What is Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be

computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links
connecting the nodes are known as communication channels.

Basic Communication Model

Components of Data Communication:

•Message: It is the information to be delivered.
•Sender: Sender is the person who is sending the message.
•Receiver: Receiver is the person to whom the message is being sent.
•Medium: It is the medium through which the message is sent. For Example, A Modem.
•Protocol: These are a set of rules which govern the data communication.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
It is the method of transmitting the data between two nodes connected over a network.
There are three types of Transmission modes, which are explained below:
#1) Simplex Mode:
In this type of mode, data can be sent in one direction only. Hence the communication mode
is unidirectional. Here, we can just send data and we can’t expect to receive any response to
it.
Example: Speakers, CPU, monitor, television broadcasting, etc.
#2) Half-Duplex Mode:
Half-duplex mode means data can be transmitted in both the directions on a single carrier
frequency, but not at the same time.
Example: Walkie-talkie – In this, the message can be sent in both the directions but only one
at a time.
#3) Full-Duplex Mode:
Full duplex means that the data can be sent in both the directions simultaneously.
Example: Telephone – in which both the people using it can talk and listen at the same time.
Types of Network Topologies
The various types of Network Topologies are explained below with pictorial representation
for your easy understanding.
#1) BUS Topology:
In this topology, every network
device is connected to a single cable
and it transmits data only in one
direction.

#2) RING Topology:

In this topology, each computer is connected to
another computer in the form of a ring with the
last computer connected to the first one. Each
device will have two neighbors. The data flow in
this topology is unidirectional but can be made
bidirectional by using the dual connection
between each node which is called a dual ring
topology.
#3) STAR Topology:
In this type of topology, all the nodes are
connected to a single network device through a
cable. The network device can be a hub, switch
or router, which will be a central node and all
the other nodes will be connected with this
central node. Every node has its own dedicated
connectivity with the central node.
Star Topology Mesh Topology
#4) MESH Topology:
Every node is connected to another one with a point to point topology and every node is
connected to each other.
There are two forms of this topology: full mesh and a partially-connected mesh.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to each of the other
computers in that network. The number of connections in this network can be calculated
using the following formula (n is the number of computers in the network): n(n-1)/2
In a partially-connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the network have
connections to multiple other computers in that network.
#5) TREE Topology:
It has a root node and all the sub-nodes are connected to the root node in the form of the
tree, thereby making a hierarchy. Normally, it has three levels of hierarchy and it can be
expanded according to the need of the network.
Computer Network Types
There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The classification of
network in computers can be done according to their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks.

It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of devices spread across the world.
Following are the popular types of Computer Network:-

LAN (local area network): A LAN

connects computers over a relatively short
distance, allowing them to share data, files, and
resources. For example, a LAN may connect all
the computers in an office building, school, or
hospital. Typically, LANs are privately owned
and managed.
•WLAN (wireless local area network): A WLAN is just like a LAN but connections
between devices on the network are made wirelessly.

•WAN (wide area network): As the name implies, a WAN connects computers over
a wide area, such as from region to region or even continent to continent. The internet
is the largest WAN, connecting billions of computers worldwide. You will typically see
collective or distributed ownership models for WAN management.

•MAN (metropolitan area network): MANs are typically larger than LANs but
smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and manage MANs.

•PAN (personal area network): A PAN serves one person. For example, if you have
an iPhone and a Mac, it’s very likely you’ve set up a PAN that shares and syncs
content—text messages, emails, photos, and more—across both devices.
PAN
•SAN (storage area network): A SAN is a specialized network that provides access to block-
level storage—shared network or cloud storage that, to the user, looks and works like a
storage drive that’s physically attached to a computer.

•CAN (campus area network): A CAN is also known as a corporate area network. A CAN is
larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. CANs serve sites such as colleges, universities,
and business campuses.

•VPN (virtual private network): A VPN is a secure, point-to-point connection between two
network end points (see ‘Nodes’ below). A VPN establishes an encrypted channel that keeps
a user’s identity and access credentials, as well as any data transferred, inaccessible to
hackers.
Important terms and concepts
The following are some common terms to know when discussing computer networking:
•IP address: An IP address is a unique number assigned to every device connected to a
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Each IP address identifies
the device’s host network and the location of the device on the host network. When
one device sends data to another, the data includes a ‘header’ that includes the IP
address of the sending device and the IP address of the destination device.

•Nodes: A node is a connection point inside a network that can receive, send, create, or
store data. Each node requires you to provide some form of identification to receive
access, like an IP address. A few examples of nodes include computers, printers,
modems, bridges, and switches. A node is essentially any network device that can
recognize, process, and transmit information to any other network node.
•Routers: A router is a physical or virtual device that sends information contained in data packets
between networks. Routers analyze data within the packets to determine the best way for the
information to reach its ultimate destination. Routers forward data packets until they reach their
destination node.

•Switches: A switch is a device that connects other devices and manages node-to-node
communication within a network, ensuring data packets reach their ultimate destination. While a
router sends information between networks, a switch sends information between nodes in a
single network. When discussing computer networks, ‘switching’ refers to how data is transferred
between devices in a network. The three main types of switching are as follows:
• Circuit switching, which establishes a dedicated communication path between nodes in a
network. This dedicated path assures the full bandwidth is available during the
transmission, meaning no other traffic can travel along that path.
• Packet switching involves breaking down data into independent components called packets
which, because of their small size, make fewer demands on the network. The packets travel
through the network to their end destination.
• Message switching sends a message in its entirety from the source node, traveling from
switch to switch until it reaches its destination node.
Hubs:
Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are used to
connect multiple devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.

A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is
plugged in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every
other port, without considering whether it is destined for a particular destination device or not.
Gateway:
A gateway is a network node that forms a
passage between two networks operating with
different transmission protocols. The most
common type of gateways, the network
gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network layer
of the OSI (open systems interconnection)
model. However, depending upon the
functionality, a gateway can operate at any of
the seven layers of OSI model.

It acts as the entry – exit point for a network

since all traffic that flows across the networks
should pass through the gateway. Only the
internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN
does not pass through the gateway.
Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks
Types of Transmission Media:
Transmission media is the medium through which
we will exchange data in the form of
voice/message/video between the source and
destination point.

Depending upon the factors like the type of

network, cost & ease of installation,
environmental conditions, the need of the
business and the distances between sender &
receiver, we will decide which transmission
medium will be suitable for an exchange of data.
Wireless Communication Media
The media which transports the electromagnetic signals without using any physical
medium is called a wireless communication media or unguided transmission media. The
signals are broadcast through the air and are available to anyone who is having the
capability to receive it.
The frequency used for wireless communication is from 3KHz to 900THz.
#1) Radio waves:
The signals which have transmitting frequency ranging from 3KHz to 1 GHz are called radio
waves. These are omnidirectional as when an antenna transmits the signals, it will send it in
all the directions.
Example: It is used in AM, FM radio, television & paging.
#2) Microwaves:
The signals which have transmitting frequency ranging from 1GHz to 300GHz are called
microwaves. These are unidirectional waves, which means that when the signal is
transmitted between the sender and receiver antenna then both need to be aligned. The
only disadvantage of the microwave is that it is very costly.
#3) Infrared waves: Architecture Of The OSI Reference Model
The signals which have transmitting frequency
ranging from 300GHz to 400THz are called
Infrared waves.
It can be used for short distance
communication as infrared with high
frequencies can’t penetrate the rooms and
thus prevents the interference between one
device to another.
Example: Use of infrared remote control by
the neighbors.
What Is OSI Model?
Open system interconnection (OSI) reference
model consists of seven layers or seven steps
which concludes the overall communication
system.
Relationship Between Each Layer
Let’s see how each layer in the OSI reference model communicates with one another
with the help of the below diagram.
Enlisted below is the expansion of each
Protocol unit exchanged between the layers:
•APDU– Application protocol data unit.
•PPDU– Presentation protocol data unit.
•SPDU– Session protocol data unit.
•TPDU– Transport protocol data unit
(Segment).
•Packet– Network layer protocol data unit .
•Frame– Data-link layer protocol data unit .
•Bits– Physical layer protocol data unit .
Roles & Protocols
Used At Each Layer
Network Architecture – TCP/IP Protocols and Networks used in this
Model networking model are shown in the below
The four-layer architecture is as follows: figure:
Let’s summarize the protocols and main uses of each layer in the TCP/IP
Model with the help of the below diagram.
IPv4 Address
An IP address (internet protocol address) is a numerical representation that uniquely identifies a specific
interface on the network. There are two versions of IP in use today, IPv4 and IPv6.

Addresses in IPv4 are 32-bits long. This allows for a maximum of 4,294,967,296 (232) unique addresses.
Addresses in IPv6 are 128-bits, which allows for 3.4 x 1038 (2128) unique addresses. An IP address is, as
such, generally shown as 4 octets of numbers from 0-255 represented in decimal form instead of binary
form.

For example, the address 168.212.226.204 represents the 32-bit binary number
10101000.11010100.11100010.11001100

The binary number is important because that will determine which class of network the IP address
belongs to.

An IPv4 address is typically expressed in dotted-decimal notation, with every eight bits (octet)
represented by a number from one to 255, each separated by a dot. An example IPv4 address would look
like this:

192.168.17.43
IPv4 addresses are composed of two parts. The first numbers in the address specify the network, while
the latter numbers specify the specific host. A subnet mask specifies which part of an address is the
network part, and which part addresses the specific host.
Private Addresses
Within the address space, certain networks are reserved for private networks. Packets from these networks are
not routed across the public internet. This provides a way for private networks to use internal IP addresses
without interfering with other networks. The private networks are:-
10.0.0.1 - 10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255

192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 Loopback address (the

127.0.0.0
host’s own interface)
Special Addresses
Certain IPv4 addresses are set aside for specific uses:

224.0.0.0 IP Multicast

255.255.255. Broadcast (sent to all

255 interfaces on network)
IPv6 Address
To avoid the seemingly reoccurring issue in technology, where a specification’s limitation seems
more than sufficient at the time, but inevitably becomes too small, the designers of IPv6 created an
enormous address space for IPv6. The address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits
in IPv6.

The IPv6 has a theoretical limit of 3.4 x 1038 addresses. That’s over 340 undecillion addresses,
which is reportedly enough addresses to assign one to every single atom on the surface of the
earth.

IPv6 addresses are represented by eight sets of four hexadecimal digits, and each set of numbers
is separated by a colon. An example IPv6 address would look like this:

2DAB:FFFF:0000:3EAE:01AA:00FF:DD72:2C4A
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that
facilitates the transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connection-
oriented protocol that means it establishes the connection prior to the communication
that occurs between the computing devices in a network. This protocol is used with an IP
protocol, so together, they are referred to as a TCP/IP.

TCP initially set-up a three-way handshake process between the source and destination
and then it splits the data into small chunks known as segments, and includes a header
into every segment and then forwards it to Internet layer.
TCP Header format -20 Bytes

•Options
It provides additional options. The
optional field is represented in 32-
bits. If this field contains the data
less than 32-bit, then padding is
required to obtain the remaining
bits.
UDP
•UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol.
•UDP is a simple protocol and it provides non sequenced transport functionality.
•UDP is a connectionless protocol.
•This type of protocol is used when reliability and security are less important than speed
and size.
•UDP is an end-to-end transport level protocol that adds transport-level addresses,
checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
•The packet produced by the UDP protocol is known as a user datagram.
UDP Header-8 Bytes
Differences b/w TCP & UDP

Basis for Comparison TCP UDP

Definition TCP establishes a virtual UDP transmits the data

circuit before transmitting directly to the destination
the data. computer without verifying
whether the receiver is
ready to receive or not.
Connection Type It is a Connection-Oriented It is a Connectionless
protocol protocol
Speed slow high
Reliability It is a reliable protocol. It is an unreliable protocol.
Header size 20 bytes 8 bytes
acknowledgement It waits for the It neither takes the
acknowledgement of data acknowledgement, nor it
and has the ability to retransmits the damaged
resend the lost packets. frame.
Application Layer Protocols :
The application layer provides several protocols which allow any software to easily send and
receive information and present meaningful data to its users.
The following are some of the protocols which are provided by the application layer-
1.TELNET –
Telnet stands for Telecommunications Network. This protocol is used for managing files over
the Internet. It allows the Telnet clients to access the resources of Telnet server. Telnet uses
port number 23.
2.DNS –
DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service translates the domain name
(selected by user) into the corresponding IP address. For example- If you choose the domain
name as www.abcd.com, then DNS must translate it as 192.36.20.8 (random IP address
written just for understanding purposes). DNS protocol uses the port number 53.
3. IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It is an application layer protocol
which is used to receive the emails from the mail server. It is the most commonly used
protocols like POP3 for retrieving the emails.

4.DHCP –
DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. It provides IP addresses to hosts.
Whenever a host tries to register for an IP address with the DHCP server, DHCP server
provides lots of information to the corresponding host. DHCP uses port numbers 67 and 68.
5.FTP –
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol helps to transfer different files from one
device to another. FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computer devices with reliable,
efficient data transfer. FTP uses port number 20 for data access and port number 21 for
data control.
6.SMTP –
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is used to transfer electronic mail from
one user to another user. SMTP is used by end users to send emails with ease. SMTP uses
port numbers 25 and 587.

7.HTTP –
HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the foundation of the World Wide Web
(WWW). HTTP works on the client server model. This protocol is used for transmitting
hypermedia documents like HTML. This protocol was designed particularly for the
communications between the web browsers and web servers, but this protocol can also
be used for several other purposes. HTTP uses port number 80.
Port Number Application Transport
Port Number
Protocol Protocol
A port number is a way to identify
a specific process to which an HTTP TCP 80
internet or other network HTTPS TCP 443
message is to be forwarded when
it arrives at a server. FTP(control) TCP 21
Each port number have a distinct FTP(data) TCP 20
service, and for each host can SSH TCP 22
have 65535 ports per IP
address. Internet Assigned Telnet TCP 23
Numbers Authority (IANA) is DNS TCP, UDP 53
responsible for managing the uses
SMTP TCP 25
of these ports.
Post Office TCP 110
Protocol(POP3)
Network Time UDP 123
Protocol(NTP)
Network Security refers to the measures taken by any enterprise or organisation to secure
its computer network and data using both hardware and software systems. This aims at
securing the confidentiality and accessibility of the data and network. Every company or
organisation that handles large amount of data, has a degree of solutions against
many cyber threats.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL) provides security to the data that is transferred between web
browser and server. SSL encrypts the link between a web server and a browser which
ensures that all data passed between them remain private and free from attack.