The inspector must be capable to explain in detail the inspection monitoring on the full painting process, ranging

from visual inspection of materials (to determine the degree of corrosion), steel preparation, degreasing, details
on sandblasting inspection and control, environmental controls, degree of cleanliness of the sandblasted surface,
roughness profile measurement, application of strip coating, primer and subsequent coats, WDFT and DFT
controls and formulas to determine thickness during wet application, destructive and non-destructive testing on
the coating, as Adhesion and Holiday Test

- Typical Interview Questions:

- Which controls do you perform before coating?
- Which are the most used Specifications for coating?
- Which test shall be performed on materials or equipment with FBE internal lining?
- FBE Lining Preheating (~ 150 ÷ 200°C x ~ 40’ ÷ 60’) and Curing Temperatures (~ 220 ÷ 250°C)
- What do you used to verify the WFT and DFT
- Which type of adhesion test and which are the destructive ones.
- Which are the defects that you may commonly find during a coating inspection?
- Which qualification is required to certify a painting cycle?
- Specific question related to relative humidity (Max 80%) / temperature / dew point (min. 3°C above).
- What is the difference between SA2 / SA 2 ½ / SA 3?
- Max Time between surface preparation / blasting and primer application (4h)
- Specific questions related to Replica Tape / WFT / DFT / Holiday Test / Adhesion Test.
- General discussion related to Surface Protection (coating) application for specific services / characteristics
as temperature, fluids corrosive properties, environmental conditions (as severe in off-shore service).

- Typical Coating Defects:

The most common paint and coating defects originate not with the material itself, but with poor surface
preparation and application techniques.
Abrasion: removal of a part or whole of the paint or coating film caused by impact by an object harder than
itself.
Adhesion Failure: Where a paint or coating delaminates from the surface below, either within the differing
coats of material or from the substrate.
Blistering: Generally, two forms of blistering are noted: Osmotic – where the cause is associated with soluble
salts, corrosion products, solvent entrapment and solvents from cargoes or processes; and Non-osmotic –
which is associated with cathodic disbondment, cold wall effects and compressive stresses.
Bloom / Blush: Where the paint or coating film is exposed to condensation or moisture during curing.
Chalking: Disintegration of the paint or coating binder when exposed to weathering or UV light; commonly
seen within epoxies.
Cissing: Surface contamination; usually moisture, oil, grease or silicones.
Cracking: Generally, a stress-related failure due to movement, aging, absorption and desorption of moisture
and a lack of flexibility within the paint or coating film.
Cratering: Trapped air or solvent bubbles that have burst, leaving a crater effect as the paint / coating cures.
Grinning: Low film thickness of paint or coating film, poor opacity of material or strong colour of the
underlying coat.
Mud Cracking: Over application of heavily pigmented coatings such as inorganic zinc silicates.
Orange Peel: Failure of the paint or coating film to flow, commonly caused by poor application techniques or
incorrect solvent blend.
Pinholes: Solvent or air entrapment within the paint or coating film.
Rippling: Poor application techniques where the pressure used is too high.
Runs: Over-application and poor application techniques.
Rust Bloom / Rash: Where the paint or coating is of low film thickness and the surface profile has not been
adequately covered.
Rust Spotting: Low film thickness not covering rogue peaks of the surface profile beneath; also seen from
metallic contamination of a painted or coated surface by grinding dust, for example.
Rust Staining: Water run-off from a rusting surface above.
Sags: Over-application and poor application techniques.
Solvent Popping: Caused by incorrect solvent blends, porous surfaces, poor environmental conditions or too
high a surface temperature.
Basic process steps:

- Visual check of the surfaces to be painted to preliminary identify any imperfection as material visible defects
including corrosion, sharp edges, welding spatters defects, etc.
- Surface degreasing where necessary.

- Surface preparation check:

Before blast cleaning takes place, deposits of oil, grease and salt must be removed.
It is wrong to think that salt will be removed by the abrasive blasting operation.
Clean dry compressed air, free of oil, must be used for blasting.
Moisture separators, oil separators, traps or other equipment may be necessary to achieve this requirement.

- Blotter test (Assessing Compressed Air Cleanliness)

Note: Compressed air used for blast cleaning, blow down, and coating spray atomization must be free from
oil and moisture contamination.
Contaminants of this type are effectively transferred to the surface with the air and blastcleaning media
(abrasive) or by mixing it with the coating during application.
Adequate moisture and oil traps should be used on all lines to ensure that the air is dry and oil free enough
so it does not interfere with the quality of the work.
A simple test for determining air cleanliness is outlined in ASTM D4285 and requires holding a clean piece of
white blotter paper or a white cloth approximately 457.2 mm (18 in.) from the air supply, downstream of
moisture and oil separators.
The air is permitted to blow on the blotter paper for a minimum of 1 minute, then the blotter is inspected
for signs of detrimental amounts of moisture or oil contamination.

- Atmospheric conditions check

 Air Temperature
 Surface Temperature
 Percent Relative Humidity
 Dew Point Temperature

Dew point is the temperature at which moisture will condense.

Dew point is important in coating work because moisture condensation on the surface will cause freshly
blast-cleaned steel to rust or a thin, often invisible film of moisture to be trapped between coats that may
cause premature coating failure (blistering).
Accordingly, the industry has established an arbitrary dew point/surface temperature safety factor.
Final blast cleaning and coating application should not take place unless the surface temperature is at least
3°C (34 °F) higher than the dew point temperature.
Although theoretically a surface temperature just infinitesimally above the dew point will not permit
moisture condensation, the safety factory of 3 °C (34 °F) was established to allow for possible instrument
inaccuracies or different locations where readings are taken.
For example, thicker steel retains temperature and cold longer, steel in contact with soil or water remains
colder.
A thorough inspection of the surface after blast cleaning for signs of moisture or oil contamination should be
made, and these results need to be correlated with the results of the blotter test. In addition, the proper
functioning of in-line moisture and oil traps can be evaluated on a comparative basis from the results of the
blotter test.

- Grit blasting type and cleanness

Abrasives used should have the following characteristics:
o 1. Low soluble salt content 0.05% maximum
o 2. Low oil content (if applicable) 10 mg/kg maximum
o 3. Hardness factor 6 – 7 MOHS range
o 4. Shatter index (low dust) 18-25 Range
o 5. Low silica content 1% free silica maximum
o 6. Qualities that offer minimum grit impingement
o 7. Correct grit size to obtain desired surface profile.

- Surface Preparation
The term surface profile or surface anchor is used to describe the height of the metal that extends from the
pit or valley to the peak of the metal after blast cleaning and is influenced by the type of abrasive used, as
shown in the following table:

The surface profile produced by a certain grit is not only dependent on the size of the grit but also on factors
such as air pressure at nozzle, distance of nozzle from surface, etc.
The supplier of the abrasive should furnish all necessary details prior to the start of blasting.

The following table, compiled from various sources, may be of some guidance (Mineral, i.e.
Corundum = aluminum oxide = Corindone in Italian)
- Cleanliness
The durability of a coating system for both aesthetic and preservation purposes largely depends on the level
of cleanliness of the substrate.
Cleanliness is acquired by using one of many different methods of surface preparation to remove rust and
old coating.
Insufficient cleanliness will directly influence the protective properties of the coating film and specifically
its adhesion to the substrate.
A required level of cleanliness can be obtained by using different techniques.
Chemical treatment of a substrate, Ultra High Pressure water Jetting, hand or power tool cleaning or wet
and dry abrasive blasting can be used.
In a proper coating specification the required grade of preparation is specified by referring to one of many
international standards such as ISO 8501-1, ISO 8501-2, NACE 1/SSPC-SP5, NACE 2/SSPC-SP10, NACE 3/SSPC-
SP6, NACE 4/SSPC-SP7 or NACE WJ-1/SSPC SP WJ-1.
For additional notes see page 15 to 22.

Surface Preparation Standards Comparison:

- Dust Tape Test (ISO 8502-3
The Dust Tape Test allow to assess the quantity and size of dust particles on blast-cleaned steel.
Dust particles on blast-cleaned steel surfaces may reduce the adhesion of applied coatings, and by absorbing
moisture may promote the corrosion of the steel surface.
Accumulation of dust particles occurs more naturally on horizontal surfaces, the interior of pipes and in
structural cavities. Inspection should be carried out to ensure that such areas are adequately cleaned and
free from dust particles before painting.
The pressure-sensitive Dust Test Tape is pressed onto the steel surface prepared for painting. The Tape with
the dust particles adhering to it is removed and placed on the Dust Test Comparator in a section which
contrasts to that of the dust particles and is examined visually. The quantity of dust particles adhering to the
Tape and the dust particle size is then compared.

- Measurement of Surface Profile

The surface profile, anchor pattern, or roughness is defined as the maximum average peak-tovalley depth (or
height) caused by the impact of the abrasive onto the substrate.
Surface profile effectively increases the surface area to which the coatings can adhere, and it provides a
mechanical anchor that aids in adhesion. Ù
As a general rule, thick coatings require a deeper surface profile than thin coatings.
Specifying surface profile is critical.
A surface roughness that is too shallow can result in adhesion difficulties, and surface roughness (and
insufficient coating thickness) that is too deep can result in pinpoint rusting because unprotected peaks of
the profile protrude above the surface of the coating.
As a general rule, the surface profile should be a nominal 15 to 20 percent of the total coating system
thickness (up to 0.38 mm [15 mils]); for Aramco it is determined for each specific APCS by the relevant SAES-
H-XXX Specification.

Surface profile determinations generally are made in the field or shop with one of three types of
instruments: visual surface profile comparators, a depth micrometer, or replica tape.

(1) Keane-Tator and Clemtex anchor pattern comparators.

Visual comparators can be used to assess the average peak-to-valley depth after abrasive blast cleaning.
Coupons or discs representing various profile depths are compared with the existing surfaces to determine
the surface profile.
However, different types of abrasive may result in the appearance of a different profile even though the
depths might be identical.
For example, a shot-blast profile is round when compared with a more angular grit profile.
To achieve similar profile depths, the shot, by virtue of its shape, generally will result in greater lateral
distance between peaks than will grit; this will result in a lower peak count per given area.
The optical effects provide an illusion that the shot-blast-cleaned surface is deeper than the gritblast-
cleaned surface, even when they are identical.
Therefore, it is critical to choose a reference disc or coupon that represents the generic type of abrasive used
to clean the surface (i.e., grit/slag, sand, shot) prior to determining the surface profile.
(2) Depth micrometer.
Another field instrument useful for determining average profile depth is a depth micrometer.
This instrument consists of a conical pin that projects from a large, flat base approximately the size of a
nickel.
The instrument is calibrated on a mirror or plate glass by turning the entire scale reading so the zero lines up
with the pointer.
Theoretically, when the instrument is firmly placed on the blast-cleaned substrate, the base will rest on the
tops of the peaks and the pin will project into the valley.
An average profile can be obtained by taking a number of readings.
The instrument must be picked up and place down for each reading, rather than drag it across the profile.
Otherwise, the point will become blunted, resulting in erroneous readings

(3) Replica tape.

Surface profiles can be determined by using replica tape.
The replica tape consists of an emulsion film of microscopic bubbles attached to a uniform, 0.05-mm (2-mil)
film of mylar.
The tape is pressed onto the blast cleaned surface, emulsion side down, and the mylar is rubbed vigorously
with a blunt instrument.
The peaks of the profile will break the bubbles and ultimately touch, but not alter, the thickness of the
mylar, because it is noncompressible.
The tape is removed and measured using a lightweight, spring-loaded micrometer that provides a reading
from the upper- or outermost surface of the mylar to the high spots on the emulsion which were not totally
crushed (corresponding with the valleys of the profile).
The total micrometer reading is adjusted for the thickness of the mylar to provide a direct reading of the
maximum average profile.
The tape is available in several grades to measure various profile ranges from < than 1.0 to > 4.0 mil.
The replica tape generally will retain the impression indefinitely if it is stored in a cool area with no pressure
applied.
Replicas of profiles should be kept on file permanently for future reference.
The date, time of day, method used, locations of measurements, and profile measurements should be
documented

Applicable codes:
• ASTM D 4417
o Method A (visual comparator)
o Method B (depth micrometer)
o Method C (replica tape)
• NACE RP0287 (replica tape)
• ASTM D 7127: Portable stylus instrument for surface roughness, including peak count
• ISO 8503:
o Part 1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates. Specifications and definitions for ISO
surface profile comparators for the assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces
o Part 2 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates. Method for the grading of surface profile
of abrasive blast-cleaned steel. Comparator procedure
o Part 3 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates. Method for the calibration of ISO surface
profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile. Focusing microscope procedure
o Part 4 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates. Method for the calibration of ISO surface
profile comparators and for the determination of surface profile. Stylus instrument procedure
o Part 5 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products. Surface
roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates. Replica tape method for the
determination of the surface profile
Note: Standards do not provide acceptance criteria
- Assessment of invisible (chemical) contamination.
(1) Coating over even small amounts of soluble salt contamination can result in premature coating failure.
Salt is hydroscopic and, when trapped beneath a coating film, will osmotically pull moisture from the
atmosphere through the semipermeable membrane (coating.)
This commonly results in under-film corrosion and/or osmotic blistering.
(2) Evaluation of the surface for invisible contamination can be accomplished in a number of ways.
Perhaps the most common field method is a technique in which a premeasured area of the surface is
swabbed with a known amount of deionized water, using a cotton ball, and handling with tweezers or plastic
gloves.
The test water is analyzed using silver-nitrate-treated test strips, which precipitate a white coloration when
placed in contact with sodium chloride.
The resulting parts per million are converted to micrograms of chloride by multiplying the parts per million
by the amount of water used in the swabbing.
Micrograms of chloride are divided by the area sampled to achieve micrograms per square centimeter of
chloride.
(3) The amount of chloride that can be tolerated depends on the coating type and the service environment.
However, as a general rule, the threshold for an acceptable surface lies at or below 5 micrograms per square
centimeter (µg/cm2 ) of chloride.
Since there is no “industry standard” for tolerable levels of chemical contaminants on a surface, the project
specification must indicate the maximum quantity of soluble salts that can remain on the surface and be
safely coated over. For example, the specification of the coating of the interior of a water storage tank may
specify a relatively low surface concentration of soluble salt, since the service environment is “immersion.”
For additional notes please ref. to page 23

- Measurement of Wet Coating Thickness

The wet thickness of an applied coating film should be measured to ensure that sufficient dry coating will be
present after solvent evaporation and curing.
Guessing or approximating the amount of wet coating to apply will almost certainly result in insufficient or
excessive coating thickness.
A wet film thickness gage can be used to monitor the amount of wet coating applied.
However, without incorporating the specified dry coating thickness and percentage of solids by volume of
the coating into a calculation, wet film thickness data are meaningless.
This calculation is explored in the following discussion.
a. A coating is formulated using three basic components: a resin or binder, pigment, and solvent.
The resin (binder) and pigment comprise the solids portion of the coating.
The solvents comprise the volatile portion of the paint.
When calculating wet film thickness, the solids by volume (pigment/resin content by volume) is an important
figure and is typically derived from the manufacturer's product data sheets.
The basic formula for calculating wet coating thickness is found in the following Equation:

The equation is accurate if the solids by volume of the material is accurate.

However, the percentage will change if any thinner is added to the coating.
When thinner is added, the total volume of the material is increased without any corresponding increase in
the amount of solids.
Therefore, the thinned material will result in a lower percentage of solids by volume.
Thus, when comparing thinned versus unthinned material, to achieve a comparable dry film thickness, a
heavier wet film application of the thinned material is required.
b. Because the use of a wet film thickness gage depends on the solids by volume, and the solids by volume is
considered the “in can” percentage, wet film thickness readings must be taken as soon as a film is applied to
the surface.
During spray application, between the time the material leaves the spray gun and reaches the surface, some
of the solvents will already have evaporated, changing the percent of solids by volume slightly.
For most applications,
this change is not too significant; however, the rapid evaporation rate of the solvents used in lacquer
materials, such as vinyl and chlorinated rubber paints, makes wet film thickness measurements of these
coatings meaningless.
The longer the amount of time before a measurement is taken, the less accurate the measurement becomes.
For highly pigmented coatings (such as zinc-rich), wet film thickness readings may be unreliable because,
even though the coating contains a percentage of solvent, the shrinkage from solvent loss may be low.
Obviously, on 100 percent solids coatings, the wet film thickness will equal the dry film thickness.
c. The wet film thickness gage is generally of a standard notch configuration. The notch-type gage consists
of two end points on the same plane, with progressively deeper notched steps in between.
Each step is designated by a number representing the distance in mils or microns between the step and the
plane created by the two end points.
The instrument is pressed firmly into the wet film perpendicular to the substrate then withdrawn.
The two end points will be wetted by the coating material, as well as some of the steps in between.
The wet film thickness is considered as the last wetted step before the next adjacent, higher dry one.

- Nondestructive Measurement of Dry Coating Thickness

a. Dry coating thickness readings on steel substrates are commonly taken using magnetic gages.
Non-magnetically operated equipment is used for nonferrous metallic substrates.
Calibration of all coating thickness gages and measurement of coating thickness should be performed in
accordance with ASTM D1186, ASTM D1400, or SSPC PA2.
b. Determination of the thickness of each coat in a multicoat system should be an inspection point, especially
when each coat is generically different.
For example, if an inorganic zinc primer/epoxy intermediate/urethane topcoat system is specified, each layer
should be measured to ensure proper thickness because coating thickness gages will not yield individual
layer thickness after subsequent coats are applied.
When using nondestructive gages to measure multicoat systems, the average thickness of the first coat
must be determined prior to application of the second coat.
Readings taken after the second coat is applied obviously will be the total thickness of the two coats
combined, and the specific thickness of the second coat can only be determined by subtracting the average
thickness obtained from the first coat reading.
c. It is a good idea, where practical, to provide a means to indicate coating thickness in areas where it is
either thin or thick so appropriate repair can be done by the coating applicator.
Possible methods are brush application of a light tinted coat of the same paint, compatible felt tip marking
pens, chalk, or other material that can be readily removed.
Wax crayons or incompatible spray paints should not be used.
d. Thickness readings are taken to provide reasonable assurance that the specified thickness has been
achieved, however, it is not possible to measure every square inch of the surface.
Both ASTM D1186 and D1400 state that, when using coating thickness gages, five separate spot
measurements should be made over every 9.3-sq-m (100-sq-ft) area.
Each spot measurement consists of an average of three gage readings taken within a 12.7-mm-
(1/2-in.-) diameter circle.
Note: for SSPC PA2 details please refer to other training paper “Understanding SSPC PA2”
e. Nondestructive dry film thickness measurement instruments fall into three basic categories: magnetic
pulloff, electromagnetic probe, and eddy current probe.
Destructive dry film thickness gages are addressed separately.
(1) Magnetic pull-off gages.
(a) Magnetic pull-off gages commonly consist of a lever running through the center of a scale dial that
houses a helical spring.
The scale dial is located at the fulcrum point of the lever.
One end of the spring is attached to the lever and the other end to the scale dial.
One side of the lever contains a permanent magnet and the opposite end contains a counterbalance.
(b) The spring tension overcomes the attraction of the magnet to the substrate and lifts the magnet from the
coating surface.
The spring tension is calibrated so the point where the magnet breaks contact with the surface can be
equated to the distance of the magnet from the surface.
This distance is converted to mils (or microns.)
The thickness reading represents the gap between the magnet and the substrate.
This gap is considered to be the coating thickness.
However, this reading could be compromised by voids, rust, embedded contaminants, mill scale, etc.
Therefore, a thorough visual inspection needs to be included during the work to ensure that the coating is
applied over a clean surface and does not become contaminated during drying.
(c) Magnetic pull-off coating thickness gages should be calibrated, or at least calibration verified, prior to,
during, and after each use to assure that they are measuring accurately.
Calibration is described in ASTM D1186.
Plastic shims of known thicknesses are placed directly onto the blast-cleaned surface, and the gage is
adjusted to closely match the shim thickness.
One or two shims that represent the actual field coating thickness should be chosen so calibration can be
performed in the range of use.
The user must bear in mind that the accuracy of magnetic pull-off gages ranges from 5 to 10 percent of the
reading, and that minor deviations from the specified thickness is not cause for rejection.
(2) Electromagnetic probe.
(a) Electromagnetic probe gages for ferrous surfaces are described in ASTM D1186. These gages also are
calibrated prior to use with the nonmagnetic (plastic) shim method.
Most of the coating thickness gages used in the corrosion control industry are of this type.
They are accurate (±3 to 5 percent of reading, depending on manufacturer), provide a digital display of the
thickness, and eliminate user interpretation of an analog scale.
Also, this type of gage commonly is equipped with a microprocessor capable of storing measurements in
memory and performing statistical evaluations of the stored data including mean, standard deviation,
highest and lowest readings, and total number of readings obtained.
These data frequently can be downloaded to a computer and/or printer, and can save considerable amounts
of time related to hand documentation of measurements, as well as averaging and determining thickness
ranges.
However, because these gages are electronic, they are more delicate and more susceptible to field damage
compared to the mechanical pull-off gages.
Also, these gages are more sensitive to rough surfaces than mechanical types.
(b) Eddy current probe gages, described in
ASTM D1400, measure the thickness of nonconductive coatings applied to nonferrous metal substrates. The
probe is energized by alternating magnetic fields within the metal and modifying the electrical characteristics
of the probe coil.
The extent of these changes is determined by the distance of the probe from the substrate and is shown on
the gage meter as coating thickness.
The eddy current probe gages are calibrated in a manner similar to that for the electromagnetic probe gages
using the plastic shims on a nonferrous metal substrate.
Some gages combine both electromagnetic probe and eddy current probe capability in one unit.
(3) Precautions.
Some precautions are necessary when sing any instrument with a magnet.
The magnet is exposed; therefore, it is susceptible to attracting iron filings, steel shot, or grit particles.
The magnet must be cleaned of any contaminants during use, or the contaminants will cause incorrect
readings.
If the instrument is used on a soft coating film, a plastic shim can be placed on top of the surface to prevent
the magnet from deforming the coating.
The shim thickness is subtracted from any subsequent readings.
Vibrations in the area of instrument use can cause the magnet in pull-off gages to be released from the
surface prematurely, which can result in an erroneously high thickness reading.
Dry coating thickness instruments should not be used any closer than 1 in. to an edge of the surface;
residual magnetism in the structure on which the coating is measured can have an erroneous effect on the
readings.
The scale dial-type instruments (magnetic pull-off) have an additional “human error” problem during use
because it is easy to continue to turn the dial beyond the point the magnet has lifted from the surface, which
would result in an incorrect thickness measurement.
Therefore, it is imperative that the dial be stopped as soon as the magnet releases from the surface.
f. The inspector should document the date and location of measurements, the type of coat being measured
(primer, intermediate, topcoat), the product and the type of gage being used, the calibration method, and
whether or not the area inspected meets the specification.
- Destructive Measurement of Dry Coating Thickness
Destructive thickness testing entails the use of the Tooke gage (or paint inspection gage).
The Tooke gage measures the thickness of nearly any coating applied to ferrous and nonferrous metals and
other nonferrous surfaces, including masonry, plastic, wood, etc.
The gage consists of a 50X microscope that is used to look at slits in the coating made by precision cutting
tips supplied with the instrument.
The principle of the Tooke gage is basic trigonometry.
By making a cut through the coating at a known angle and viewing perpendicularly to the cut, the actual
coating thickness can be determined by measuring the width of the cut from a scale in the eyepiece of the
microscope.
The instrument can be used for determining the thickness of underlying coats in multicoat systems (if the
layers are alternating or different colors) and eliminates many of thedrawbacks of the magnetic instruments
that are caused by magnetic fields, proximity to edges, irregular surfaces, magnetic effect of the substrate
and profile, etc.
The instrument can be used on coating thicknesses up to 1.27 mm (50 mils) if the coating is not too brittle or
elastic for a smooth cut to be made.
The Tooke gage has limitations.
The use of the gage can be tedious and slow, and it creates voids (cuts) in the coating system that must be
repaired.
The gage becomes impractical on large field structures where paint thickness often lacks uniformity.
However, the Tooke gage is often used as a final determination of thickness at specific, selected locations.

- Holiday/Pinhole Detection
Applicable codes:
o NACE SP0188 (Discontinuity Testing on New Protective Coatings on Conductive Substrates).
o ASTM D5162: Standard Practice for Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Non-conductive Protective
Coating on Metallic Substrates
o ASTM G62: Standard Test Methods for Holiday Detection in Pipeline Coatings
a. A holiday is a skip or miss on the coating film, while a pinhole is typically a microscopic hole in the coating
film.
Holiday, pinhole, or spark testing can be used to find the nicks, scrapes, and pinholes in the coating film.
Pinholes can be present in any coating layer and should be closed before the next coat is applied.
Pinhole testing is common when the coating is intended for immersion service.
Holiday testing may be required after application of either the next to the last, or last, coat of paint.
Usually when such testing is specified, the test is done when the coating is sufficiently dry but before final
cure has occurred so that repair material will successfully bond to the underlying coats.
b. Pinhole and holiday detectors are of two general types: low-voltage wet sponge and high-voltage.
(1) Low-voltage wet sponge pinhole detectors.
The low-voltage wet sponge pinhole detectors are used for finding discontinuities in nonconductive coatings
applied to conductive metal surfaces.
Pinhole testing also can be used to locate conductivity on rivets, bolt threads, etc.
This testing should be followed by a visual examination for the deficient area(s.)
The low-voltage detector is suitable for use on coatings up to 0.51 mm (20 mils) in thickness.
The basic unit consists of the detector itself, a ground cable, and a sponge electrode.
The ground cable is firmly attached to the bare substrate, and the sponge electrode is saturated with
tap water.
When the electrode is moved across the entire surface, the water permits a small current to flow through
the pinholes down to the substrate.
When the current reaches the substrate, the circuit is completed to the detector unit and an audible signal
indicates that a pinhole or discontinuity is present.
When coatings are above 0.254 mm (10 mils), a nonsudsing, wetting agent (such as a photographic
developing fluid) may be added to the water to increase the wetting properties.
Compatibility of the wetting agent with the coating to be applied must be verified.
If the coating system is found to be outside the 0.51-mm (20-mil) thickness limits, high-voltage holiday
detection equipment should be used.
Pinhole testing has certain limitations.
For example, in some situations, pinholes can be visually detected, though the detector does not sound,
because the pinholes do not penetrate to the substrate.
Conversely, the detector may sound to indicate the presence of a void when none exists because the coating
itself may be conductive as a result of metallic pigmentation or entrained solvent.
(2) High-voltage holiday detectors.
High-voltage detectors basically function on the same operating principle as the low-voltage units, except a
sponge is not used.
The instrument consists of a testing unit capable of producing various voltage outputs, a ground cable, and
an electrode made of neoprene, rubber, brass, or steel.
High-voltage units are available up to 20,000 V and more.
High-voltage holiday inspection frequently is required on pipelines and other critical applications.
A spark will jump from the electrode through the coating down to the substrate at pinholes, holidays, or
missed areas and simultaneously trigger an audible and/or visual signaling device in the unit.
The rule of thumb for high-voltage testing is 100 to 125 V per mil.
For example, a 1.02-mm (40-mil) coat will require a test voltage of 4,000 to 5,000 V.
Too high a test voltage may damage the coating film.
Even when the test voltage is properly set, a spark may penetrate a thin, intact area of the coating and
create a void that must be repaired.

- Adhesion Testing
a. When specified, adhesion test is required for the coating film after application and cure.
Adhesion testing is commonly conducted using either of two field methods: tensile adhesion and knife (tape)
adhesion.
Tensile adhesion is performed in accordance with ASTM D4541-89 / ISO 16276-1.
Tensile adhesion requires that a pull stub be adhered to the coating surface using an epoxy adhesive.
The pulling force (measured in pounds per square inch) required to disbond the pull stub is a measure of the
coating system's tensile adhesion.
Additionally, the break in the coating system is described as adhesion (a break between layers or between
the substrate and first layer), cohesion (a break within a coating layer), or glue (failure of the pull
stub to adequately bond to the surface of the coating).
Knife (tape) adhesion requires making an X-cut or a series of parallel and perpendicular knife cuts through
the coating (cross-hatch grid), pulling tape from the X or grid, and evaluating the percentage of disbonded
coating.
The grid or cross-hatch method is used for coatings 0.127 mm (5 mils) or less. The X-cut is used for coating
systems in excess of 0.127 mm (5 mils).
b. Adhesion test data will not predict the performance life of a coating system.
A coating system with good-to-excellent adhesion probably will protect the substrate longer, but a coating
system with marginal adhesion may protect just as long if the coating remains intact.
Adhesion testing can be used as one tool to determine whether or not an existing coating system is a
candidate for overcoating.
Adhesion testing should be performed prior to applying test patches of candidate overcoat systems, and it
can be used to evaluate the performance of the overcoating candidates after it is applied and cured.

- Paint Storage, Mixing, and Thinning

Material receipt inspection and inspection of mixing and thinning procedures are two of the most simple, yet
crucial, steps in the coatings process; each step requires some knowledge of the procedure.

a. Material receipt inspection. On receipt of all coating materials, the inspector should document the number
of components received for each material; confirm the manufacturer, product, and color; and record the
batch number from the can label.
The inspector should compare the batch numbers with those on the test reports to ensure that the proper
batches were received.
Leaking or damaged containers should not be used, particularly if a catalyzed paint is involved because some
of the components necessary for a complete cure may have leaked out, and proper proportioning may not
be obtainable.
Containers with illegible labels should not be used.
The inspector should confirm that the shelf life of the material has not expired and that the manufacturer's
product data sheets and material safety data sheets (MSDS) were received with the shipment.
Paint more than 1 year from date of manufacture should be retested.
Paint storage areas should be maintained with proper ventilation and temperature controls to prevent
excessive heat or freezing conditions.
Paint stock should be rotated to facilitate the use of older materials first, if the shelf life is still current.
b. Inspection of mixing and thinning procedures.
(1) Improper mixing or thinning will affect the coating's ability to resist the service environment.
There should be some means to ensure that all components of the multicomponent paint system have been
added, that mixing is thorough and proper, and that any required induction times have been met.
An induction time (cook time; sweatin-time) is required by some coating types to allow a chemical reaction
to initiate, prior to application.
Induction times are temperature dependent; typically the warmer the temperature, the shorter the required
induction because heat increases the rate of reaction.
(2) Mixing should be done until the paint becomes smooth, homogeneous, and free of surface swirls or
pigment lumps (agglomerations).
Many paints settle out on prolonged storage. Boxing (repetitive emptying of the contents of one container
into a second empty container) of these paints is beneficial to ensure that all pigment settled on the bottom
of the container is incorporated in the mixed paint.
Paint mixer blades mounted in a pneumatically operated power tool provide sufficient agitation.
(3) All paints should be strained prior to spraying to eliminate skins, improperly mixed pigments, or
agglomerations of zinc particles.
This usually is accomplished by passing the mixed paint through a disposable cheesecloth bag filter prior to
putting the paint into the spray pot.
Coarse filters are common on the intake line of conventional spray equipment, and fine filters typically are
built in to airless systems.
When adding zinc to a multicomponent coating, it is common to sift the dry powder through a screen into
the liquid portion while mixing.
(4) Coatings that contain heavy pigments, such as zinc dust, frequently require constant agitation throughout
the application process.
The agitator should be run as rapidly as necessary to maintain pigment suspension, but not rapidly enough
to entrain air into the paint.
After spraying has started, a flow of the material through the lines should be maintained to prevent the
heavy pigment from settling out.
Some coating manufacturers recommend hoses be whipped or emptied if spraying is interrupted for
specified lengths of time.
(5) Preferably, only complete kits of multicomponent paints should be mixed. If this cannot be done, the
coating manufacturer should be consulted to assure that partial mixing of the materials is permitted, and it is
imperative that the components be carefully measured.
(6) The temperature of the mixed coating material should be measured and documented. Typically a metal
“dip stick” paint thermometer is used.
(7) Thinners, if permitted, should be well mixed into the paint material.
The type and amount of thinner should be in accordance with the coating manufacturer's recommendations.
The amount of thinner used should be recorded by the inspector because the addition of thinner
reduces the volume of the solid content of the mixed paint and may violate VOC regulations.
(8) Measurement of viscosity assures that proper thinning ratios are used, and that the thinning has not
been changed significantly from pot to pot.
There are many ways to measure the viscosity of a paint.
Common viscosity cups are simply small cups of known volume with precisely sized orifices in the center.
Viscosity cups place a numerical value (time) on the viscosity of a paint material.
The coating manufacturer can be consulted about what orifice size to use and the time in seconds for the
volume of properly thinned material held by the cup to pass through the orifice.
For example, the manufacturer might stipulate that the material should be thinned so it will pass through a
specific viscosity cup in 20 to 30 seconds.
Temperature greatly influences viscosity, and the temperature of the material should be noted when
conducting viscosity measurements.
(9) High viscosity materials may not atomize properly if they are not adjusted with thinner, and low viscosity
materials may run or sag on application if they are not properly reduced.
The paint applicator is generally the best judge of proper thinning ratios to achieve a smooth, wet
coat without runs or sags.
The viscosity of some high buildup coatings cannot be measured with viscosity cups, and the manufacturer
should be contacted for a recommendation.
Alternatively, coatings can be thinned by volume with a percentage of the recommended thinner, based on a
known volume of coating material.
(10) The potlife of a coating material also must be monitored by the inspector.
Potlife is unique to multicomponent coatings; it is the time period within which the mixed coatings material
may be used.
The potlife varies from coating to coating and is temperature dependent.
The warmer the temperature, the shorter the potlife.
The inspector also must keep in mind that an induction time uses a portion of the potlife.
The remaining material must be discarded when the potlife is expired.
The end of the potlife usually can be detected by the increased viscosity of the coating. This is not always
true; therefore, the potlife should be monitored based on time and temperature.
To counteract the increase in viscosity as the potlife nears the end, contractors may add thinner to the mixed
coating.
The coating manufacturer should be consulted to ensure that this practice does not adversely affect the
paint material.

- Coating Application Technique

Aside from surface preparation, the actual coating application is the most visible and important aspect of the
coating work; accordingly, the inspector should be knowledgeable about the various application techniques.
Note: Stripe coating is the application of an extra coat of paint to edges, welds, fasteners, and other
irregular areas. The coating provides the areas with sufficient film build for added protection against
corrosion and is usually done before applying the full coat to the entire surface.
a. When spraying with conventional (air atomized) equipment, the spray gun should be held 203.2 to 254
mm (8 to 10 in.) from the surface and maintained perpendicular to the surface throughout the stroke. The
distance should be 304.8 to 457.2 mm (12 to 18 in.) for airless spray application.
Holding the spray gun further from the surface may result in overspray and dryspray; holding the spray gun
too close may cause excessive application (runs, sags, and entrapped air and solvents.) In addition to spray
gun distance, the spray pressures should be maintained as low as possible to prevent overspray and flooding
of the surface, yet high enough to support atomization.
At the end of each pass, the spray gun trigger should be released so the passes feather into one another.
Each spray pass should overlap the previous one by 50 percent to create uniformity and, when possible, a
cross-hatch technique should be used.
This requires a duplicate series of passes 90 degrees to the first to ensure complete and uniform coverage.
Proper cleaning of equipment is important to ensure that there is no contamination of a new coating by
residues of the previous coat passing through the equipment or by incompatible cleaning solvents.
Proper cleaning of the equipment is particularly important when using zinc-rich vinyls since the vinyl
topcoats are incompatible with the zinc pigment.
b. For brush application, the brush should be dipped approximately 1/2 of its bristle length into the coating.
The bristle tips should be brushed lightly against the side of the container to prevent dripping, and as fully a
loaded a brush as possible should be maintained.
This will result in a more even coating film and help ensure thorough wetting of the surface.
Brushing is more effective than spraying for working paint into depressed irregularities, pits, or crevices.
Care should be taken to ensure that the coating is not brushed out too thin, especially on projections and
corners.
c. In general, the inspector should ensure that, independent of the application method, the equipment used
is providing a quality coating film.
The inspector also should reference the coating manufacturer's product data to ensure that the application
equipment complies with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
For example, brush or roller application of an inorganic, zinc-rich primer generally would not be an
acceptable practice because coating thickness using these methods is too difficult to control, and the coating
itself is too heavily pigmented to apply using brush/roller techniques.
- Cleanliness and Time (Cure) Between Coats
When more than one coat is to be applied, a determination of the cleanliness of the surface immediately
prior to application of the next coat is required.
In addition to dirt and dust, dry spray or overspray may cause a problem.
All dirt, dust, and other contaminants should be removed because their presence can result in reduced
adhesion between coats and porosity in the subsequent coat, which could render the coating less resistant
to environmental effects.
The surface also should be inspected for any adverse contamination from the environment.
In addition to intercoat cleanliness, the recoat window also must be observed.
Recoating too soon may cause solvent entrapment, wrinkling, and other film defects; exceeding the
recoat window may result in intercoat adhesion difficulties (common with CTE and moisture cure urethane
systems).

- Evaluating Cure
a. When a coating is designed for immersion service, the applied coating film must be allowed to cure prior
to being placed into service.
This curing time generally is shown on the manufacturer's product information.
Alternately, forced-heat curing may be used to reduce the time between curing and service.
b. Determining the cure of coatings generally is difficult. ASTM D1640 is one method, but there are no
universally reliable field tests for such purposes.
Because a coating is dry or hard does not necessarily mean it is cured.
In fact, hardness is not synonymous with cure for most coatings.
The only types for which this is true are the solvent-deposited coatings such as the chlorinated rubbers
and vinyls.
Residual retained solvents (and moisture in water-emulsion coatings), under certain atmospheric conditions
of temperature and/or humidity, may require a longer period of time to escape from the paint film.
Final attainment of film properties will be acquired only on satisfactory loss of these entrapped solvents.
In some situations this evaporation process may take as long as 2 to 3 weeks or more.
c. Solvent rub tests and sandpaper tests can be used to approximate the degree of cure.
When most coatings are suitably cured, rubbing them with sandpaper will produce a fine dust.
If the sandpaper gums up, depending on the coating, it may not be cured properly.
A solvent rub test is frequently performed to check the cure of inorganic zincs.
For this test, a cloth saturated with MEK (Methyl Ethyl Ketone) is rubbed onto the coating a specific number
of times.
d. Epoxies, urethanes, and other generic coatings (catalyzed and noncatalyzed) can be evaluated for cure
according to ASTM D1640, which describes procedures for conducting set-to-touch, dust-free, tack-free, dry-
to-touch, dry hard, dry through, dry-to-recoat, and print-free dry/curing times.

Note: Fusion-bonded epoxy coatings - Cure and glass transition

Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings have been used in the pipeline industry for many years and have an
excellent service record as anti-corrosion coatings.
Their performance, however, is dependent on cure and is only achieved when the coating is fully crosslinked.
Since the introduction of FBE coatings, there have been questions concerning the measurement of cure.
One such measure is the delta Tg value obtained using a differential scanning calorimeter.
What is the glass transition temperature for FBE coatings?
Most FBE coatings for pipe have a glass transition temperature less than 110° C.
When the coating is subjected to service temperatures above its Tg, it softens and reduces its mechanical
properties such as cohesive strength, penetration and impact resistance.
For Aramco FBE coatings specified requirements please refer to 09-SAMSS-091 and 09-SAMSS-089.
- Additional Notes: Understanding the Abrasive Blast Cleaning Standards SSPC/NACE AND ISO 8501
The two dominant abrasive blast cleaning standards, ISO 8501 and the SSPC/NACE joint standards, are tough to
compare. Although they recognize roughly the same levels of cleanliness, they classify them in opposite ways,
muddying the water.

ISO 8501 was published by the International Standards Organisation in 1988, after combining the content from the
1967 Swedish Standard SIS 055900 with the German DIN 55928. ISO 8501 is a pictorial standard showing the
appearance of different rust grades at various levels of cleanliness, although it also contains text descriptions of the
cleanliness levels. ISO 8501 ranks cleanliness levels in order of increasing work required.
Sa 1 Light Blast Cleaning
Sa 2 Thorough Blast Cleaning
Sa 3 Blast Cleaning to Visually Clean Steel

SSPC / NACE: In North America, the original surface prep standard was written by an architectural group in the 1960s
for steel workers in Pittsburgh. The Society for Steel Painting Structures formed around the standards.
The SSPC standards are text descriptions, not pictorial, although they are accompanied by visual guides (VIS) with
photo references. SSPC/NACE numbers them in reverse order, by increasing surface cleanliness.
SP 5 White Metal
SP 6 Commercial
SP 7 Brush Off

This was straightforward enough until the industry demanded a new specification for a cleanliness grade that could
cut costs by replacing White Metal in situations where near-white was good enough. ISO adapted it into their
established order as Sa 2 1/2, Very Thorough Blast Cleaning, but SSPC went outside the order, adding it
chronologically as SP 10 Near White. The two versions were not equal: Sa 2.5 permitted stains, streaks and shadows
from rust, mill scale and coatings to remain on up to 15%* of the surface, whereas SP 10 allowed for only 5%.
*Estimated surface area. ISO 8501-1 is a visual reference and does not explicitly state percentages.

In 2000, SSPC and NACE issued joint standards in anticipation of a merger between the organisations, whose
memberships largely overlapped. The merger fell through, but NACE’s new order, which mapped NACE No. 1, 2, 3, 4
onto SSPC SP 5, 6, 10, 7, persisted.

This cleared things up until 2006 when SSPC/NACE introduced Industrial Blast Cleaning, a new specification between
Brush Off and Commercial, and classified it chronologically as SSPC SP 14 / NACE No.8. ISO declined to shoe-horn the
new specification into their system as Sa 1.5.

Despite the differences, the grades of cleanliness are generally thought to be compatible. They reflect similar
permissible levels of stains and tightly-adhered rust, mill scale and coatings, and can be summed up with a chart:

This was straightforward enough until the industry demanded a new specification for a cleanliness grade that could
cut costs by replacing White Metal in situations where near-white was good enough. ISO adapted it into their
established order as Sa 2 1/2, Very Thorough Blast Cleaning, but SSPC went outside the order, adding it
chronologically as SP 10 Near White. The two versions were not equal: Sa 2.5 permitted stains, streaks and shadows
from rust, mill scale and coatings to remain on up to 15%* of the surface, whereas SP 10 allowed for only 5%.
*Estimated surface area. ISO 8501-1 is a visual reference and does not explicitly state percentages.

In 2000, SSPC and NACE issued joint standards in anticipation of a merger between the organizations, whose
memberships largely overlapped. The merger fell through, but NACE’s new order, which mapped NACE No. 1, 2, 3, 4
onto SSPC SP 5, 6, 10, 7, persisted.

This cleared things up until 2006 when SSPC/NACE introduced Industrial Blast Cleaning, a new specification between
Brush Off and Commercial, and classified it chronologically as SSPC SP 14 / NACE No.8. ISO declined to shoe-horn the
new specification into their system as Sa 1.5.

Despite the differences, the grades of cleanliness are generally thought to be compatible. They reflect similar
permissible levels of stains and tightly-adhered rust, mill scale and coatings, and can be summed up with a chart:
The specifications specifically mention stains, streaks and shadows, but they are practically the same: a residue
showing a difference in color but of no discernible thickness. Tightly adhered material refers to anything that cannot
be peeled off with a dull putty knife.

Why Surface Preparation Standards?

Surface preparations standards exist to maximize coating life and minimize costs.

With surface prep accounting for up to 40% of the cost of a repainting project, facility owners look to limit the
material and hours spent blasting. White Metal is expensive to achieve, especially on maintenance jobs, and typically
reserved for critical applications where the cost of failure is catastrophic. Near white is good enough for service in
most severe environments. Commercial is less expensive and suitable for non-corrosive atmospheres and service
environments. Brush Off will save the owner the most money in the short run, if he can get away with it.

When choosing a coating, the owner weighs the costs of blasting and painting against the risk of a premature coating
failure. If the worst-case scenario is that he has to repaint in 5 years instead of 7, he might save money by cutting
back from Commercial to Brush-Off. When premature coating failure could result in the spilling of five million gallons
of corrosive, hazardous and expensive chemical, he’ll lean towards White Metal and a high performance coating.

SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS

Solvent Cleaning
SP 1 / ISO 8504

Loosely-adhering material: 100%

Tightly-adhering material: 100%
Stains, streaks, shadows: 100%

Abrasive blasting won’t remove oil and grease – it just smears them over the surface, causing premature coatings
failure. Visible deposits of oil, grease and dirt must be spot cleaned prior to abrasive blast cleaning. SP 1 is a
prerequisite to the other SSPC abrasive blasting specifications.

The standards specify numerous methods for solvent cleaning. The most common method – and the least effective –
is washing with soap, water and a rag. A dirty rag will also smear grease and oil: care must be taken to wipe, fold,
repeat, and replace often. For large surfaces, pressure washing with soapy water is recommended, although soap
residue will inhibit coating adhesion and should be rinsed off.
Brush Off
SP 7 / Nace #4 / Sa 1

aka Light Blast Cleaning, sweep blast

Loosely-adhering material: 0%
Tightly-adhering material: 100%
Stains, streaks, shadows: 100%

Brush Off is specified to remove loose rust, mill scale and coatings, and uniformly roughen up a surface in
preparation for a new coat. Tightly-adherent materials are permitted to remain.

Brush Off is specified where the expected life of the coating is short, such as ship hull anti-fouling, or in mild
atmospheres and non-corrosive service environments, such as the exterior of a tank, in a rural location.
Industrial Blast Cleaning
SP 14 / Nace #8

Loosely-adhering material: 0%
Tightly-adhering material: 10%
Stains, streaks, shadows: 100%

Industrial Blast Cleaning specifies that 90% of the tightly-adhered matter must go. Shadows, streaks and stains from
rust, mill scale and old coatings are allowed on 100% of the surface.

Industrial is specified for conditions when the existing coating is thin, well-adherent and compatible with new
coating. It is the most recent abrasive blasting standard, and not widely specified. ISO has no corresponding
specification.
Commercial Blast Cleaning
SP 6 / Nace #3 / Sa 2

aka Thorough Blast Cleaning

Loosely-adhering material: 0%
Tightly-adhering material: 0%
Stains, streaks, shadows: 33%

Commercial Blast Cleaning specifies that all tightly-adhering matter must go. Shadows, streaks and stains can remain
on up to 33% of the surface.

Commercial is specified when a high, but not perfect, degree of cleanliness is warranted. It’s common for repainting
products that serve in non-corrosive environments and atmospheres, such as tanks and bridges.
Near White Blast Cleaning
SP 10 / Nace #2 / Sa 2.5

aka Very Thorough Blast Cleaning

Loosely-adhering material: 0%
Tightly-adhering material: 0%
Stains, streaks, shadows: SP 10 5%, Sa 2 ½ 15%

Near White Blast Cleaning specifies that shadows, streaks and stains must be limited to 5% of the surface area. Near
White is specified when the added benefit of blasting to White Metal doesn’t justify the added expense.

Near White is typically specified for high performance coatings over steel exposed to severe environmental
conditions, such as chemical spills and fumes, high humidity, and proximity to salt water. It is commonly specified for
off-shore platforms, shipyards and other marine environments.
White Metal Blast Cleaning
SP 5 / Nace #1 / Sa 3

aka Blast Clean to Visibly Clean Steel

Loosely-adhering material: 0%
Tightly-adhering material: 0%
Stains, streaks, shadows: 0%

White Metal is the highest grade of abrasive blast cleaning. No shadows, streaks or stains are permitted. When
viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free of all visible oil, grease, dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating,
oxides, corrosion products and other foreign matter.

White metal is specified for steel serving under high temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive environments, and
in cases where the catastrophic consequences of coating failure justify the extra expense, such as nuclear reactors,
turbines, chemical tank linings, submarines, etc.
- Additional Notes: Surface Soluble Salt Testing –
Chemical contaminants on a surface can include chloride, ferrous ions, sulfates and nitrates, among others.
These chemicals or “salts” are deposited onto surfaces while the structure is in service, or during
transportation of new steel to the fabrication shop.
They are soluble in water, so they can typically be removed from surfaces by pressure washing or water
jetting using clean water (hot water works better than cold) or water with the addition of a proprietary salt
removal-enhancement solution.
The effectiveness of the washing step is dependent on the condition of the surface.
That is, contamination is relatively easy to remove from smooth surfaces, but may be more challenging if the
surfaces are pitted or crevices are present, as contamination will tend to concentrate in these areas.
If the salts are not detected or are not adequately dissolved and rinsed from the surfaces, they can become
trapped beneath a newly-installed coating system.
If there is a sufficient quantity of water in the service environment, (e.g., immersion) the water-soluble
contaminant trapped beneath the coating system will draw the water through the coating film by a process
known as “osmosis.”
This drawing force can be quite powerful and will continue until the concentration of salt in water is the same
on both sides of the coating film (the concentration reaches equilibrium).
This process creates a build-up of water and pressure beneath the coating film, oftentimes enough to cause
blistering of the coating (known as osmotic blistering), underfilm corrosion and premature coating failure.
Additionally, if soluble salts on the surface are not sufficiently removed prior to abrasive blast cleaning,
recycled abrasive media can become contaminated, which can lead to contamination of surfaces that were
not originally contaminated. Note that SSPC-AB 2 requires that recycled abrasive be routinely tested for water
soluble contaminants (maximum concentration of 1,000 µS/cm) to verify that this “transfer of contamination” is
not occurring.
It is for these reasons that some specifications require inspection of surfaces for chemical contaminants after
surface preparation operations are complete, but before primer application. Because this type of
contamination cannot be detected visually, the surface must be sampled and the “surface extraction” tested
for the contaminant(s) of concern.
Industry Standards
Industry standards are primarily focused on surface extraction and analysis procedures, as well as frequency
and locations of testing. Common standards include:
o SSPC Guide 15, Field Methods for Retrieval and Analysis of Soluble Salts on Steel and Other
Nonporous - - Surfaces
o SSPC Guide 24, Soluble Salt Testing Frequency and Locations on New Steel Surfaces
o NACE SP0508, Methods of Validating Equivalence to ISO 8502-9 on Measurement of the Levels of
Soluble Salts
o ISO 8502 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products – Tests for
the assessment of surface cleanliness
o Part 5: Measurement of chloride on steel surfaces prepared for painting–Ion detection tube method
(ISO 8502-5:1998)
Part 6: Extraction of soluble contaminants for analysis – The Bresle method (ISO 8502-6:1995)
Part 9: Field method for conductometric determination of water-soluble salts (ISO 8502-9:1998)
Part 10: Field method for the titrimetric determination of water-soluble chloride (ISO 8502-10:1999)
Since there is no “industry standard” for tolerable levels of chemical contaminants on a surface, the project
specification must indicate the maximum quantity of soluble salts that can remain on the surface and be safely
coated over. For example, the specification of the coating of the interior of a water storage tank may specify a
relatively low surface concentration of soluble salt, since the service environment is “immersion.”

Non-ion specific Analysis (Latex Patch/Conductivity per ISO 8502-6/8502-9)

For this procedure, a latex patch or magnetic cell (Bresle Patch) is attached to surface.
The Bresle contain compressible foam with adhesive backing to create the seal.
A prescribed amount of distilled water is injected into the patch/cell and the water inside the patch/cell is
agitated for a few minutes.
Once the extraction is complete, the solution is removed from the patch/cell and placed onto a conductivity
meter or Soluble Salts Tester.
Conductivity results are displayed in microsiemens/cm (µS/cm) or millisiemen (mS/cm); the SST instrument
can also display surface concentrations in µg/cm2 or mg/m2.
Either can be compared to the maximum allowable contamination level referenced in the project specification.
Surface Concentrations: mg/m2 or µg/cm2
Conductivity: µS/cm or mS/cm