog : public Animal {

public:

void animalSound() {

cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n" ;

};

int main() {
Animal myAnimal;

Pig myPig;

Dog myDog;

myAnimal.animalSound();

myPig.animalSound();

myDog.animalSound();

return 0;

Abstraction
Abstract class in C++ is the one which is not used to create objects. These type of classes are designed only to treat like a
base class (to be inherited by other classes). It is a designed technique for program development which allows making a
base upon which other classes may be built.

In C++ language, programmers can use access modifiers to define the abstract interface of the class. A C++ class may contain zero

or more access labels:

 As you all became familiar that members defined within the public access specifier are accessible to l parts of the program. The
data abstraction of a type can be viewed or classified by its public members.
 When the access specifier is in private mode, members defined in the private mode are not accessible to code that uses the class.
The private section is designed specifically for hiding the implementation of code within a C++ program.

There is no limitation on how access modifiers may appear within a program. The specific access modifier keeps its effect until the

next access modifier is declared or the closing brace (i.e. "}") of the class body is seen.

Program to show the use of data abstraction in C++

Here is an example of declaring Public members of C++ class:

Example:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class sample {
public:

int gl, g2;

public:

void val()

cout << "Enter Two values : "; cin >> gl >> g2;

void display()

cout << gl << " " << g2;

cout << endl;

};

int main()

sample S;

S.val();

S.display();

Here is a Private member example in which member data cannot be accessed outside the class:
Example:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class sample {

public:
int gl, g2;

public:

void val()

cout << "Enter Two values : "; cin >> gl >> g2;

private:

void display()

cout << gl << " " << g2;

cout << endl;

};

int main()

sample S;

S.val();

S.display();

If you execute the above program, the private member function will not be accessible and hence the following error message will

appear like this in some compiler:

Advantage
 Class internals get protected from inadvertent user-level errors
 Programmer does not have to write the low-level code
 Code duplication is avoided and so programmer does not have to go over again and again fairly common tasks every time to
perform similar operation
 The main idea of abstraction is code reuse and proper partitioning across classes
 For small projects, this may not seem useful but for large projects, it provides conformity and structure as it provides
documentation through the abstract class contract
 It allows internal implementation details to be changed without affecting the users of the abstraction

C++ Files

The fstream library allows us to work with files.

To use the fstream library, include both the standard <iostream> AND the <fstream> header file:

Example
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>

There are three classes included in the fstream library, which are used to create, write or read files:

Class Description

ofstream
Creates and writes to files

ifstream
Reads from files

fstream
A combination of ofstream and ifstream: creates, reads,
and writes to files

Create and Write To a File

To create a file, use either the ofstream or fstream class, and specify the name of the file.

To write to the file, use the insertion operator (<<).

Example
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
// Create and open a text file
ofstream MyFile("filename.txt");

// Write to the file

MyFile << "Files can be tricky, but it is fun enough!";

// Close the file

MyFile.close();
}

Why do we close the file?

It is considered good practice, and it can clean up unnecessary memory space.

Read a File

To read from a file, use either the ifstream or fstream class, and the name of the file.

Note that we also use a while loop together with the getline() function (which belongs to the ifstream class) to read the file line by line, and to print the content of
the file:

Example
#include <iostream>

#include <fstream>

#include <string>

using namespace std;

int main () {

// Create a text file

ofstream MyWriteFile("filename.txt");

// Write to the file

MyWriteFile << "Files can be tricky, but it is fun enough!";

// Close the file

MyWriteFile.close();

// Create a text string, which is used to output the text file

string myText;

// Read from the text file

ifstream MyReadFile("filename.txt");

// Use a while loop together with the getline() function to read the file line by line

while (getline (MyReadFile, myText)) {

// Output the text from the file

cout << myText;

}
// Close the file

MyReadFile.close();

C++ Exceptions

When executing C++ code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.

When an error occurs, C++ will normally stop and generate an error message. The technical term for this is: C++ will throw an exception (throw an error).

C++ try and catch

Exception handling in C++ consist of three keywords: try, throw and catch:

The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors while it is being executed.

The throw keyword throws an exception when a problem is detected, which lets us create a custom error.

The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an error occurs in the try block.

The try and catch keywords come in pairs:

Example
try {
// Block of code to try
throw exception; // Throw an exception when a problem arise
}
catch () {
// Block of code to handle errors
}

Consider the following example:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

try {

int age = 15;

if (age >= 18) {

cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";

} else {
throw (age);

catch (int myNum) {

cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";

cout << "Age is: " << myNum;

return 0;

Example explained

We use the try block to test some code: If the age variable is less than 18, we will throw an exception, and handle it in our catch block.

In the catch block, we catch the error and do something about it. The catch statement takes a parameter: in our example we use an int variable (myNum) (because
we are throwing an exception of int type in the try block (age)), to output the value of age.

If no error occurs (e.g. if age is 20 instead of 15, meaning it will be be greater than 18), the catch block is skipped:

Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

try {

int age = 20;

if (age >= 18) {

cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";

} else {

throw (age);

catch (int myNum) {

cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";

cout << "Age is: " << myNum;

return 0;

You can also use the throw keyword to output a reference number, like a custom error number/code for organizing purposes:

Example

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

try {

int age = 15;

if (age >= 18) {

cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";

} else {

throw 505;

catch (int myNum) {

cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";

cout << "Error number: " << myNum;

return 0;

Handle Any Type of Exceptions (...)

If you do not know the throw type used in the try block, you can use the "three dots" syntax (...) inside the catch block, which will handle any type of exception:
Example
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

try {

int age = 15;

if (age >= 18) {

cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";

} else {

throw 505;

catch (...) {

cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";

return 0;