UNIT-I : Fundamentals of data communication and Computer Networking:

 Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data
that enables us to take decisions.
 Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find
the marks you have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have
passed or failed.
 The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and
accepted upon by is creators and users.
 DATA COMMUNICATION: Data Communication is a process of exchanging digital data or
information
 In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a
transmission medium. This process involves a communication system which is made up of
hardware and software. The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the
intermediate devices through which the data passes.
 The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is
to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol. Protocol is a set of rule for
transmitting information from one device to another device.

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four fundamental
characteristics:

 Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
 Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered data.
 Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay;
such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
 Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of
data being transmitted.
1.1 Process of data communication and its components:

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:
1. Message : Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender : The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver: The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).
4. Transmission Medium : It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It
can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol : It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate
data. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A protocol is a necessity in
data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to
talk to each other in a different language without know the other language.
In order to send a message it is broken up into smaller blocks and each block is separately
identified by transmitting one or more special characters before or after each block.
Some the characters at the beginning and end of each block are used for handshaking purpose.
Basic handshaking process :
1. The transmitted starts by sending a “Ready signal to the receiver to indicate to the receiver
that it wants to send a character.
2. The receiver identifies this signal and communicates its status (busy or ready to accept) on
the busy line to the transmitter.
3. If the receiver is busy then it is indicated by the receiver by sending a character on the busy
line.
4. The transmitter will wait if the receiver is busy and will send the data only when the receiver
is not busy and the transmitter becomes ready.

Ready signal
Transmitter Busy Signal Receiver
Data Line

1.2 Protocols:
Definition. : A protocol is defined as the set of rules agreed upon by sending and receiving
computer systems to facilitate proper communication between them.
Elements of a protocol:
1. Syntax: Generally the data is presented in a particular structure or format or order. The
structure or format or order in which the data is presented is known as is syntax.
2. Semantics: A protocol defined the meaning of each section of data bit, or interprets a
particular pattern of data bits. This known as semantics of a protocol. It also tells us about what
action is to be taken based on interpretation.
3. Timing: Then it takes into consideration the instant of sending the data and the speed at
which the data is to be sent.
Standards:
Data communication standards are defined as the guidelines to the product manufacturers and
vendors to ensure national and international connectivity.
Standards are needed for ensuring the interconnectivity and interoperability among various
hardware and software components. Without standards, it is not possible to ensure connectivity
and interoperability worldwide.
There are two types of standards:
1. De facto standards 2. De Jure standards
1. De facto standards:
1. These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention.
2. These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by
widespread use.
2. De Jure standards:
1. It means by law or by regulation.
2. These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially recognized.

Standard organizations:
Standards organizations needed to create and maintain an open and competitive market for
manufacturers. They provide guidelines to manufacturers so to ensure national and nternational
interoperability of data and telecommunication technology and processes.
A) Standard creation committees are :
1. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
2. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
3. American National Standards Institute(ANSI)
4. International Standards for organisation (ISO)
B) Regulatory agencies:
Regulatory agencies play a crucial role in ensuring the responsible and ethical operation of
networking and telecommunications, setting standards, enforcing regulations, and addressing
emerging issues in the digital landscape.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is government regular body in U.S. for all
communication technology. Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)
C) FORUM :
In networking, a forum is an online discussion platform where users can share information, ask
questions, and engage in conversations related to networking technologies, troubleshooting,
and best practices.
Examples of Forums
ATM Forum, MPLS Forum, Frame Relay Forum
Bandwidth:
Bandwidth of medium: Bandwidth in the context of a transmission medium refers to the range
of frequencies it can effectively carry, measured as the difference between the highest and
owest frequencies. Higher bandwidth means a medium can transmit more data faster. Wires
are the most commonly used transmission media. A wire offers a bandwidth of approximately
750 MHz. The transmission over the air and free space range from a few hundred kHz to a few
GHz. An optical fiber can offer a signal bandwidth of over 100 GHz.
Bandwidth of signal :
The bandwidth of a signal refers to the range of frequencies it occupies, measured as the
difference between the highest and lowest significant frequencies. It's a crucial factor in
determining the amount of information a signal can carry.
Data Transmission Rate:
The data transmission rate is the volume of data transmitted over a transmission channel or via
a data interface within a specified unit of time. The units used for this are baud or bits/s.
Baud Rate and Bits per second:
In data transmission, baud rate refers to the number of signal changes or symbols transmitted
per second in a communication channel, measured in bauds (Bd). While bit rate measures the
number of bits transmitted per second, baud rate focuses on the frequency of signal changes .
Bits per second (bps), or bit/s, is a fundamental unit of measurement in data
transmission, representing the number of bits transferred or processed in one second, used to
quantify the speed or bandwidth of various data transmission methods.
1.3 1.3 Modes of Communication (Simplex, Half duplex, Full Duplex)
Mode of Communication:
Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow
between the two devices in the following ways.
1. Simplex mode 2. Half Duplex mode 3. Full Duplex mode

1. Simplex Mode:

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices sends the data and the
other one only receives the data. Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a
monitor only receives data

2. Half Duplex mode :

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time. These
are bi-directional systems. When one device is sending other can only receive and vice- versa (as
shown in figure above.) Example: A walkie-talkie.

3. Full Duplex Mode:

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time. These are true bi-
directional systems. In full-duplex communication, both sender and receiver can transmit and
receive data simultaneously, like a two-way street where traffic flows in both directions at the
same time. Example: mobile phones
1.4 Analog Signal and Digital Signal:
Signal:
In the long distance communications, the computer data cannot be transmitted as it is. We
have to first convert it into electrical signals (wired communication) or electromagnetic signals
(wireless Communication.) Both data and the signals which represent them can be of analog
form or digital form.
Analog and digital data:
Analog data: The human voice is the best example of analog data. When a person
speaks, an analog wave is created in air.
Digital data: The data is stored in computer memory in the form of 0s and 1s is digital
data.
 Analog Signals:
These are the signals which can have infinite number of different magnitudes or values.
They vary continuously with time Sine wave, triangular wave etc. are the examples of
analog signals.
 Digital signals:
A signal is called as digital signal if it has only a finite number of predetermined distinct
magnitudes. The digital signals are discrete time signals, i.e. they are not continuous
with time as shown in figure

Difference between Analog signal and digital signal:

Basis Analog Signal Digital Signal

Definition Analog signals represent continuous Digital signals are Discrete and
variations in magnitude over time. quantized, with specific values.
Signal Type Continuous waveforms Discrete Signals
Processing Requires complex processing for Easier to process and manipulate
manipulation. digitally.
Storage Less efficient for storage due to More efficient for storage due to discrete
continuous nature. values.
Bandwidth Typically requires more bandwidth. Requires less bandwidth for
transmission.
Errors Susceptible to noise and distortion More resistant to noise and distortion
Circuit Amplifiers, filters, continuous-wave Microprocessors, binary counters, logic
Component oscillators gates
Signal Values Infinite range of values Limited to discrete values
Examples Analog audio signals, analog radio Digital audio signals, digital data streams,
waves, Human voice, etc. computers, etc.
Analog and Digital Transmission:

Analog Transmission:

 Analog signal transmission involves conveying information using continuous signals that vary
in amplitude, phase, or frequency, often used for audio, video, or certain types of data
transmission.
 Analog signals are often modulated, meaning the characteristics of a carrier wave (like
frequency or amplitude) are changed to encode the information being transmitted.

Examples:

 Radio Transmission: Radio signals modulate a carrier wave to transmit audio or data.
 Telephone Networks: Analog signals were traditionally used for telephone conversations,
though digital technologies are now more common.
 Audio and Video: Analog signals are still used for transmitting audio and video signals in
some contexts.
 Carrier Signal: A high-frequency signal used to carry the information.

Modulation Techniques:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied to represent the
information.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave is varied to represent the
information.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier wave is varied to represent the
information.

Noise: Unwanted signals that can interfere with the transmission of the analog signal.

When data in either digital or analog forms needs to be sent over an analog media it must first be
converted into analog signals for long distance.

Digital Transmission:
 Digital signal transmission involves encoding information as discrete binary values (0s and
1s) and transmitting them over a network medium, like cables or wireless signals, for reliable
data transfer.
 Digital signals are preferred in networking because they are more robust to noise and
distortion compared to analog signals, leading to more reliable data transmission.
 How Digital Signals are transmitted?
 Encoding: Digital data is converted into electrical or electromagnetic signals, which can be
transmitted over various mediums like copper cables, fiber optic cables, or wireless signals.
 Transmission Medium: The network medium (e.g., Ethernet cable, Wi-Fi) carries these
digital signals.
 Decoding: At the receiving end, the signals are decoded back into digital data.

Examples of Digital Transmission in Networking:

 Data Transfer: Sending and receiving files, emails, and web pages.
 Network Communication: Establishing connections between devices on a network.
 Voice over IP (VoIP): Transmitting voice data over a network in a digital format.
Analog to Digital Conversion:
 Microphone create analog voice and camera creates analog videos which are treated is
analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals we need analog to digital
conversion.
 Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete.
To convert analog wave into digital data, we use pulse code Modulation (PCM). This method
is commonly used to convert analog data into digital form. It involves three steps or
operation in sequence namely sampling, quantisation and encoding.
 An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is an integrated circuit that performs the conversion.
The process of converting the analog data to digital signal is known as digitisation.

1. Sampling :
The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate
at which analog signal sampled.
According to Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest
frequency of the signal.

2. Quantisation:
Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete patter shows the
amplitude of the analog signal at that instance.
Quantisation is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude
value. Quantisation is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.

3. Encoding:
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.
Digital to Analog Conversion:
 The process of changing one or more the attributes of analog signal based on information in
digital data is called as digital to analog conversion. It is called as the modulation of the
digital signal.
 Depending on whether the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal is modified.
Digital to analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal based on the information in digital data.
 Following figure shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital to analog
modulating process and the resultant analog signal This conversion is done by modem
(Modulator/Demodulator) . Modulator uses some coding scheme or technique and converts
a digital signal into an analog signal and demodulator converts the analog signal back into
the digital signal.

There are three schemes or techniques of digital to analog conversions possible as given below:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK):

 In this conversion technique, the amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data
 When binary data represents digit ‘1’, the amplitude is held otherwise it is set to ‘0’.
Both frequency and phase remain same as in the original carrier signal.
 A carrier signal, also known as a carrier wave, is a periodic waveform that carries
information by modulating it onto a physical quantity, such as voltage or current,
through a process called modulation.
 Both other attributes frequency and phase kept intact.
Advantages:
1. Very simple to generate and detect
2. Ask is a relatively low cost modulation technique.

Disadvantages:

1. ASK is very sensitive to noise

2. ASK has low quality of digital modulation.

2. Frequency Shift Keying:

 In this conversion technique, the frequency of the analog carrier signal is modified to
reflect binary data.
 FSK technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2. One of them, for example f1 is
chosen to represent binary digit 1 and the other one is used to represent binary digit
0.
 Both amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are kept intact.

Advantages:
1. FSK is better noise immunity than ASK
2. FSK is simple implementation and efficient bandwidth utilisation

Disadvantages:
1. FSK requires high bandwidth
2. FSK is preferred only for the low speed modems.
3. Phase Shift Keying:
 In this technique, the phase of the original carrier signal is altered to reflect the
binary data.
 When a new binary symbol is encountered, the phase of the signal is altered.
 Amplitude and frequency of the original carrier signal is kept intact.

Advantages:
1. PSK can achieve higher data rates than FSK.
2. Efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK

Disadvantages:
1. It has lower bandwidth efficiency.
2. Multi-level PSK modulation schemes (QPSK, 16QAM etc.) are more
sensitive to phase variations.

1.5 Fundamental Of Computer Network:

Today, computer communications are commonly used and most people’s communications can
be executed using computers, such as chatting with a friend, watching movies, reading books,
studying courses, playing video games and so on. Computer Networking plays important role in
every kind of organisation from small to large sized in banks, multinational companies, stock
exchanges, airports, hospitals, police stations, post offices, colleges, universities and even in
small home. In short networking plays an important role everywhere, where computers are
used.

Definition of computer network:

• Computer Network is a collection of two or more computer, which are connected each
other to share information and resources (Hardware and software)

• Two or more computer connected together through a communication media(twisted

pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic or satellite) is called as computer network.

Components of computer network:

1. Two or more computers
2. Cables(coaxial or twisted pair or fiber optic as links between computers
3. A networking Interface Card (NIC) on each computer.
4. Switches or other suitable connecting device.
5. A software called network operating system
Need of Computer Network:
The computer networks are needed because of the following points:
1. For sharing the resources such as printers among all the users.
2. For sharing of expensive software and database
3. To facilitate communication from one computer to other.
4. To have exchange of data and information amongst the users via the network.
5. For sharing of information over the geographically wide areas.
6. For connecting the computers between various buildings of an organisation.
7. For educational purposes.

Applications:
1. Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
2. Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
3. Information sharing by using Web or Internet
4. Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
5. Video conferences
6. Parallel computing
7. Instant messaging
8. IP phones, E-commerce, Electronic Mail, Directory service, Manufacturing, financial services,
marketing and sales

Network Benefits:
 Computer networking can help your business grow.
 Cost-effective resource sharing.
 Improving storage efficiency and volume.
 Freedom to choose the best computer networking method.
 Access flexibility.
 Cut costs on software.
 Utilize a Centralized Database.
 Securing valuable information.

1.6 Classification Of Network:

Computer networks can be classified by their geographic scope (LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN) and by their
purpose (e.g., WLAN, VPN), with LANs being common in small areas, MANs spanning cities, WANs
connecting large areas, and PANs being personal networks.
Classification of LAN, MAN, WAN :

LAN : (Local Area Network) :

 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a
widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application.
 The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone's home
or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. t is a network
which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

Characteristics of LAN:
 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
Advantages of LAN
 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area networks.
This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed software
for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all the LAN
users.
Disadvantages of LAN
• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost of
installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer good
privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not able
to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues related to
software setup and hardware failures

MAN : (Metropolitan area network).

 It covers the largest area than LAN such as small towns, cities, etc. MAN connects two or
more computers that reside within the same or completely different cities.
 MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
Characteristics of MAN :
 Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a group of buildings in a
campus to as large as covering the whole city.
 Data rates are moderate to high.
 In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who sells service
to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
 It facilitates sharing of regional resources.
 They provide uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and Internet.
Example of MAN : Cable TV network, Telephone networks providing high-speed DSL lines
IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX, that provides high-speed broadband access with Internet connectivity to
customer premises

WAN(Wide Area Network) :

 It covers a large area than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc.
 WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.

Characteristics of WAN :
 WANs have a large capacity, connecting a large number of computers over a large area, and
are inherently scalable.
 They facilitate the sharing of regional resources.
 They provide uplinks for connecting LANs and MANs to the Internet.
 Communication links are provided by public carriers like telephone networks, network
providers, cable systems, satellites etc.
 Typically, they have low data transfer rate and high propagation delay, i.e.they have low
communication speed.
 They generally have a higher bit error rate.

Example of WAN : The Internet, 4G Mobile Broadband Systems, A network of bank cash
dispensers.

Difference between LAN, MAN and WAN:

Sr. Parameter LAN MAN WAN

No.
1. Stands for Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network
2 Meaning A computer network that Computer A computer network
interconnects computers network in which that interconnects
within a limited area such two or more user with computer
as residence, office computers or resources in a
building, school or communicating geographical area
laboratory. devices or larger than LAN.
networks which
are geographically
separated but in
same
metropolitan city
and are connected
to each other.
3 Area Covers small geographical Covers larger area than Covers geographical
Covered area i.e. within 1 km to 10 LAN but smaller than area like country,
km. WAN within 90 km state etc. beyond
100km
4. Bandwidth High bandwidth for data Bandwidth is moderate Low bandwidth for
transfer for data transfer data transfer
5. Ownership Owned by private Ownership can be Established under
companies or individuals private or public distributed ownership
or Public
6. Setup cost Lowest setup cost due to Moderate installation Higher setup cost
inexpensive devices costs than LAN and MAN
7. Design Easier to design and Difficult and More difficult and
maintain complicated to design complicated to design
and maintain and maintain than
LAN and MAN
8. Example Offices, Cyber café, ATM, FDDI etc. Internet
Laboratories etc.
UNIT –II Transmission media and switching:
2.1 Communication Media:
 Communication media or transmission media is the medium over which information travels
from the sender to receiver. In other words a communication channel is also called a
medium.
 Different media have different properties and used in different environments for different
purposes. The physical layer of OSI model is associated with the transmission media.

There are two types of media:

1. Guided Media: Guided media is a communication medium which allows the data to get
guided along it. For this the media need to have a point to point physical connection.
2. Unguided Media: The wireless media is also called as unguided media.

Criteria for the selection of transmission media:

 Bandwidth and Data Rate: The amount of data and the speed at which it must be
transmitted are crucial. Higher bandwidth means faster data transfer rates.
 Distance: The maximum distance the medium can successfully carry a signal is a key factor.
 Cost: The cost of the media and its installation should be considered.
 Environmental Conditions: Factors like temperature, humidity, and electromagnetic
interference can affect the performance of certain media.
 Signal Type: Determine whether the signal is analog or digital, as some media are better
suited for one type over the other.
 Security: Consider the security of the transmission medium, especially for sensitive data.
 Reliability: The consistency and robustness of the transmission medium are important.
 Flexibility: Consider the need for future expansion and upgrades.
 Ease of Installation: The complexity and ease of installation and maintenance of the medium
should be considered.

Classification of Transmission media:

1. Guided Transmission Media:

Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a
specific path. Guided Media are Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber-Optic Cable
1. Twisted Pair cables:
Types of twisted cable: 1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair cable:
 It includes two insulated conductor twisted together and not shielded. It has 1-
155Mbps bandwidth, Attenuation is high, Electromagnetic interference is very
high, easy for installation, cost is lowest and security is low.
 Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference. The
induced emf into the two wires due to interference tends to cancel each other
due to twisting. Number of twists per unit length will determine the quality of
cable. More twists means better quality. These cables ensure less crosstalk and a
higher quality of signal over longer distance. Therefore, these cables are popular
used for high speed computer communication
Features of UTP:
1. Noise and electromagnetic interference is high
2. It has low to moderate bandwidth
3. It can be used only for point to point communication. 4. Supports data rates upto
several Mbps

2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP):

 This cable comes with a metal foil or braided mesh included in order to cover
each pair of twisted insulating conductors. This is known as the metal shield,
which is normally connected to ground so as to reduce the interference of the
noise. But this makes the cable bulky and expensive.
 This Twisted pair cable can be used for either analog or digital transmission.
 Bandwidth supported by the wire depends on thickness of the wire and the
distance to be travelled by a signal on it. This twisted pairs supports several
megabits/sec for a few kilometers and are less costly.

Features of STP:
1. Low noise/electromagnetic interference
2. Low cost medium
3. Supports data up to few Mbps
4. Low or moderate bandwidth
2. Coaxial cable:

 The construction of coaxial cable consist of two concentric conductors namely an inner
conductor and braided outer conductor separated by a dielectric material.
 The external conductor is in the form of a metallic braid and used for the purpose of
shielding. The coaxial cable may contain one or more coaxial pairs.
 The wire mesh (braided conductor) protects the inner conductor from electromagnetic
interference (EMI). It is often called as shield.
 A tough plastic jacket forms covering of cable provides insulation and protection.
 Co-axial cable was initially developed for analog telephone networks. The digital
transmission systems using the coaxial cable were developed in 1970s the most popular
application of cable is in the cable TV system having range from 54Mhz to 500 Mhz.

Features of coaxial cable:

1. Excellent noise immunity due to the shield
2. Large bandwidth than twisted pair cables
3. Losses are small
4. Can be used for high data rates
5. Less attenuation
6. They are easy to install.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

 Fiber optic cables offer high bandwidth, data security, and immunity to interference, making
them ideal for high-speed, long-distance data transmission. They are also lightweight,
flexible, and reliable.
 Fiber optic cable is a glass cabling media that sends network signals using light. A fiber optic
cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another.
 Fiber optic cabling has higher bandwidth capacity than copper cabling and is used mainly for
high speed network Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) or Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI)
 Light is a form of electromagnetic energy. It travels at its fastest in a vacuum 3,00,000 kilo
meters/sec. The speed of light depends on density of the medium through which it is
travelling. (higher the density, slower the speed)
Construction:
 A fiber optic cable typically consists of a core (transmits light), cladding (surrounds the core,
reflects light back into the core), coating (protects the core and cladding), strength members
(protects against crushing and tension), and a jacket (protects the entire cable).
 A fiber optic cable consists of five main components:
1. Core: This is the physical medium that transports optical data signals from an attached light
source to a receiving device. The core is a single continuous strand of glass or plastic that is
measured in microns. By the size of its outer diameter. The larger the core, the more light
the cable can carry. All fiber optic cable is sized according to its core’s outer diameter. The
three multimode sizes most commonly available are 50, 62.5 and 100 microns. Single mode
cores are generally less than 9 microns.
2. Cladding: This is the thin layer that surrounds the fiber core and serves as a boundary that
contains the light waves and causes the refraction, enabling data to travel throughout the
length of the fiber segment.
3. Coating: This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to reinforce and
protect the fiber core. Coatings are measured in microns and can range from 250 to 900
microns
4. Strengthening fibers: These components help to protect the core against crushing forces
and excessive tension during installation.
5. Cable jacket: This is the outer layer of fiber optic cable. Most fiber optic cable have n orange
jacket although some types can have black or yellow jackets.

Features:
 Increased bandwidth and speed: The bandwidth and speed that optical fiber cable can offer
are exceptionally high. Its most important benefit is the high amount of information that can
be carried per unit of optical fiber cable.
 Cheap: Optical fiber cable may be produced in long, continuous miles for less money than
copper wire of comparable lengths. The cost of optical cable would undoubtedly decrease as
more manufacturers swarmed to compete for market share lightweight.
 Light and thin: Optical fiber is lighter and thinner than copper wire, and it may be drawn to
smaller diameters. They offer a better match for locations where space is an issue because
they are lighter and smaller than comparable copper wire cables.
Greater carrying capacity—Optical fibers may be grouped into cables of a given diameter
since they are significantly thinner than copper wires. This enables extra phone lines to use
the same cable or more channels to enter your cable TV box through the cable.
 Less signal degradation: Optical fiber experiences less signal loss than copper wire.
 Light signals: Unlike electrical messages sent through copper wires, light signals from one
fiber inside a fiber cable do not interfere with one another. This translates to clearer phone
calls or TV reception.
 Long life: Optical fibers typically have a lifespan of more than 100 years.

2. Unguided Transmission Media: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared, Satellite

 Unguided media does not use conductor or wire as wireless media, instead it uses the air or
vacuum as medium to carry the information from transmitter to receiver.
 A transmitter first converts the data signal into electromagnetic waves and transmits them
using a suitable antenna.
 The receiver receives them using a receiving antenna and converts the EM waves into data
signal again.

1. Radio waves:
 Radio waves have frequencies between 10 Khz and 1 Ghz. The range of electromagnetic
spectrum between 10Khz and 1Ghz is called radio waves.

Radio waves include the following types:

1. Short wave used in AM radio
2. Very high frequency(VHF) used in FM radio and TV
3. Ultra High frequency (UHF) used in TV
4. The radio frequency bands are regulated and require a license from the regulatory body.
5. Radio waves can broadcast Omni directionally.
6. Various types of antennas are used to broadcast these signals are as:
Radio tower. Half-wave dipole, Radom-length wire, and Yagi
7. The power of RF signal is determined by the antenna and transceiver.

Applications:
 Cellular communication 2. Wireless LAN 3. Point to point to multipoint radio systems 4.
Satellite communication

Advantages:
 Radio waves are used for communication such as television and radio.
 Radio waves are transmitted easily through air. They do not cause damage if
absorbed by the human body, and they can be reflected and refracted to change
their direction.

Disadvantages:
 Radio transmission can be interfered with other senders, or electrical devices can
destroy data transmitted via radio.
 Bluetooth is simple than infrared. Radio is only permitted in certain frequency
bands. Shielding is not so simple.
2. Microwave :
 Microwave frequencies range between 109 Hz (1 GHz) to 1000 GHz with respective
wavelengths of 30 to 0.03 cm. Within this spectral domain are a number of communication
systems applications that are important in both the military and civilian sectors.
 Cell phone signals are carried through the air as microwaves. You can see how this works in
the Figure below. A cell phone encodes the sounds of the caller's voice in microwaves by
changing the frequency of the waves. This is called frequency modulation. Micro-oven uses
2.45Ghz frequency band of microwaves.
 There are two types of microwave data communication systems
1. Terrestrial 2. Satellite

1. Terrestrial Microwave system: These systems use parabolic antennas. The signals are highly
focused and the physical path must be line of sight. Relay towers are used to extend the range.
Smaller terrestrial microwave systems can be used even within a building.

2. Satellite communication system: This uses satellites to transmit the information.

Advantages of Microwaves
 Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is transmitted.
 More antenna gain is possible.
 Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is more.
 Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
 Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.

Disadvantages of Microwaves
 Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
 They are bulky and occupy more space.
 Electromagnetic interference may occur.
 Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.
 Inherent inefficiency of electric power.
 Signal strength at the receiving antenna reduces due to multipath reception.

3. Infrared Wave:
 The electromagnetic waves having frequencies from 300 GHz to 400Thz (wave length) are
known as infrared waves.
 IR waves uses line-of sight propagation.
 Infrared light wave is a communication medium whose properties are significantly different
from those of the radio frequencies.
 Infrared light is that it cannot penetrate walls. That means it can be easily contained within a
room.
 The sun generates radiation in infrared band. This can cause a lot of interference with the IR
communication
 The infrared band can be used in development of very high speed wireless LANs in future.

Advantages:
1. Very large bandwidth
2. No electromagnetic interference.
3. It does not penetrate walls.

Disadvantages:
1. It can be used only for short range applications
2. Sun interfere with IR communication
3. Poor performance
4. Less speed of operation.

Applications :

a) Point to point infrared media in a network :

b) Broadcast infrared media:

Satellite communication:
Satellites are classified into following categories:
1. Communication satellites 2. Remote sensing satellites 3. Weather satellites
4. Scientific satellites
 Artificial satellite orbits or revolves around the earth in exactly the same manner as
electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom.
 Geostationary satellite works basically as a relay station in space.
 It receives signal from one earth station, amplifies it, improves the signal quality and radiates
the signal back to other earth stations.
 Such a relay system allows us to communicate with any corner of the world.

 As each station transmits information signal to the satellite using a highly directional
antenna.
 The satellite receives this signal, processes it and transmits it back at a a reduced frequency.
 The receiving earth stations will receive this signal using parabolic dish antennas pointed
towards the satellite.
 The signal which is being transmitted upwards to the satellite as the uplink and it is normally
as frequency of 6Ghz.
 The signal which is transmitted back to the receiving earth station is called down link and is
of frequency 4Ghz
 The typical band of signal frequencies used for the communication satellites are as follows.
o C band – 4/6 Ghz
o Ku band – 11/14 Ghz
o Ka Band – 20/30 Ghz
 C-band frequency used to reduce the size of antenna.
 Multiple access methods such as FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA(Time
Division Multiple Access), and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) are used to allow the
access of satellite to the maximum number of earth stations.

Characteristics:
1. Uses frequency range between 11 to 14Ghz and 4 to 6Ghz which cover the entire earth.
2. It supports a bandwidth upto 10Mbps
3. Attenuation depends on frequency, power, antenna size and atmospheric condition.
4. The signals are affected by EMI effect, jamming, and other reason
5. Installation is difficult and is very expensive.
Applications:
1. For relay of TV channels
2. For long distance telephony
3. Satellite phones used in military
4. For the transmission and reception
5. For the GPS(Global Positioning System) system

2.3 Line-of-Sight Transmission:

 Line of sight means the wave travels a minimum distance of sight. The line sight of
propagation is defined as the straight path between a transmitting antenna and
receiving antenna when unobstructed by the horizon.
 In space wave propagation the radio waves transmitted from antenna reach the
receiving antenna through a line of sight(straight) propagation. The range of such a
transmission is limited by the curvature of the earth.
 Above 30 Mhz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation nodes operate and
communication must be by line of sight as shown in figure

Point-to-Point:
 The point to point communication take place over link between a single transmitter and
receiver.
 Point to point wireless links are usually deployed between two locations that are in clear line
of sight with each other in order to maximise the performance of the wireless link.
 Microwave is a LOS wireless communication technology that use high frequency beams of
radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections that can send and receive voice,
video and data information.
 Microwave links are widely used for point to point communications.
Broadcast :

 Today radio is used for many forms of communication from long distance satellite
communications to the personal cell phones that are widely used. Broadcasting is a method
of transferring a message to all recipients simultaneously over a network.
 Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy includes radiated energy that travels in
lower few miles of earth’s atmosphere. Space waves include both direct and ground
reflected waves shown in figure above

2.4 Multiplexing:
 Multiplexing is the process of simultaneously transmitting two or more individual
signals over a single communication channel.
 Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels
so that more information can be transmitted.
 Typical applications of multiplexing are in telemetry and telephony or in the satellite
communication.
 Concept:
 The multiplexer receives a large number of different input signals.
 Multiplexer has only one output which is connected to the single communication
channel.
 The multiplexer combines all input signals into a single composite signal and
transmits it over the common communication medium.
 Sometimes the composite signal is used for modulating a carrier signals before
transmission.

Types of multiplexing:
1. Frequency Division multiplexing(FDM)
2. Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)
 The multiplexing techniques can be broadly classified into two categories namely
analog and digital
 Analog multiplexing can be either FDM or WDM and digital multiplexing is TDM and
used to handle the digital information
 In FDM many signals are transmitted simultaneously where each signal occupies a
different frequency slot within a common bandwidth.
 In TDM the signals are not transmitted at a time, instead they are transmitted in
different time slots.

De-multiplexing:
At the receiving end of communication links, a de-multiplexer is used to separate
out the signals into their original form.
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
 FDM is a type of multiplexing in which all the signals or channels to be multiplexed
are transmitted at the same time with each channel occupying a distinct non-
overlapping frequency band.
 The operations of FDM is based on sharing the available bandwidth of a
communication channel among the signals to be transmitted.
 This means many signals are transmitted simultaneously with each signal occupying
a different frequency slot within the total available bandwidth.
 Each signal to be transmitted modulates a different carrier. The modulation can be
AM, FM or PM.
 The modulated signals are then added together to form a composite signal which is
transmitted over a single channel.
 Generally the FDM systems are used for multiplexing the analog signals.
FDM Transmitter

FDM Receiver BPF – Bypass filter

FDM Transmitter :
 In FDM transmitter the signals which are to be multiplexed will modulate a separate
carrier.
 The modulated signals are then added together to form a composite signal which is
transmitted over a single channel. This is dome by linear summing circuit or adder.
FDM receiver:
 In FDM receiver the composite signal is applied to a group of band pass filters(BPF).
 Each BPF has a centre frequency corresponding to one of the carriers used in the
transmitter i.e. fc1, fc2… fcn etc.
 Each BPFs have an adequate bandwidth to pass all the channel information without
any distortion.
 Each filter will pass through only its channel and reject all the other channels. Thus
all the multiplexed channels are separated out.
 The channel demodulator then removes the carrier and recovers the original signal
back.

Advantages:
1. In FDM a large number of signals(channels) can be transmitted simultaneously.
2. FDM does not need synchronisation between its transmitter and receiver for proper
operation.
3. Demodulation of FDM is easy
4. FDM is inexpensive

Disadvantages:
1. FDM requires large bandwidth
2. Large number of modulators and filter are required in FDM
3. FDM suffers from cross-talk
4. All the FDM channels get affected due to wideband fading.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

 Time division multiplexing (TDM) is a communications process that transmits two or more
streaming digital signals over a common channel.
 In TDM, incoming signals are divided into equal fixed-length time slots. After multiplexing,
these signals are transmitted over a shared medium and reassembled into their original
format after de-multiplexing.
 Time slot selection is directly proportional to overall system efficiency.
 Time division multiplexing (TDM) is also known as a digital circuit switched.
 There are two types of TDM synchronous and asynchronous.

Examples of utilizing TDM include digitally transmitting several telephone conversations over the
same four-wire copper cable or fiber optical cable in a TDM telephone network; these systems may
be pulse code modulation (PCM)

Advantages:
1. TDM systems are more flexible than FDM
2. Time vision multiplexing circuitry is not complex.
3. Problem of crosstalk is not severe
4. In TDM, the user gets full bandwidth of the channel in a particular time slot.

Disadvantages:
1. Synchronisation is required in time division multiplexing.
2. It is not much suitable for continuous signals
3. In TDM extra guard time are necessary

Applications of time division multiplexing which are given below,

 It used in ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) telephone lines.
 It is used in PSTN (public switched telephone network).
 It is used for some telephone system.
 It is used in wire line telephone lines.
Difference between Frequency Division Multiplexing and Time Division Multiplexing

1.3 Switching:
Definition of switch:
Switch is device that creates temporary connections between two or more devices.
Switching: Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port
leading towards the destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when
data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress
Need of Switching:
 A network consists of many switching devices. In order to connect multiple devices,
one solution could be to have a point to point connection between pair of devices.
But this increases the number of connections.
 The other solution could be to have star topology which has one central device and
connected by many devices.
 Both these methods are wasteful and impractical for very large networks. Hence a
better solution is switching. A switched network is made of a series of
interconnected nodes called switch.
1. Circuit-switched network:

 Circuit switching in computer networks establishes a dedicated, fixed-bandwidth

communication channel between two nodes for the duration of a
connection. This is similar to a traditional phone call, where a dedicated line is
set up and remains active until the call ends. It includes three phases Setup
phase, Data transfer phase and Tear down phase. An example of a circuit-
switched network is an analog telephone network.
 In circuit switching network resources (bandwidth) are divided into pieces and
bit delay is constant during a connection. The dedicated path/circuit established
between sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data rate. Data can be
transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.
 Telephone system network is one of the example of Circuit switching. TDM
(Time Division Multiplexing) and FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) are
two methods of multiplexing multiple signals into a single carrier.

Advantages:
1. The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission channel is
established between the computers which give a guaranteed data rate.
2. In-circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated transmission
path.
Disadvantages:
1. It takes a long time to establish a connection.
2. More bandwidth is required in setting up dedicated channels.
3. It cannot be used to transmit any other data even if the channel is free as the connection is
dedicated to circuit switching.
2. Packet Switching:
 Packet switching is a method of transmitting data across a network where data is broken
down into smaller units called packets, each containing routing information. These packets
travel independently across the network and are reassembled at the destination.
 This method is connectionless, meaning a dedicated path isn't established before
transmission. Each time one device sends a file to another, it breaks the file down into
packets so that it can determine the most efficient route for sending the data across the
network at that time.
 The network devices can then route the packets to the destination where the receiving
device reassembles them for use.
 Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various networks. These data
chunks or “packets” allow for faster, more efficient data transfer.
 Often, when a user sends a file across a network, it gets transferred in smaller data packets,
not in one piece.
 For example, a 3MB file will be divided into packets, each with a packet header that includes
the origin IP address, the destination IP address, the number of packets in the entire data
file, and the sequence number

Types of Packet Switching:

There are two major types of packet switching: Connectionless packet switching and connection
oriented packet switching
1. Connectionless Packet Switching: (Datagram Packet switching ):
 This classic type of packet switching includes multiple packets, each
individually routed. This means each packet contains complete routing
information but it also means different paths of transmission and out-of-
order delivery are possible, depending on the fluctuating loads on the
network’s nodes (adapters, switches and routers) at the moment. This kind
of packet switching is called datagram switching. Packets are called
datagram.
 This type of switching corresponds to the network layer of OSI layers.
 Each packet in connectionless packet switching includes the following
information in its header section: Source address, Destination address, Total
number of packets, Sequence number for reassembly
 Once the packets reach their destination via various routes, the receiving
devices rearrange them to form the original message.
Connection less or datagram circuit switching

Advantages:
 Scalability: Datagram switching is highly scalable and can handle large amounts
of traffic on a network.
 Flexibility: Datagram switching is flexible and can support variable packet sizes
and data rates.
 Simple routing: Datagram switching does not require a pre-established path for
each packet, allowing packets to be routed dynamically.
 Lower latency: Datagram switching typically has lower latency than virtual circuit
switching, as packets are sent immediately without any delay for setup.

Disadvantages
 Higher error rates: Datagram switching is more susceptible to errors than virtual
circuit switching, as there is no guaranteed delivery or error correction.
 Lack of QoS: Datagram switching does not provide any Quality of Service
guarantees, meaning that different types of traffic may be treated equally.
 Increased network congestion: Without a pre-established path for each packet,
datagram switching can lead to increased network congestion and potential
delays.

2. Connection-Oriented Packet Switching: (virtual circuit switching)

 Virtual circuit switching establishes a dedicated connection using packet-
switching technology. A virtual circuit-switched connection is a dedicated, logical
connection that enables multiple virtual circuit connections to share a physical
path.
 In connection-oriented packet switching, data packets are first assembled and
then numbered.
 It is a connection-oriented service, where the first packet goes and reserves the
resources for the subsequent packets.
 They then travel across a predefined route, sequentially. Address information is
not needed in circuit switching, because all packets are sent in sequence.

Connection oriented or virtual circuit switching

Advantages:
1. Packets are delivered in the same order as they all follow the
same route between the source & the destination.
2. The overhead is smaller as full address is not required on
each packet as they all follow the same established path.
3. The connection is more reliable as it is one to one connection.
4. Less chances of data loss.
Disadvantages:
1. The switching equipment should be powerful.
2. Re-establishment of the network is difficult as if there is any
failure. All calls need to be re-established.

Difference between Circuit switching and packet switching

Sr. Circuit Switching Packet switching

No.
1. Circuit switching has 3 In Packet switching directly
phases: data transfer takes place.
i) Connection
Establishment.
ii) Data Transfer. iii)
Connection Released.
2. In circuit switching, each In Packet switching, each data
data unit knows the entire unit just knows the final
path address which is destination address
provided by the source. intermediate path is decided
by the routers
3. In Circuit switching, data is In Packet switching, data is
processed at the source processed at all intermediate
system only nodes including the source
system.
4. The delay between data The delay between data units
units in circuit switching is in packet switching is not
uniform uniform
5. Resource reservation is the There is no resource
feature of circuit switching reservation because
because the path is fixed for bandwidth is shared among
data transmission users
6. Wastage of resources is Less wastage of resources as
more in Circuit Switching compared to Circuit Switching
7. It is not a store and forward It is a store and forward
technique. technique.
8. In Circuit Switching there is In Packet Switching there is no
a physical path between the physical path between the
source and the destination source and the destination
9. The circuit switching Packet switching is
network is implemented at implemented at the data link
the physical layer layer and network layer
Difference between datagram packet switching and virtual circuit switching

Sr. Datagram Switching Virtual Circuit switching

No.
1 It is connection less service. Virtual circuits are connection-oriented,
There is no need for which means that there is a reservation of
reservation of resources as resources like buffers, bandwidth, etc. for the
there is no dedicated path for time during which the new setup VC is going
a connection session. to be used by a data transfer session.
2 All packets are free to use any The first sent packet reserves resources at
available path. As a result, each server along the path. Subsequent
intermediate routers calculate packets will follow the same path as the first
routes on the go due to sent packet for the connection time.
dynamically changing routing
tables on routers.
3 Data packets reach the Packets reach in order to the destination as
destination in random order, data follows the same path.
which means they need not
reach in the order in which
they were sent out.
4 Datagram networks are not as Virtual Circuits are highly reliable.
reliable as Virtual Circuits.
5 Widely used in Internet Used in X.25, ATM(Asynchronous Transfer
Mode)
6 Efficiency high, delay more Efficiency low and delay less
UNIT –III Error Detection and correction

 In data transmission, an "error" refers to a discrepancy or mismatch between the data sent
by the transmitter and the data received by the receiver, often caused by noise or
interference during transmission.
 Error is a condition when the output information does not match with the input information.
During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can introduce errors in the binary
bits travelling from one system to other. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may
change to 0.

Need of Error Control Coding:

 In data transmission, errors are introduced during the transmission of data from the
transmitter to receiver due to noise or some other reasons.
 The reliability of data transmission will be severely affected due to these errors.
 In order to improve the reliability of data transmission, the designer will have to increase the
signal power or reduce the noise spectral density.
 For the detection and correction of these errors, one or more than one extra bits are added
to the data bits at the time of transmitting.
 These extra bits are called as parity bits. They allow detection or sometimes correction of
the errors.
 The data bits along with the parity bits form a code word.

3.1 Types of Errors:

There are four types of errors in data transmission.

1. Content error
2. Flow integrity error
3. Single bit error
4. Burst error

1. Content error:
The contents errors are nothing but errors in the contents of a message. E.g. a ‘0’ may be received
as ‘1’ or vice versa. Such errors are introduced due to noise added into the data signal during its
transmission.
2. Flow Integrity Error:
Flow Integrity error means missing blocks of data. It is possible that data block may be lost in the
network possibly because it has been delivered to a wrong destination. Depending on the number of
bits in error we can classify the errors into two types as single bit errors and burst errors.
3. Single Bit error :
The term single bit error suggests that only one bit in the given data unit such as byte in error.
That means only one bit in a transmitted byte will change from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1.

4. Burst errors:
If two or more bits from the data unit such as a byte change from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1 then burst
errors are said to have occurred.

Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission:

Forward Error Correction:

 In FEC the receiver searches for the most likely correct code word.
 When an error is detected, the distance between the received invalid code word and all the
possible valid code word is obtained.
 The nearest valid code word (the one having minimum distance) is the most likely the
correct version of the received code word as shown below.

In figure above the valid code 1 has the minimum distance(1), hence it is the most likely correct code
word.

Retransmission:
Retransmission methods in data transmission are used to re-send data packets that were lost,
corrupted, or not acknowledged during transmission. Here are some common retransmission
methods
.
3.2 Framing:
Framing in data transmission is the process of dividing a stream of data into smaller, manageable
units called frames. Each frame typically consists of a header, payload, and trailer.

Purpose of Framing:
1. Error Detection and Correction: Framing allows for error detection and correction by
adding checksums or cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) to each frame.
2. Flow Control: Framing helps regulate the flow of data between devices by allowing the
receiver to acknowledge or reject frames.
3. Synchronization: Framing helps synchronize the transmission and reception of data by
providing a clear beginning and end to each frame.

Components of a Frame:
1. Header: Contains control information, such as source and destination addresses, frame
length, and sequencing information.
2. Payload: Carries the actual data being transmitted.
3. Trailer: Contains error-checking information, such as checksums or CRCs.

Types of Framing
1. Fixed-Length Framing: Each frame has a fixed length, making it easier to implement but
less efficient.
2. Variable-Length Framing: Each frame has a variable length, making it more efficient but
more complex to implement.
3. Bit-Oriented Framing: Frames are defined by specific bit patterns rather than byte
boundaries.

1. Fixed Sized and Variable Sized Framing

Fixed-length framing is a method of framing data in transmission systems where each frame has a
fixed length.

Advantages:
1. Easy Synchronization: Fixed-length framing makes it easy for the receiver to synchronize
with the transmitter.
2. Simple Error Detection: Errors can be easily detected by checking the frame length.
3. Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Fixed-length framing can make efficient use of bandwidth, as
the transmitter and receiver can agree on a fixed frame length.

Disadvantages:
1. Inefficient for Variable-Length Data: Fixed-length framing can be inefficient when
transmitting variable-length data, as padding may be required to fill the fixed-length frame.
2. Limited Flexibility: Fixed-length framing has limited flexibility, as changes to the frame
length can be difficult to implement.

Example:
Suppose we want to transmit a message using fixed-length framing with a frame length of 8
bytes.
Message: "HelloWorld"
Frames:
Frame 1: "HelloWo"
Frame 2: "rld"

In this example, the message is divided into two frames, each with a fixed length of 8 bytes.
2. Variable-length framing:
Variable-length framing is a method of framing data in transmission systems where each frame can
have a different length.
Advantages:
1. Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Variable-length framing can make efficient use of bandwidth,
as frames can be tailored to fit the size of the data being transmitted.
2. Flexibility: Variable-length framing offers flexibility, as frame lengths can be adjusted to
accommodate different types of data.
3. Reduced Padding: Variable-length framing reduces the need for padding, which can waste
bandwidth.

Disadvantages:
1. Complex Synchronization: Variable-length framing can make synchronization between the
transmitter and receiver more complex.
2. Error Detection Challenges: Error detection can be more challenging with variable-length
framing, as the receiver may not know the expected frame length.
3. Increased Overhead: Variable-length framing may require additional overhead, such as
frame length indicators, to facilitate frame identification.

Example:
Message: "Hi" "HelloWorld"
Frames:
Frame 1: "Hi" (2 bytes)
Frame 2: "HelloWorld" (10 bytes)

In this example, the two frames have different lengths: 2 bytes and 10 bytes.

3.3 Error detection:

 Error detection is a method or process which is used by a receiver to find out whether an
error is present in the received code word.
 Error detection does not involve correction of errors.
 A number of methods are available now for the detection and correction of errors
introduced in the transmitted signal.

Following are some methods for error detection

1. Parity checking
2. Two-Dimensional Parity Check
3. Checksum error detection
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC)

1. Parity checking:
 In this technique, a redundant bit called a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the
total number of 1‘s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even (or odd). Figure shows
this concept when transmit the binary data unit 100101.
 Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors. It can also detect burst errors as long as
the total number of bits changed is odd. This method cannot detect errors where the total
number of bits changed is even.

Redundancy:
 Redundancy involves transmission of extra bits along with the data bits. These extra bits
actually do not contain any data or information but they ensure that the detection and
correction of errors introduced during the data travel from sender to receiver.
 As these extra bits do not contain any information, they are known as redundant bits.
 The redundant bits are also called parity check bits. They are produced from the data bits
using some pre-decided rules(protocol).
 The data bits and redundant bits together form a code word as shown below

Limitations of parity checking:

1. It is not suitable for detection of multiple errors(two, four,six etc)
2. It cannot reveal the location of erroneous bit.
3. 3. It cannot correct the error either

2. Two dimensional Parity check:

 When a large number of binary words are being transmitted or received in succession, the
resulting collection of bits is considered as a block of data with rows and column.
LRC and VRC bits:
 The parity bits are produced for each row and column of such block of data.
 The two sets of parity bits so generated are known as

1. Longitudinal Redundancy Check(LRC) bits

2. Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) bits

1. Longitudinal Redundancy check bits indicate the parity of rows and VRC bits indicate the parity of
columns as shown:

2. The Vertical Redundancy Check(VRC) bits:

 As shown in figure the VRC bits are parity bit associated with the ASCII code of each
character. Each VRC bit will make the parity of its corresponding column “an even parity”
 For example consider column 1 corresponding to the character “C”. The ASCII code for the
character is as follows:

Therefore, the 8th bit which is a VRC bit is made “1” to make the parity even.
The Longitudinal Redundant Check(LRC) bit :

The LRC bits are parity bits associated with the rows of the data block. Each LRC bit will make the
parity of the corresponding row, an even parity… For example, consider following

How to locate the erroneous bit?

 Even a single error in any bit will result in non-correct LRC in one of the rows and an
incorrect VRC in one of the columns. The bit which is common to the row and
column is the erroneous bit.

 Figure shows the received data block along with LRC and VRC bits. Note the parity bits
corresponding to row 1 column 5 indicate wrong parity. Therefore the fifth bit in the first
row (encircled bit) is incorrect. Thus, using VRC and LRC, it is possible to locate and correct
the bits in error.

Cyclic Redundancy Check :

 CRC code is an error detection code which is included in each transmitted codeword as
shown in figure and used by the receiver to detect the errors in the received codeword.
 This is a type of polynomial code in which a bit string is represented in the form of
polynomials with coefficients of 0 and 1 only.
 Polynomial arithmetic uses a modulo-2 arithmetic or XOR operation.
 For CRC code the sender and receiver should agree upon a generator polynomial G(x). A
codeword can be generated for a given dataword (message) polynomial(M(x) with the help
of long division.
 This technique is more powerful than the parity check and checksum error detection.

Procedure to obtain CRC to whether code word transmitted is correct or not.

Example 1 : Generate the CRC code for the data word of 110010101. The Divisor is 10101

Soln.

Given Data word : 110010101

Divisor : 10101
The number of data bits = m =9
The number of bits in the divisor =n=5
Divident =Dataword + (n-1) zeros (5-1=4)
So, Divident = 110010101 0000
(4 additional zeros)

XOR table
Division :
Carry out the division as follows:

 If the received code word is divided by divisor and the if remainder is zero then received
code word is error free and if it is non-zero then it has error.

Example 2 : The code word is received as 1100 1001 01011. Check whether there are errors in the
received code word, if the divisor is 10101.

Soln.
3,4 Error correction:
 In the error correction techniques, codes are generated at the transmitter (sender) by
adding a group of parity bits or check bits as shown in figure

 The encoder adds the check bits to the data bits according to a prescribed rule. This rule will
be dependent on the type of code being used (either odd parity or even parity)
 The decoder separates out the data and check bits. It uses the parity bits to detect and
correct errors if they are present in the received code words. The data bits are then passed
on to the destination.

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):

 Automatic Repeat ReQuest (ARQ), also called Automatic Repeat Query, is an error-control
protocol that automatically initiates a call to retransmit any data packet or frame after
receiving flawed or incorrect data. When the transmitting device fails to receive an
acknowledgement signal to confirm the data has been received, it usually retransmits the
data after a predefined timeout and repeats the process a predetermined number of times
until the transmitting device receives the acknowledgement.
 ARQ occur in data link layer and transport layer in OSI model. There are main types of the
ARQ are the Stop-and Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N-ARQ and selective repeat ARQ.
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ is the simplest ARQ, it has one frame at a time sent with no additional
frames sent until reception of the previous one is confirmed via an acknowledgement signal.
 Go-back-N ARQ is much more complex protocol. It allows frames to be sent even if previous
frames were received without an acknowledgement signal. This protocol keeps track of the
sequence. When the last frame is received, it requests re-transmission of the frames sent
without an acknowledgement.
 Selective repeat ARQ may be used for the delivery and acknowledgment of sent data
packets or the delivery of sub-divided messages in sub-units

Retransmission Protocols

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A connection-oriented protocol that uses ARQ and other
retransmission methods.

2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that does not guarantee delivery, but
can use FEC and other retransmission methods.

Hamming Code:
Hamming code is a type of error-correcting code used in data transmission to detect and correct
single-bit errors.

How Hamming Code Works:

1. Data Bits: The data to be transmitted is divided into bits.
2. Parity Bits: Additional parity bits are added to the data bits to create a codeword.
3. Codeword: The codeword is transmitted over the communication channel.
4. Error Detection: The receiver checks the codeword for errors by calculating the syndrome.
5. Error Correction: If an error is detected, the receiver corrects the error by flipping the incorrect
bit.
Advantages:
1. Single-Bit Error Correction: Hamming code can correct single-bit errors.
2. Efficient: Hamming code is relatively simple to implement and requires minimal overhead.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited Error Correction: Hamming code can only correct single-bit errors.
2. Not Suitable for Burst Errors: Hamming code is not effective against burst errors (multiple
consecutive bit errors).
Applications of Hamming Codes
1. Computer Networks: Hamming codes are used in computer networks to ensure reliable data
transmission.
2. Digital Communication Systems: Hamming codes are used in digital communication systems, such
as satellite communication and wireless networks.
3. Data Storage: Hamming codes are used in data storage systems, such as hard drives and solid-
state drives, to detect and correct errors.
To find the Hamming code using even parity for the data bits 1011, we need to calculate the parity
bits.

Hamming Code Example:

A bit word 1011 is to be transmitted. Construct with even parity using seven-bit Hamming code for
this data

Step 1: Determine the number of parity bits

For 4 data bits (1011), we need 3 parity bits (p1, p2, p3) according to R. W. Hamming.
Step 2: Calculate the parity bits

The bits (1,3,5,7), (2,3,6,7), (4,5,6,7) are checked for even parity.

1 0 1 1
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

P1 depends upon data bits (D3 D5 D7) (1 1 1). Set P1 =1 in order to have even parity

P2 depends upon data bits (D3 D6 D7) (1 0 1). Set P2 =0 in order to have even parity

P4 depends upon data bits (D5 D6 D7) (1 0 1). Set P3 =1 in order to have even parity

Step 3: Construct the Hamming code

Hamming code: Inserting values of parity bits, we obtain

1 0 1 1 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

Answer: Hamming code: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

Step 4: Hamming coded data is now transmitted. At the receiver it is decoded to get the data back. If
all the bit groups mentioned above possess the even parity then the received code word is correct
i.e. it does not contain errors. But if the parity bits is not even (i.e. it is odd) then error exists. Such
an error can be located by forming a tree bit number out of the three parity checks. This process
becomes clear by solving the example given below.

Error Correction:

Transmitted code word is 1010101

1 0 1 1 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

Suppose data bit D6 is changed from 0 to 1 then code word received as

1 1 1 1 1 0 1
D7 D6 D5 P4 D3 P2 P1

Now we will calculate parity bits for error correction

P1 depends upon data bits (P1 D3 D5 D7) (1 1 1 1). Hence P1=0 Even parity occurs no error.

P2 depends upon data bits (P2 D3 D6 D7) ( 0 1 1 1). Hence P2=1 Odd parity error occurs.

P4 depends upon data bits (P4 D5 D6 D7) (1 1 0 1). Hence P4= 1 Odd parity error occurs.

Error word will be E = (1 1 0) i.e for (P4 P2 P1) E= (6)10

Answer: Error found in sixth position

3.5 Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11:

 The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and defines
the MAC and physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs).
 Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
 Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move unrestricted within the network coverage
zone. The 802.11 structure is designed to accommodate mobile stations that participate
actively in network decisions.
 Furthermore, it can seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G networks.
 The Wi-Fi standard represents a set of wireless LAN standards developed by the Working
Group of IEEE LAN/MAN standards committee (IEEE 802). The term 802.11x is also used to
denote the set of standards. Various specifications and amendments include 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11e, 802.11g, 802.11n etc.

Important Terminologies of IEEE 802.11 Architecture:

Station: Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the wireless LAN. It
can be of two types:
Wireless Access Point (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are wireless routers that bridge
connections for base stations.
Client: Examples include computers, laptops, printers, and smartphones.
Access Point: It is a device that can be classified as a station because of its functionalities and acts as
a connection between wireless medium and distributed systems.
Distribution System: A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to create an
ESS.
Frame: It is a MAC protocol data unit.
SSID (Service Set Identifier): It’s the network name for a particular WLAN. All-access points and
devices on a specific WLAN must use the same SSID to communicate.
SDU: It is a data unit that acts as an input to each layer. These can be fragmented or aggregated to
form a PDU.
PDU: It is a data unit projected as an output to communicate with the corresponding layer at the
other end. They contain a header specific to the layer.
Network Interface Controller: It is also known as network interface card. It is a hardware
component that connects devices to the network.
Portal: Serves as a gateway to other networks

Standard Architecture:

IEEE 802.11 Architecture :

 The 802.11 is the specifications for the wireless LAN defined by IEEE This specification
defines the physical and data link layer.
 IEEE 802.11 is the most popular WLAN standard. It defines the specifications for the physical
and MAC layers.
 IEEE 802.11 defines two types of services
1. Basic Service Set (BSS)
2. Extended Service Set (ESS)

1. Basic Service Set (BSS):

o As per IEEE 802.11 the BSS has been defined as the basic building block of wireless
LAN.
o A BSS consists of stationary or moving wireless stations and a central base station
which is optional called as the Access Point.
o Thus, a BSS can be either without AP or with AP as shown in figure.
o The BSS without AP cannot send data to another BSS. So no data exchange can take
place outside that BSS hence it is known as a standalone network or ad hoc BSS.
However all the stations inside a BSS can exchange data among themselves.
o It can communicate with the other BSS via the access point AP. The BSS with AP is
also called as Infrastructure BSS.

2. Extended Service Set (ESS) :

 As the Extended Service Set (ESS) consists of multiple BSSs with APs(Access Point). The BSSs
in this system are connected to each other via a distribution system or a wired LAN.
 The APs are connected to each other via the distribution system as shown. The distribution
system can be any type of LAN such as Ethernet.
The ESS contains two types of stations:
1. Mobile stations which can move and change location
2. Stationary of non-moving stations.

Features of IEEE 802.11 versions:

 Wireless networks based on 802.11 standards with 2.4 to 5 Ghz bands. Wireless network
produced IEEE 802.11
 The IEEE 802.11 set of standards covers wireless local area networks(WLAN). Its transfer
rate is 1 or 2 Mbps.
 The IEEE 802.11 covers the modulation of input signals in the wireless medium. i.e. air.
Several variations of the basic protocol were released such as IEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b etc.
 The family of 802.11 standards include many versions to perform various functionality as
following:

802.11a: IEEE 802.11a, published in 1999, is a wireless networking standard that operates in the 5
GHz band using OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) and offers a theoretical
maximum data rate of 54 Mbps.

802.11b: IEEE 802.11b, also known as Wi-Fi 1, is a wireless networking standard that operates in the
2.4 GHz band, providing a maximum data rate of 11 Mbps and uses Direct-Sequence Spread
Spectrum/Complementary Code Keying (DSSS/CCK) modulation.
802.11g: IEEE 802.11g, also known as Wi-Fi 3, is a wireless networking standard that operates in the
2.4 GHz band and offers data rates of up to 54 Mbps, using OFDM modulation and backward
compatibility with 802.11b.

802.11n: IEEE 802.11n, also known as Wi-Fi 4, is a wireless networking standard that uses multiple
antennas and MIMO technology to increase data rates, dependability, and range in wireless local
area networks (WLANs).

802.11p: IEEE 802.11p is an approved amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to add wireless
access in vehicular environments (WAVE), a vehicular communication system.

IEEE 802.11p standard typically uses channels of 10 MHz bandwidth in the 5.9 GHz band (5.850–
5.925 GHz). This is half the bandwidth as used in 802.11a, or double the transmission time per data
symbol.

Advantages of WLAN:
1. WLAN is cheaper than wired LAN, because wires are not required.
2. WLAN can be laid down where it is difficult to run cables e.g. historical buildings.
3. It is possible to for WLAN using Laptops.
4. An standard WiFi device can work anywhere in the world.
5. WPA2 protocol used for WiFi is secure protocol so WLANs are safe
Limitations:
1. Spectrum assignment and operational conditions are not same world wide.
2. Radiated power is limited to 100mw. So the range will be limited
3. WiFi networks have a limited range typically 35m for indoor and 100m for outdoor
4. There are data security risks. WiFi networks are not protected thoroughly.
5. WiFi connections can be easily disrupted.
3.6 Bluetooth Architecture:
 Bluetooth is the name given to a new technology using short range radio links which could
replace cables connecting portable or fixed electronic devices.
 Bluetooth radio modules operate in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4Ghz. And avoid
interference from other signals by hopping to a new frequency after transmitting or
receiving a packet.
 Thus, bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology which can connect devices such as telephones,
computers, printers, cameras etc. without using wires. A bluetooth LAN is an Ad hoc
Network.
 Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet 2. Scatternet
1. Piconet :
 It is a small network which can have at most eight devices or stations. One of them is
called master and all others are called slaves.
 Communication between a master and slaves can be one to one or one to many.
 No communication between two slaves is occurred. Current data rate is 1Mbps and
used for short range up to 10 meters
2. Scatternet:

 Figure shows a scatternet consisting of two piconets. A slave in the first piconet can act as a
master in the second piconet.
 It will receive the messages from the master in the first piconet by acting as a slave and then
delivers the message to the slaves in the second piconet

3.7 Mobile Generations:

Mobile Generation 3G:

 3G, or the third generation of mobile technology, marked a significant leap from 2G, offering
faster data speeds and enabling new services like mobile internet, video calls, and
multimedia access.
 Introduced broadband connectivity for smartphones and mobile internet, with speeds from
144 kbps to 2 Mbps.
 Utilizes LTE and Wi-Fi for high speeds, reaching up to 1 Gbps, and is the network workhorse
of the 2010s.

Mobile Generation 4G:

 4G, or fourth-generation wireless, is a mobile telecommunications technology that offers
faster data speeds, lower latency, and improved network capacity compared to 3G,
 It enables services like high-definition video streaming and online gaming.
 Utilizes LTE and Wi-Fi for high speeds, reaching up to 1 Gbps, and is the network workhorse
of the 2010s.

Mobile Generation 5G:

 5G is a unified, more capable air interface.
 It has been designed with an extended capacity to enable next-generation user experiences,
empower new deployment models and deliver new services.
 With high speeds, superior reliability and negligible latency, 5G will expand the mobile
ecosystem into new realms.
 Promises speeds over 1 Gbps for applications like interactive media, smart homes/cities, and
ultra-fast internet access.

UNIT-IV Network Communication Models

4.1 The OSI MODEL:

Need of OSI Model:

 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is needed to standardize communication

between diverse computer systems and to facilitate troubleshooting and understanding of
complex network architectures.
 It breaks down network communication into seven distinct layers, each with specific
functions, allowing for independent development and troubleshooting of each layer. This
layered approach also provides a common language for network professionals and helps in
visualizing and understanding network operations.
 A set of layers and protocols is called as network architecture. Protocol stack is defined as a
list of protocols used for a certain system, one protocol per layer. Each layer has its own
task. When one computer communicates with other computer then it has go through each
layer. Each layer is stacked on each other. The purpose of each layer is to offer certain
services to the higher layers. Layer in one machine will communicate with the layer in
another machine (destination).
 Basically protocol is an agreement between the two communicating machines about how
the communication links should be established, maintained and released. The rules and
conventions mentioned in protocol.
 The International Standards Organisation ISO covers all aspects of network communication
in the open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
 An OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer systems.

Layered Architecture:

OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a
specific function to perform. All these seven layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from
one layer to another. The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly implemented
only in software. Middle layer is transport layer and is heart of layered structure. Lower layers deals
with only hardware
OSI Reference Model

1. Application Layer:
The Application Layer in the OSI model acts as the interface between user applications and the
network, enabling communication and providing services like file transfer, email, and web
browsing. It's the top layer, closest to the end-user, and responsible for presenting data to
applications and allowing users to access network resources.
Functions:
Data Exchange: Facilitates the exchange of data between applications on different devices, ensuring
compatibility and proper data transmission.
Protocol and Syntax Definition: Determines the specific protocols and data formats used for
communication between applications.
Remote Hosting: Enables remote access to systems, allowing users to log in and interact with a
remote host.
Data Presentation: Handles the presentation of data to the user, including tasks like displaying web
content or formatting documents.
Security and Authentication: Implements security measures like user authentication and data
encryption to protect network data and access.
Resource Sharing: Allows users to access and share resources like files, databases, and other
network services.
Network Management: Provides tools for managing and configuring network devices and services.
Mail Services: Facilitates email communication between users.
Directory Services: Enables access to global information and databases.
Error Recovery: Ensures agreement on error recovery procedures at both ends of the
communication.
The Application layer of the OSI model uses protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, Telnet, IMAP,
RARP, SNMP and DHCP to provide services to applications. These protocols enable functionalities
like web browsing, file transfer, email, domain name resolution, and dynamic IP address
assignment,

2. Presentation Layer:
The Presentation Layer in the OSI model focuses on data representation, translation, and security. It
ensures data is formatted correctly for transmission and interpretation, handles encryption and
decryption, and may also compress data to reduce transmission size.
Functions:
Data Translation:
The Presentation Layer translates data between different formats and character sets used by
different systems. For example, it might convert ASCII characters to EBCDIC.
Encryption/Decryption:
This layer is responsible for encrypting data before transmission and decrypting it upon receipt,
ensuring confidentiality.
Compression:
The Presentation Layer can compress data to reduce the amount of data transmitted over the
network, saving bandwidth and improving transmission speed.
Data Formatting:
It ensures data is formatted correctly for the receiving application, making it readable and
understandable.
Security:
By providing encryption and decryption services, the Presentation Layer contributes to the overall
security of network communication.

Protocols used are MIME(Multi Purpose Internet Mail Extensions), News Transfer Protocol(NNTP),
TLS(Transport layer Security, SSL Secure Socket layer, SSH Secure shell etc.

3. Session Layer:
The Session Layer in the OSI model primarily manages and controls connections between
applications, establishing, maintaining, and terminating dialogues. It also handles authentication and
authorization, ensuring secure communication. Additionally, the layer supports session check
pointing and recovery, allowing for interrupted sessions to be resumed.
Functions:
Dialogue Control:
Dialogue control function manages the flow of communication between two devices or processes,
determining which can transmit data and when. This ensures that data exchange is organized and
avoids conflicts, particularly important in half-duplex and full-duplex communication modes.
Establishing and Managing Connections:
The session layer sets up a session by coordinating and negotiating parameters, such as protocols
and port numbers, to ensure compatibility between devices.
Authentication and Authorization:
It verifies the identity of users and grants or denies access to resources, enhancing security.
Session Termination:
The layer ensures that connections are gracefully closed when communication is no longer needed.
Synchronization:
It maintains the synchronization of data streams, ensuring that different parts of a message arrive in
the correct order, especially in media streaming.
Check pointing and Recovery:
The session layer can create checkpoints within a session, allowing for the restoration of the
connection in case of interruptions or failures.
Full-duplex, Half-duplex, and Simplex Operation:
It supports different types of communication, including full-duplex (two-way simultaneously), half-
duplex (two-way but not simultaneously), and simplex (one-way) communication.
Session Checkpoint and Recovery:
It allows for sessions to be paused and resumed at a later point, enabling applications to recover
from interruptions.
Managing Interruptible Dialogues:
The layer can handle multiple dialogues within a session, allowing applications to switch between
different activities.
Protocols uses are L2TP(Layer 2 tunnelling protocol), PPTP(Point to point tunnelling protocol,
NetBIOS(Network Basic Input Output system, PAP(Password Authentication Protocol, SDP (Socket
Direct Protocol) etc.

3. Transport Layer:
The transport layer in the OSI model provides reliable, end-to-end data transmission, ensuring data
arrives at the correct application on the receiving end. It handles segmentation and reassembly of
data, flow control, error recovery, and multiplexing.
Functions:
1. Segmentation and Reassembly:
The transport layer receives data from the session layer and divides it into smaller units called
segments (or datagrams for UDP) for efficient transmission. On the receiving end, it reassembles
these segments into the original data stream, ensuring they arrive in the correct order.
2. Flow Control:
This mechanism prevents the receiver from being overwhelmed by data by regulating the flow rate
between sender and receiver. It ensures the receiver has sufficient resources to process the data
before sending more.
3. Error Control:
The transport layer detects and corrects errors during transmission, ensuring data integrity. This
includes mechanisms for error detection (e.g., checksums) and retransmission of lost or corrupted
data.
4. Multiplexing/Demultiplexing:
Multiplexing allows multiple applications on a single host to use the same network connection,
according to IBM. De-multiplexing ensures that data received from the network is delivered to the
correct application on the receiving end.
5. Addressing:
The transport layer uses port numbers to distinguish between different applications running on the
same host, according to IBM.
These port numbers are included in the segment headers, allowing the receiving end to identify the
correct destination application.
6. Congestion Control:
This mechanism helps manage network congestion by throttling the transmission rate, preventing
packets from being lost or delayed.
Congestion control helps ensure reliable and efficient data transfer,
Protocols used in this layer are TCP/IP(Transmission Controlled Protocol/Internet Protocol),
IPX/SPX( Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequence Packet Exchange) etc., UDP(User Datagram
protocol)
6. Network layer:
The Network Layer in the OSI model handles logical addressing, routing, and forwarding of data
packets between different networks, ensuring data reaches its intended destination. It uses IP
addresses to identify devices and their location, and routers to direct packets along the network.
Functions:
Logical Addressing:
Assigns unique IP addresses to each device on a network, enabling identification and communication
across diverse networks.
Routing:
Determines the best path for data packets to travel from source to destination, considering network
conditions and priorities.
Forwarding:
Transfers data packets to the next hop on the path, using the destination IP address to guide the
packet.
Fragmentation and Reassembly:
Handles cases where data packets are larger than the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of a
specific network segment, breaking them into smaller pieces for transmission and reassembling
them at the destination.
Error Handling:
Detects and handles errors that may occur during data transmission, using protocols like ICMP
(Internet Control Message Protocol) to report errors and facilitate diagnostics.
Quality of Service (QoS):
Prioritizes certain types of traffic based on their needs, ensuring that important data is delivered
promptly.
Protocols used in this layer are IPv4,IPv6, ICMP(Internet Control Message protocol), IPSec.(Internet
Protocol Security), Internetwork Packet Exchange(IPX), RIP(Routing Information protocol)

6. Data link layer:

The Data Link layer in the OSI model's primary functions are to enable reliable data transfer between
adjacent network nodes, frame data into packets, and manage addressing and error detection. This
layer ensures data is transmitted to the correct destination within the local network and handles the
physical aspects of data transmission.
1. Framing: The data link layer receives data from the network layer and encapsulates it into frames,
adding headers and trailers for addressing and error detection.
2. Error Detection: The layer incorporates mechanisms to detect errors that may occur during
physical layer transmission.
3. Error Correction: In some cases, the data link layer may also provide error correction, ensuring
data integrity.
4. Flow Control: The layer regulates the flow of data to prevent the network from becoming
overwhelmed.
5. Addressing: The data link layer uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to identify network
devices and ensure data is delivered to the correct destination.
6. Data Link Layer Protocol: Protocols like Ethernet and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) operate at the
data link layer.
7. Node-to-Node Delivery: The data link layer's primary responsibility is to deliver data between
adjacent network nodes within the same local network.
8. Division into Sublayers: The data link layer is often divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link
Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC).
9. Network Topology Management: The data link layer manages network topologies like Ethernet
and handles device interaction.
10. Interface to Physical Layer: The data link layer provides a well-defined interface to the physical
layer, managing the transmission of data bits.

PPP(Point to point protocol, HDLC(High Level Data Link control), SLIP(Serial; line Internet protocol),
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol), IEEE 802.3

7. Physical Layer:
Functions of the Physical Layer include the modulation, bit synchronization, and transmission of raw
binary data over the physical medium. Technologies such as Fiber Optics and Wi-Fi operate at this
layer, ensuring that the data physically moves from one device to another in the network.
Functions:
Bit by bit transmission(Encoding & decoding): The Physical Layer is responsible for sending raw
data as bits over a physical medium. It converts data into signals that can travel through wires, fiber
optics, or wireless channels (encoding) and turns these signals back into data at the receiver
(decoding).
Modulation demodulation: It ensures signals are transmitted correctly and uses techniques
like modulation to prepare the data for transmission and demodulation to retrieve it at the other
end.
Transmission mode: This layer also decides how data flows (one-way, two-way alternately, or
simultaneously) through transmission modes and controls the speed and timing of data
transmission to keep everything running smoothly.
Multiplexing and physical topologies: It uses different techniques of multiplexing in order to
improve channel efficiency and specifies the way to in which different devices or nodes are arranged
in a network.
Switching: It also specifies the different switching techniques, circuit switching, packet switching and
message switching
Characteristics of physical components: It uses characteristics of cable, connectors, networking
devices etc.
Protocols used in this layer are Bluetooth, OTN(Optical Transport layer), DSL, IEEE 802.11(Wi-fi)
protocol),IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet protocol)

Encapsulation:
Data Encapsulation is the process of adding the headers and footers to the data is called data
encapsulation. The headers and footers (or trailers) contain the control information in the individual
fields. This control information is used to make the message packet reach the destination. Thus, the
header and footer form the envelope which carries the message to the desired destination. Data De-
encapsulation is the process of removing headers and footers.
4.2 Layers in OSI Model
1. Physical layer:

Functions:
 It defines the physical characteristics and functions of the physical devices and
interfaces so that transmission can occur. It states the number of pins in each of the
devices as well as the purpose of each pin.
 It lays out the transmission medium and type of signal for transmitting the bits, i.e.,
electrical pulses, optical pulses or radio signals.
 It defines the procedure of encoding of the bits, for example, how many volts should
represent a 0 bit and 1 bit in case of electrical signals.
 It states the data transmission rate, i.e., number of bits transmitted per second; and the
duration of a bit, i.e., how long a bit stays.
 It defines the topology, i.e., physical layout, of the network devices.
 It also states the direction of transmission, i.e., whether the transmission is in simplex
mode, half-duplex mode or full-duplex mode.

2. Data-Link Layer:
Functions:
 Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The layer allows
you to define the protocol to establish and terminates a connection between two
connected network devices.
 It is IP address understandable layer, which helps you to define logical addressing so
that any endpoint should be identified.
 The layer also helps you implement routing of packets through a network. It helps
you to define the best path, which allows you to take data from the source to the
destination.
 The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:
o Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error
control
o Logical link control layer- It deals with actual control of media

1. Framing
 Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into
Frames. Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data
link layer picks up signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.
2. Addressing
 Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address
is assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of
manufacturing.
3. Synchronization
 When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in
order to transfer to take place.
4. Error Control
 Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are
flipped. These errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also
provides error reporting mechanism to the sender.
5. Flow Control
 Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures
flow control that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.
6. Multi-Access
 When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of
collision. Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD or CSMA/CO to
equip capability of accessing a shared media among multiple Systems.
 Access control in the data link layer refers to the mechanisms that are used to
regulate which devices are allowed to transmit data over the physical
communication link. These mechanisms are used to ensure that only authorized
devices can access the link and that the transmission of data is orderly and efficient.
 The data link layer has two sublayers: the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and
the media access control (MAC) sublayer.
 The LLC sublayer in the data link layer of the OSI model manages logical links
between devices, providing synchronization, error detection, and control of data
flow. It acts as an interface between the higher layers (like the network layer) and
the lower layer (the MAC sublayer). LLC also handles multiplexing, allowing multiple
network protocols to coexist and share the same physical network medium.
 The MAC sublayer is responsible for:
o Determining how devices share the network medium.
o Ensuring data packets are addressed correctly.
o Protecting data against errors during transmission.
o Providing the necessary infrastructure for the LLC sublayer to
manage the higher-level protocols.

3. Network Layer:
The main function of the network layer or layer 3 of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model is delivery of data packets from the source to the destination
across multiple hops or links. It also controls the operation of the subnet.
Functions of network layer:
• When data is to be sent, the network layer accepts data from the transport layer above,
divides and encapsulates it into packets and sends it to the data link layer. The reverse
procedure is done during receiving data.
• The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source host to the
destination host. The routes can be based upon static tables that are rarely changed; or
they can be automatically updated depending upon network conditions.
• Many networks are partitioned into sub-networks or subnets. The network layer
controls the operations of the subnets. Network devices called routers operate in this
layer to forward packets between the subnets or the different networks.
• The lower layers assign the physical address locally. When the data packets are routed
to remote locations, a logical addressing scheme is required to differentiate3. the
source system and the destination system. This is provided by the network layer.
• This layer also provides mechanisms for congestion control, in situations when too many
packets overload the subnets.
• The network layer tackles issues like transmission delays, transmission time, avoidance
of jitters etc.

4. Transport Layer:
The transport layer (Layer 4) is responsible for delivery of an entire message from an
application program on the source device to a similar application program on the
destination device.
Functions:
 It delivers a message from a specific process of one computer to a specific process in
another computer. The transport layer adds a port address to the header of the data
packet.
 It divides a message into smaller segments such that each segment contains a sequence
number along with the port address. It ensures that the segments arrive correctly at the
receiver’s end and then reassembles them. (segmentation & numbering)
 It provides an error-free point-to-point channel for both connectionless (UDP protocol)
and connection-oriented services (TCP/IP protocol)
 It isolates the upper layers, i.e., the user support layers from any changes in hardware
technology in the lower layers, i.e., network support layers.
 It identifies errors like damaged packets, lost packets, and duplication of packets, and
provides adequate error-correction techniques.

5. Session Layer:
The session layer (layer 5) is responsible for establishing, managing, synchronizing and
terminating sessions between end-user application processes..
Functions:
 It works as a dialog controller. It allows the systems to communicate in either half-
duplex or full-duplex mode of communication.
 It is responsible for session management. Through this, it prevents the two users to
simultaneously attempt the same critical operation.
 It synchronizes communication. It adds synchronization points or checkpoints in data
streams for long communications. This ensures that data streams up to the checkpoints
are successfully received and acknowledged. In case of any failures, only the streams
after the checkpoints have to be re-transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer:
 Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange
between the two communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data
compression and data encryption.
 This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application. It also
formats and encrypts data which should be sent across all the networks. This layer is
also known as a syntax layer.
Functions:
 Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC. (encoding decoding)
 Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be transmitted on
the network. (compression decompression)
 Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for example,
password encryption. (encryption and decryption)
 It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file transfer.

7. Application Layer:
Functions:
• It facilitates the user to use the services of the network.
• It is used to develop network-based applications.
• It provides user services like user login, naming network devices, formatting
messages, and e-mails, transfer of files etc.
• It is also concerned with error handling and recovery of the message as a whole.
• This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as follows −
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP − It is the underlying protocol for World Wide Web. It
defines how hypermedia messages are formatted and transmitted.
• File Transfer Protocol, FTP − It is a client-server based protocol for transfer of files
between client and server over the network.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP − It lays down the rules and semantics for sending
and receiving electronic mails (e-mails).
• Domain Name System, DNS − It is a naming system for devices in networks. It provides
services for translating domain names to IP addresses.
• TELNET − It provides bi-directional text-oriented services for remote login to the hosts
over the network.
• Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP − It is for managing, monitoring the
network and for organizing information about the networked devices.

IN SHORT FUNCTIONS OF EACH LAYER

4.3 TCP/IP Layers and their functions:
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model and developed by
Department of Defence (DOD) of US. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite
do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is a four-layer network model that describes how data is transmitted
between devices over networks and the internet, using protocols like TCP and IP to
ensure reliable and efficient communication.
• The model breaks down the complex process of network communication into
manageable layers.
• Data passes through these layers in a specific order when sent, and then in reverse order
when received.
• Each layer performs specific functions, and protocols are used at each layer to ensure
proper communication.
• When TCP/IP is compared to OSI. The host-to-network layer is equivalent to the
combination of the physical and data link layers. The internet layer is equivalent to the
network layer, and the application layer doing the job of the session, presentation, and
application layers.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
1. Network Access Address
2. Internet
3. Transport or Host to Host
4. Application.
Fig: TCP/ IP Model

1. Host to Network Layer:

• This layer is the combination of data-link and physical layer, where it is responsible for
maintaining the task of sending and receiving data in raw bits, i.e., in binary format over
the physical communication modes in the network channel.
• It uses the physical address of the system for mapping the path of transmission over the
network channel.

Protocols used in this layer:

SLIP :
 SLIP, or Serial Line Internet Protocol, is a protocol that allows TCP/IP to operate over
serial connections, such as dial-up connections or dedicated serial links.
 SLIP encapsulates IP packets within a frame for transmission over a serial line,
establishing a point-to-point connection.
 It's commonly used for dial-up connections and dedicated serial links, particularly at
speeds between 1200bps and 19.2Kbps or higher.
 While SLIP is a simple protocol, it has largely been replaced by Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) on personal computers due to PPP's better features and ability to
handle IP address configuration.
 SLIP is still preferred in microcontrollers for encapsulating IP packets because of its
small overhead.
 SLIP is defined in RFC 1055

PPP:

 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a data link layer protocol (Layer 2) used to establish
and manage connections between two devices, encapsulating network layer
protocols like IP for transmission over point-to-point links, such as dial-up or DSL
connections.
 PPP operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, responsible for
establishing and maintaining a physical link between two devices.
 PPP is designed for point-to-point connections, meaning it's used to connect two
devices directly, like a computer to an ISP's modem or router.
 PPP encapsulates network layer data (like IP packets) within PPP frames for
transmission over the physical link.
 PPP provides mechanisms for establishing, configuring, and testing the data link
connection.
 PPP supports authentication mechanisms to ensure that only authorized devices can
connect to the network.
 PPP is capable of supporting multiple network layer protocols, including IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk.

2. Internet Layer:
• The Internet layer performs the task of controlling the transmission of the data over the
network modes and enacts protocols related to the various steps related to the
transmission of data over the channel, which is in the form of packets sent by the
previous layer.
• It is responsible for specifying the path that the data packets will use for transmission.
• This layer is responsible for providing IP addresses to the system for the identification
matters over the network channel.
• Some of the protocols applied in this layer are:
IP(Internet protocol):
• IP is responsible for addressing and routing data packets across networks.
• It ensures that each device on a network has a unique identifier (an IP address).
• IP supports two versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
• Routers use IP to guide data packets through networks, selecting the most
efficient path.
ARP(Address Resolution Protocol): ARP translates IP addresses into physical MAC addresses
to send data to the correct device on a local network.
RARP(Reverse Address Protocol): ARP maps IP addresses to MAC addresses, while RARP
maps MAC addresses to IP addresses.
ICMP: The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network protocol used for error
reporting and diagnostic purposes, primarily by network devices like routers, to
communicate network issues and gather information about network conditions .

3. Transport Layer:
• This layer is responsible for establishing the connection between the sender and the
receiver device and also performs the task of dividing the data from the application layer
into packets, which are then used to create sequences.
• It also performs the task of maintaining the data, i.e., to be transmitted without error,
and controls the data flow rate over the communication channel for smooth
transmission of data.
The protocols used in this layer are:
• TCP: Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for the proper transmission of
segments over the communication channel. It also establishes a network connection
between the source and destination system.
• UDP: User Datagram Protocol is responsible for identifying errors, and other tasks during
the transmission of information. UDP maintains various fields for data transmission such
as: Source Port Address: This port is responsible for designing the application that
makes up the message to be transmitted. Destination Port Address: This port receives
the message sent from the sender side. Total Length: The total number of bytes of the
user datagram. Checksum: Used for error detection of the message at the destination
side.
4. Application Layer
• This is the topmost layer which indicates the applications and programs that utilize the
TCP/IP model for communicating with the user through applications and various tasks
performed by the layer, including data representation for the applications executed by
the user and forwards it to the transport layer.
• The application layer maintains a smooth connection between the application and user
for data exchange and offers various features as remote handling of the system, e-mail
services, etc.
Some of the protocols used in this layer are:
 HTTP: The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a foundational protocol for the World
Wide Web, enabling communication between web browsers and servers by transmitting
hypertext messages, and it operates on a client-server model.
 SMTP: SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, is the fundamental protocol used for
sending emails over the internet, enabling email clients and servers to exchange
messages.
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard way to move files between computers
over a network. It's a set of instructions that computers use to communicate and
exchange files. .
 TELNET: Telnet is a network protocol that allows users to remotely access and control
computers and devices. It uses a command line interface to communicate with a remote
server.
 BOOTP: Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a network protocol that helps computers get an
IP address and other configuration information from a server. It's used when a computer
first starts up, during the bootstrap process.
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol that
automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network. DHCP also provides other
configuration information, such as subnet masks, default gateways, and DNS addresses.

4.5 Addressing in TCP/IP:

 Network addressing is the process of assigning unique identifiers to devices (hosts) on
a network.
 These identifiers, such as IP addresses, are essential for devices to locate and
communicate with each other.
1. Physical address:
 In networking physical addresses also called as MAC (Media Access Control) address
are unique identifiers assigned by manufacturer to network devices.
 Physical Addresses are typically 48-bits OR 64-bits hexadecimal numbers and
separated by colon such as XX:XX:XX:XX:XX:XX.
 MAC is a type physical address that is 6 byte( 48) in size and imprinted on the
network interface card of the device.
 Physical addresses can be used to implement network security measures. Such as
MAC address filtering
 It is a local to the network to which the device is connected and unique . The
physical address is usually included in the frame and used at the data link layer.
2. Port Address:
 In networking a port address is a 16-bit number used to identify a specific process or
service running on a computer or device on the network.
 E.g. Users A and B are chatting with each other using google talk, User C and D are
exchanging emails using Hotmail etc.
 Port numbers range from 0 to 65535. Port 0 to 1023 are reserved for well-known
or common services such as HTTP(port 80), FTP(port 21) Telnet(port 23),SSH(port
22), SMTP(port 25),DNS(port 53).
 Port range 1024 to 49151 are used for dynamic or private service. These are called
as dynamic ports.
 Port range 19152 to 65535 are reserved for private use.
 Port addresses identify specific services or processes running on a device and used to
establish connections between devices and used to transmit data between devices.
3. Logical Address:
 Logical addressing in networking refers to the use of IP addresses to identify devices
on the network.
 IP addresses have two parts network ID and Host ID.
 Address space 232 = 4,29,49,67,296 (approx. 4 billion) are classified into five classes
Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E.
 Logical address consists of four octet. They are represented by dotted decimal
notation (base 256), Binary notation (base 2) and hexadecimal notions (base 16)
 There are two types of IP addresses (logical addresses) static and dynamic IP address
depending on the nature of behaviour.
 Logical address has two types of addresses static IP address and dynamic address.
 IP address is static when it is manually assigned. Dynamic address are given
automatically by DHCP server known as dynamic IP address.
 Logical addresses are used for routing data packets between devices on the
different networks.
 There are two types of logical addressing methods as
 IPV4 (32-bit) capable of supporting 232 nodes and IPV6 (128-bt) capable of
supporting 2128 nodes.
 IPV4 typically represented in dotted decimal notation( e.g. 192.20.10.1)
 IPV6 typically represented in dotted decimal notation e.g
2001:0dB8:8593:0000:0000:8A2E:0304:7334 . There are total eight groups.

4.6 IP Address-Concept
• IP addressing is the method used to identify hosts and network devices. The Number of
hosts connected to the internet continues to grow and the IP addressing scheme has been
adapted over time to cope this growth.
• The internet protocol address (IP address) is a unique number assigned to every computing
devices such as PC, tablets, smart phones use to identify itself and communicate with other
devices in the IP network.
• The numeric identifier that TCP/IP assigns to every device in the world is called as IP
address. IP address consists of two parts namely, a network ID, which specifies the network
on which a host resides, and a host ID, which identifies the host within that network.
IP Address = Network identifier + Host Identifier

e.g. 145.25.10.100

The IP address is a 32-bit number, and its primary purpose is to enable communications between
networks.

Notation:

IP addresses can be displayed in three typical formats known as notation.

1. Binary notation (base 2): In binary notation, the IPV4 address is displayed as 32 bits. Eachh
octet is often referred to as byte. So it is common to hear an IPV4 address referred to as a
32-bit address or a 4 byte address. An example of binary notation is
01110100.11111010.10111001.11001100
2. Hexadecimal notation (Base 16):
Each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to four bits. This means that 1 32-bit address has 8
hexadecimal digits. This notation is often used in network programming. An example
hexadecimal notation of an IPV4 is CO.A8.01.64
3. Dotted decimal notation (Base 256):
To make the IPV4 address more compact and easier to read Internet addresses are usually
written in decimal form with a decimal point(dot) separating the bytes. Dotted-decimal
notation is the format that is typically used for displaying the IP address in a human readable
format. An example of dotted-decimal notation is 192.156.1.100

Address Space:
A protocol like IPV4 that defines addresses has an address space. An address space is the total
number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses N bits to define as address, the address
space is 2N because each can have two different values( 0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values.
IPV4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 ( more than
4 billion)

Theoretically, if there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be connected to the
internet.

4.7 IPv4 Addressing:

In computer networking, addressing is the system used to uniquely identify each device (or host) on
a network, enabling communication by allowing data to be routed to the correct destination. This is
typically done using IP addresses, which are logical addresses that are software-based.
1. Classful Addressing :
 IPv4 addressing, at its inception, used the concept of classes. This architecture is
called classful addressing.
 In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D,and E.
Each class occupies some part of the address space.
 We can find the class of an address when given the address in binary notation or
dotted-decimal notation.
 If the address is given in binary notation, the first few bits can immediately tell us the
class of the address.

 If the address is given in decimal-dotted notation, the first byte defines

the class.
Example: Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
Solution:
a. The first bit is O. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is O. This is a class C address.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
Classes :
1. Class A : 0.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 (Used for large network)
 Range 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is used for special purpose IP address known
as loopback testing address for diagnosing the networking problem.
• The high-order (First) bit in a class-A address is always set to
zero.
• The next seven bits complete the network ID.
• The remaining 24 bits represent the host ID.
• This allows for 128 networks and 16,777,214 hosts per network.
• In this 7 bits are used for network field and 24 bits for host
field.
• Class A IP address range includes 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255

First Network ID Host ID

bit (0)
1 7-bit 24-bits

2. Class B : 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (Used for medium networks)

 Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized
networks.
 The two high-order bits in a class B address are always set to
binary 1 0.
 The next 14 bits complete the network ID.
 The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID.
 This allows for 16,384 networks and 65,534 hosts per network.
 Class B IP address range includes 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255

First two Network ID Host ID

Bits(10)
10 14 bits 16-bits

3. Class C : 192.0.0.0. to 223.255.255.255 (Use for small networks)

 Class C addresses are used for small organizations with a small
number of attached hosts or routers.
 The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set to
binary 110.
 The next 21 bits complete the network ID.
 The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the host ID.
 This allows for 2097152 networks and 256 hosts per network.
 Class C IP address range includes 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255.

First Three Network ID Host ID

Bits (110)
3 21 8

4. Class D:
 Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.
 The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to
binary 1 1 1 0.
 The remaining bits recognize hosts.
 Class D IP address range includes 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

First Four Multicast Address

Bits (1110)
4 28
 A Class D IP address is an IP address that's used for multicasting, which is when a
single host sends data to multiple recipients simultaneously. Class D addresses
are not used for traditional networking operations.
 Uses :- Streaming media, stock market data distribution, and other applications
that need to deliver data to multiple recipients simultaneously.

2 Class E:
 Class E is an experimental address that is reserved for future
use.
 The high-order bits in a class E address are set to binary 1111.
 Class E IP address range includes 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
First Four Reserved for future use
Bits (1111)
4 28

 Class E IP addresses, ranging from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255, are reserved for

experimental or research purposes and are not used for standard network
communication.
2. Classless Addressing:
 Classless addressing is a method of allocating IP addresses on network without using
the traditional class based system
 Classless addressing allows for VLSM(Variable length subnet masking) which enables
more efficient to use of IP addresses.

 In classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into variable length
blocks. Theoretically, we can have a block of 20,21,22…… 232 addresses.
 We can have a block of 1 address, 2 addresses, 4 addresses, 128 addresses and
so on. An organisation can be granted one block of addresses.
 In the classless addressing, the whole address space divided into non-overlapping
blocks.
 In the classless world, subnet mask information must always be provided when
routers exchange information with each other.
 Some routing protocols such as the Border Gateway Protocol(BGPV4) and OSPF
support classless addressing.
 Classless addressing uses CIDR notation to specify the subnet mask and appends
the subnet mask to the IP address e.g. 192.0.2.10/24
 Classless addressing allows for more flexible subnetting, enabling administrators
to create subnet of varying sizes.
 Classless addressing reduce wastage of IP address utlisation and improved
flexibility in subnetting and addressing and enable better scalability and
adaptability in network design.

Difference between IPv4 and IPV6:

Feature IPV4 IPV6

Address Size 32 bits 128 bits
Address Dot-decimal notation (e.g., Eight groups of four hexadecimal
Format 192.168.1.1) digits (e.g.,
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ab00:123
4:5678)
Address Space Approximately 4.3 billion Vastly larger, theoretically enough
addresses addresses for every device on Earth
Header More complex, with a variable- Simplified, with a fixed-length header
Structure length header
Security Relies on application-level Built-in security features, including
security IPsec
Address Typically uses DHCP (Dynamic Supports stateless and stateful
Configuration Host Configuration Protocol) address autoconfiguration
Routing Network Address Translation Designed to eliminate the need for
(NAT) is often used NAT
Checksum Includes a checksum field Does not include a checksum field,
relying on Layer 2 and Layer 4
protocols
Fragmentation Includes a checksum field Does not include a checksum field,
relying on Layer 2 and Layer 4
protocols

Subnet mask:
 In computer networking, a subnet mask is a 32-bit number used to divide an IP address into
network and host portions, enabling network segmentation (subnetting) for more efficient
and secure routing.
 A subnet mask helps determine which part of an IP address identifies the network and which
part identifies a specific device (host) on that network.
 A subnet mask consists of 32 bits, represented as four octets (numbers separated by dots) in
decimal format (e.g., 255.255.255.0) or as a series of 1s and 0s in binary format.
 The "1" bits in the subnet mask correspond to the network portion of the IP address, while
the "0" bits correspond to the host portion.
 By using different subnet masks, you can divide a large network into smaller, logical
networks (subnets).
 A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (or /24 in CIDR notation) indicates that the first three
octets of an IP address belong to the network, and the last octet identifies the host.

Class Binary Notation Dotted-decimal

Notation
Class A 11111111.00000000.00000000.000 255.0.0.0
00000
Class B 11111111.11111111.00000000.000 255.255.0.0
00000
Class C 11111111.11111111.11111111.000 255.255.255.0
00000
 The concept does not apply to classes D and E.
 The mask can help us to find the netid and the hostid.
 For example, the mask for a class-A address has eight 1s, which means the first 8 bits
of any address in class A define the netid; the next 24 bits define the hostid.

Subnetting:
 Subnetting is a method for partitioning a classful IP network into smaller subnetworks
(subnets). The process of subnetting involves dividing a network up into smaller networks
called subnets.
 A subnet is a logical partition of an IP network into multiple, smaller network segments.
Each of these subnets has its own specific address.
 Subnetting provides the network administrator with several benefits including 1. extra
flexibility, 2. Reducing IP address wastage, 3. more efficient use of network address, 4. the
capability to contain broadcast traffic, and 5. provides security by separation of subnets.
 To allow a single network address to span multiple physical networks is called subnet
addressing or subnet routing or subnetting.
 To subnet a network, extend the natural mask using some of the bits from the host ID
portion of the address to create a subnetwork ID.
 For example given a class C IP address of 204.15.5.0 which has a natural masks of
255.255.255.0, you can create subnets in the following manner

204.15.5.0 - 11001100.00001111.00000101.00000000

255.255.255.224 – 11111111.11111111.1111111.11100000

Network ID Host ID

 By extending the mask to be 255.255.255.224, you have taken three bits from the original
host portion of the address and used them to make subnets. With these three bits, it is
possible to create eight subnets (23)
 With the remaining five host ID bits, each subnet can have up to 32 host addresses, 30 of
which can actually be assigned to a device since host ids denoted by zeros and network ids
One .
 So with this mid the subnets are created as

Subnet IP addresses Subnet Mask Host Address Range

1) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 1 to 30 (204.15.5.1 to 204.15.5.30)

(First address and last address is not used)
2) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 33 to 62 (204.15.5.33 to 204.15.5.62)
3) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 65 to 94 (204.15.5.65 to 204.15.5.94)
4) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 96 to 126 (204.15.5.96 to 204.15.5.126)
(additionally 127 is used for special purpose )
5) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 129 to 158 (204.15.5.129 to 204.15.5.158)
6) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 161 to 190 (204.15.5.161 to 204.15.5.190)
7) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 193 to 222 (204.15.5.193 to 204.15.5.222)
8) 204.15.5.0 255.255.255.224 225 to 254 (204.15.5.225 to 204.15.5.254)
Using the network subnetting scheme above, which allows for eight subnets.

Benefits of Subnetting:

1. Improved network performance: By isolating network traffic within subnets, you can reduce
network congestion and improve overall performance.
2. Enhanced security: Subnetting allows you to create separate network segments for different
departments or security zones, improving security.
3. Efficient IP address usage: Subnetting helps you make better use of IP addresses by allowing
you to divide a large network into smaller, more manageable segments.
4. Easier network management: Subnetting makes it easier to manage and troubleshoot
network issues by isolating problems to specific subnets.

Disadvantages of Subnetting

1. Limited IP Address Space: Dividing networks reduces available IPs per subnet.
2. Additional Hardware: Subnetting reduces the overall number of IP addresses in the
network, yet it could necessitate purchasing extra hardware, like a router. Thus it could be
very expensive.
3. Complex Setup: Requires expertise to plan and configure subnets.
4. Compatibility Issues: Older devices or systems may struggle with subnetting configurations

Supernetting :
 Supernetting also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a way to aggregate multiple
Internet addresses of the same class.
 Classful means that the IP addresses and subnets are within the same network. The problem
with classful addressing is that there is a lot of unused IP address space. For example, a class
A IP network has more than 16 million possible host addresses. A Class B network has more
than 65,00 host addresses, but the fact is that only a limited number of class A and B address
space has been allocated for internet use.
 However, the size of a class C block with a maximum number of 256 addresses may not
satisfy the needs of an organisation. Even a mid-size organisation may need more
addresses.
 One solution is supernetting, an organisation can combine several class C blocks to create a
large range of addresses. In other words, several networks are combined to create a
supernetwork. By doing this an organisation an organisation can apply for set of Class C
blocks instead of just one.
 For example, the class C size subnet mask 255.255.255.0 is listed in CIDR notation as /24.
This indicates the 24 bits are set to 1. Class B size subnet is written as /16 and a class A
subnet is written as /8. CIDR can also be used to represent subnets that identify only part of
the octet bits in an IP address.
 In subnetting, we need the first address of the subnet and the subnet mask to define the
range of addresses. In supernetting, we need the first address of the supernet and the
supernet mask to define the range of addresses.
 Following figure shows difference between a subnet mask and supernet mask. A subnet
mask that divides a block into eight subblocks has three more is (2 3=8) than the default mask
while a supernet mask that combines eight blocks into one superblock has three less 1s than
the default mask

Subnet Mask Divide 1 network into 8 subnets

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
3 more 1’s

Default Mask

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 less 1’s

Supernetting

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1
Combines 8 networks into 1 supernet.

Advantages:
1) Helpful to solve the problem of lacking IP address
2) It reduces the size of routing tables
3) It provides the better overview of network
4) It decreases the required time in rebuilding the routing tables

Disadvantages:
1. It cannot cover different class of network when combined.
2. All the networks should be in same class and all IP should be contiguous.

4.8 IPV6 Addressing scheme and basic structure:

IPv6 uses a 128-bit address format, represented as eight 16-bit hexadecimal fields
separated by colons, allowing for a vast address space and enabling features like
stateless address auto configuration.
Basic Structure:
Length: IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long.
Hexadecimal Representation: They are written in hexadecimal notation, with each
16-bit field represented by four hexadecimal digits.
Fields: The address is divided into eight 16-bit fields, each separated by a colon (:).
Example: A typical IPv6 address might look like
this: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1234:5678.
Leading Zeros: Leading zeros within a field can be omitted, and consecutive fields of
all zeros can be compressed using a double colon (::).
Example with Compression: 2001:db8::1234:5678.
Key Features and Considerations:
1. Vast Address Space:
The 128-bit address space provides a significantly larger number of possible
addresses compared to IPv4, addressing the issue of IP address exhaustion.
2. Stateless Address Auto configuration (SLAAC):
IPv6 allows devices to automatically configure their addresses without relying on a
DHCP server, simplifying network administration.
3. Neighbor Discovery:
IPv6 uses Neighbor Discovery (ND) to discover neighboring devices on the same link,
allowing for automatic address resolution and link-local communication.
IPv6 Address Types:
1. Unicast: Addresses that identify a specific interface.
2. Anycast: Addresses that identify a group of interfaces, where traffic is delivered to
the nearest interface in the group.
3. Multicast: Addresses that identify a group of interfaces, where traffic is delivered to
all interfaces in the group.
UNIT-V Network topologies and Network devices

5.1 Network Computing Model:

1. Peer To Peer:
 Peer to peer network is a type of decentralised and distributed network architecture in
which individual nodes in the network called peers act as both the suppliers and consumers
of resources.
 In this is type of network, each computer is responsible for making its own resources
available to other computers on the network.
 Each computer is responsible for setting up and maintaining its own security for its
resources.
 Also each computer is responsible for accessing the required network resources from peer
to peer relationships.
 Peer to peer network is useful for small network containing less than 10 computers on a
single LAN. Each computer has its own accounts and their security settings.
 In peer to peer network, every computer can function as both a client and server. Windows
2000 comes in both server and professional versions.
 There are no servers in peer to peer network.
 Peer to peer network is used when If network security is not an important issue, If the
number of users is less than 10 computers (small network), If all the users are situated in
same area, If the possibility of future expansion is less.
Advantages:
1. No extra investment in server hardware or software is required.
2. Use less expensive computer
3. Easy to administer
4. No NOS required
5. Easy setup and lower cost for small networks
6. Users can control resource sharing.
Disadvantages:
 Less Security
 Backup is difficult
 Hard to maintain version control
 Users are supposed to manage their own computers

2. Client Server:
Advantages:
 It is centralised management system
 The client-server networks the server provide security and administration of the entire
network.
 Clients are connected to server.
 In client server networks the processing tasks are divided between client and servers. Client
request services such as file storage and printing and servers deliver them.
Disadvantages :
 Professional administration is required.
 We have to high speed server so server Cost more
 Requires special network operating system and a number of client license.
 We have to use high speed server

Difference between Peer to peer computing model and client server computing model
S.No. Peer to peer computing model Client – server computing Model
1. A distributed application architecture A distributed application architecture based on
that partitions tasks or workloads in resource or service providers called server and
between peers service requested devices are called clients
2. Each node can request for services and Client requests for service and server responds
provide services with service
3. Decentralised network Centralised network
4. Reliable as there multiple services and Clients depends on the server. Failure in server
providing nodes will disrupt the functioning of all clients
5. Are generally simpler and less Are generally more complex but give the user
expensive more control and more expensive
6. Poor performance for large number of Better performance for large number of users
users
7. A peer to peer architecture can operate A client server architecture, need a special
on a basic PC operating system operating system.
8. This is suited to home or very small This is suited for larger setups, such as a full-
office set-ups. scale office or school network especially if the
networks need to grow in size

5.2 Network Topologies:

Introduction:
 Network topology is the way devices are connected in a network. It defines how these
components are connected and how data transfer between the nodes. Understanding the
different types of network topologies can help in choosing the right design for a specific
network.
 There are two major categories of Network Topology i.e. Physical Network topology and
Logical Network Topology. Physical Network Topology refers to the actual structure of the
physical medium for the transmission of data. Logical network Topology refers to the
transmission of data between devices present in the network irrespective of the way devices
are connected. The structure of the network is important for the proper functioning of the
network. One must choose the most suitable topology as per their requirement.

Definition:

The way of connecting the computers in a network is called as the topology.

Topology is defined as the logical arrangement of the nodes(computers).

Selection criteria of network topology:

1. Budget limitations:
If a topology is unaffordable, it’s off the table no matter how perfectly suited it might be for your
situation. There’ll almost always be a lower-priced alternative that’s nearly as effective. On
pricing matters, bus and ring topologies are quite cost-effective while star, mesh, tree and hybrid
topologies are expensive.
2. Hardware Resources
Certain network topologies work best with certain hardware. And vice-versa. So before you
make a decision on the topology to adopt, perform an inventory of your current hardware.
3. Ease of Implementation
If you’ll contract a third party to install and/or maintain your network, then the complexity of
the network topology you choose is perhaps a non-issue. A competent networking
professional will have the education and experience needed to comprehend what each topology
entails and implement it accordingly.
4. Size of Network
You can choose the topology that would best serve the purpose. The tree topology works well
with large networks. The bus topology is best suited for small organizations.
5. Need for Reliability
Choose the topology that delivers the highest reliability. Ring topology performs pretty well
under heavy loads but is prone to a single point of failure. Star topology doesn’t depend on any
node but the network will collapse if the hub fails. Mesh and hybrid topologies score highest on
the reliability front.

6. Future Expansion
If you expect your organization to grow in size in the medium to long-term, opt for a network
topology that’s readily scalable
7. Ease of troubleshooting: There should avail of trained or skilled person to trouble shoot any
type of network topology.

Types of Topology:
1. Star Topology:
 Star topology is a network topology in which each individual piece of a network is connected
to a central node called as hub or switch.
 In star topology all the connections are made via the central hub or switch
 The data that is transmitted between the network node passes across the central hub. All
the data on the star topology passes through the central device before reaching the
intended destination.
 Switch require external power supply called active switch.

Advantages:
1. Easy to install , reconfigure and wire
2. Centralised management. It helps in monitoring the network
3. Robustness. If one link fails only that link is affected.
4. Multiple devices can together data without collisions
Disadvantages:
1. If switch fails to work then the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
2. The cost of installation is high.
3. Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. switch.
4. More expensive than bus topology

3. Mesh Topology:
• Mesh topology is a network topology where each computer and network device is
interconnected with another.
• Each device in mesh topology has dedicated point to point link to every other
device.
• This topology setup allows for most transmission to be distributed even if of the
connections goes down.
• It is a topology commonly used for wireless network.
• Mesh use significantly a large amount of network cabling which makes expensive
Advantages:
 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other devices.
Disadvantages:
 The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a less desirable
option.
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
 The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and potential for
reduced efficiency.

4. Tree Topology:
 A tree topology is a special type of structure where many connected devices ae arranged like
the branches of a tree.
 A tree topology is a variation of star topology. In tree topology not every device plugs to the
central hub. The majority of device connect to a secondary hub that in turn is connected to
the central hub.
 A tree topology can also combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of star configure workstations connected to linear bus backbone cable.
 Tree topology allows for the expansion of an existing network and enable schools to
configure a network to meet their needs.
 This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
 Tree topologies are frequently used to organize the computers in a corporate network, or
the information in a database
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and maintain
2. Fast as compared to other topologies
3. Multiple devices can transfer data without collisions
4. Eliminates traffic problem.
5. The other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get damaged or
not working.
Disadvantages:
1. This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other network
topologies.
2. Due to the presence of large number of nodes, the network performance of tree
topology becomes a bit slowly.
3. Requires large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.
4. The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire segment of the network.
5. Difficult to trouble shoot.

5. Hybrid Topology:

 A hybrid topology in networking combines two or more different network topologies (like
star, ring, bus, or mesh).
 The topology that combines more than one topology is called hybrid topology.
 Hybrid topology is used to connect a network that is divided into smaller sections also
known as segments.
 It is widely used in WAN

Star-Ring Hybrid: Combines the ease of installation and management of a star topology with the
redundancy of a ring topology, where devices are initially connected in a star formation and then
linked in a circular manner.

Star-Bus Hybrid: Uses a central hub (star) for some devices and a shared cable (bus) for others,
offering a mix of centralized and distributed connectivity.
Advantages:
1. High reliability
2. Easy to detect fault
3. It can be expanded very easily
4. It can be used for wired and wireless networks
5. Low security risk
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to design and manage
2. Its design is expensive
3. It needs to use the MAU(Multi Access Unit)

5.3 Network Connecting Devices:

1. Switch:
 Network switch is small device that joins multiple computers together within one local area
network. Network switch operate at layer two data link layer of the OSI model.
 A network switch can defined as the device that connects the network devices or network
segments.
 Switches available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports.
 Hub is just forwarding data but a switch doe’s filter and forwarding packets which is more
intelligent than hub.
 Working of switch:
 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forward data only to the port on
which the destination system is connected. It looks at Media Access Control(MAC) address of the
devices connected to it to determine the correct port .
 A MAC address is unique number that is stamped into every NIC
 Switches support following three switching methods. 1. Store and forward 2. Cut and through 3.
Fragment Free
 Different switches used are Layer-1 Switch, Layer-2 Switch,3,4,& 7

Advantages:
1. Higher throughput.
2. They increase the available bandwidth of the network
3. They increase the performance of the network
4. Switches can be connected directly to workstations.
5. They help in reducing workload on individual host PCs

Disadvantages:
1. They are more expensive than hub.
2. Network connectivity issues are difficult to be traced through the network switch
3. Broadcast traffic may be troublesome
4. While limiting broadcasts, they are not as good as routers

2. Router:
 Router is a networking device which forwards the data packets between computer networks.
 Routers perform the traffic performed by a router are determination of path(routing) and Packet
forwarding
 Router perform the traffic directing function on the internet.
 Router consists of combination of hardware and software. Hardware can be in the form of
network server
 Software in a router are the operating system and routing protocol. Management software can
also be used.
 Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically separate networks.
 The large network is organised into small network segments called subnets and these subnets are
interconnected via routers.
 A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
 Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
 Data sent through the internet, such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets.
 A wireless router connects directly to a modem by a cable. This allows it to receive information
from and transmit information to the internet. The router then creates and communicates with
your home Wi-Fi network using built-in antennas. As a result, all of the devices on your
home network have internet access.
 A router has multiple interfaces and receives data packets through them. It evaluates the
network addresses of the incoming packets and decides which interface to forward the packet to.
It uses its local routing table for decision-making. This can be statically configured or calculated
via dynamic routing protocols such as OSPF or BGP
 Types of router 1. Wired router 2. Wireless router 3. Core and edge router 4. Virtual router
5. Broad band router
 Routers work at the network layer of the OSI model

Advantages:
➨ It provides connection between different network architectures such as ethernet & token ring etc.
➨It can choose best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing algorithms.
➨It can reduce network traffic by creating collision domains and also by creating broadcast domains.
➨It provides sophisticated routing, flow control and traffic isolation.
➨They are configurable which allows network manager to make policy based on routing decisions.
Disadvantages:
➨They operate based on routable network protocols.
➨They are expensive compare to other network devices.
➨They are slower as they need to analyze data from layer-1 through layer-3.
➨They are protocol dependent devices which must understand the protocol they are forwarding.

3. Repeater:
 Repeaters are network devices that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before
retransmitting it.
 They are incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal
boosters.
 A repeater operates at the physical layer.
 A repeater receives the radio signal on one frequency and simultaneously transmits the same
signal on another frequency.

Advantages:
 Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of
networks.
 They are cost effective.
 Repeaters don't require any processing overhead. ...
 They can connect signals using different types of cables.
Disadvantages:
 Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.
 They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
 They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.

4. Bridge:
 A bridge is a hardware device for linking two networks that work with the same protocol.
 Bridge is used to connect two LANs (segment)
 Bridge can regenerates the signal that it receives and it can check the physical (MAC)
address of the source and destination mentioned in the header of a frame
 Types of bridges are simple bridge, multipoint bridge, transparent bridge, source routing
bridge
 If the frame is to be forwarded, bridge will use a table relating to addresses and posts.
 It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
 Bridges operates at data link layer and physical layer of the OSI model.

Advantages:
➨ It helps in extension of physical network.
➨It reduces network traffic with minor segmentation.
➨It reduces collisions and self-configuring.
➨Some bridges connect networks having different architectures and media types.
Disadvantages:
➨Bridges are expensive than repeaters.
➨Bridge cannot make decisions about routes through the network.
➨It is more expensive compare to repeaters.

5. Gateways:
 A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between two networks. It may be a router,
firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic to flow in and out of the network.
 Gateway comprise of software dedicated hardware.
 A gateway protects the nodes within network, it also a node itself.
 In a workplace, the gateway is the machine or processor that routes out the traffic from a
particular workstation to the outside network. It works as an entrance to a network that
interlinks the other network to each other.
 In enterprise network, the gateway acts as a firewall or proxy. The main purpose of gateway is to
control routing of different networks. Routing control in essence means that all the traffic that
flows through the transmission can be controlled accordingly.
 A gateway is a device that can interpret and translate different protocols that are used on two
distinct networks.
 A gateway operates on all the layers of the OSI model
Advantages:
 It can connect the devices of two different networks having dissimilar structures or
protocols.
 It is an intelligent device with filtering capabilities and handles the traffic problems
 It is used to expand the network and used to connect two different types of networks.
 Gateway is a server so it provides some security and uses a full-duplex mode of
communication
Disadvantages:
 The major disadvantage of using a gateway is its implementation cost.
 It will not be so effective to be used for small networks

6. Modem:
 Modem is a communication device converts digital data from computers to analog signals and
puts it on the telephone links on the sender side.
 If used on the received side, the modem will convert the analog signals received on the
telephone line to digital data.
 Modem is a bidirectional device. It is a combination of two words modulator and demodulator.
 Modulator circuit converts digital data signal to analog data signal at the transmitting end, the
process is known as modulation and demodulator circuit in modem converts digital signal into
analog signal.
 A typical network setup connected multiple computers to the internet using a modem and router
 Types of Modems are internal modem, external modem, wireless modem, cable modem, digital
modem etc.
Advantages:
 More useful in connecting LAN with the internet.
 A limited number of a system can be connected.
 A modem is most probably widely used in data communication roadway.
Disadvantages:
 Malware Attack. One major drawback of connecting a modem is that it can make your
computer vulnerable to hackers and malwares.
 Traffic Maintenance, telephone service.

Difference between Router and switch

S.No. Router Switch

1. A networking device that forwards data A networking device that uses packet switching
packets between computer networks receive data, process data and forwards data to
destination device
2. Routes data from one network to Creates a network by connecting several
another network and connects different devices together and allows the exchange of
networks together. data within its own network or LAN
3. Stores IP addresses in a routing table Stores MAC address table or content address
and maintains it. table
4. Uses IP addresses for data transmission Uses MAC addresses for data transmission
5. Table routing decisions faster Not faster as router

Difference between bridge and gateway

Parameter Bridge Gateway

Definition The connecting device between The gate for the passage between two
two LANs. different networks.
Layer in OSI The data link layer and the physical Operates in all layers of the network.
model layer are used
Protocol Same protocol but a different LAN A different protocol is used to transfer the
packet in the network. It is a protocol
converter
Form of data The bridge works with frames. In the gateway also packet is the form of
transferring data.
Installation The router is not used for The router is used for installation.
installation
Working The receiving frame in the bridge Communication between two different
regenerates and the destination protocols of two different networks.
address of the frame is checked
which forwards to the address it is
received.
Usage The path for transmitting the frame In a communication to increase
increases efficiency and compatibility in the different networks
regenerating the signal is done by a using a different protocol.
bridge.

Difference between Gateway and Modem:

Parameter Gateway Modem

Definition A device in a network that acts as a Any networking device can be connected
point of connection between that to the internet through the use of a
network and another is known as a modem, which is a piece of hardware.
gateway
Uses It is a piece of hardware that It performs the function of a border
combines the capabilities of a modem device and makes it possible for a
and a router into a single piece of computer to transmit data via cable
equipment. connections.
Pros A gateway is a computer that acts as a t takes an analogue signal coming from a
network mediator by connecting cable or phone line and analyses it
computers that utilise different digitally so that it can be translated into
protocols, platforms, or operating a language that a computer can
processes to other devices on the understand.
network.
Cons The configuration that is stored in the The modem does not operate in a
router itself is the one that the manner that would result in the
gateways use. maintenance of any traffic.

Difference between router and bridge

S.No. Router Bridge
1. Routers operate at the layer 3(Network layer) Bridge operate at the layer 2(Data link
of the OSI model layer of the OSI model.
2. Router is used to connect the LAN and WAN Bridge is used to connect two different
LAN segments
3. Router maintains data in the form of packets Bridge transmit data in the form of
frames
4. Routers reads the IP address of a device Bridge reads the MAC address of a
device
5. Router has more ports compare to bridge Bridge has only two ports
6. Routers are more intelligent than bridges Bridges are less intelligent than router
7. Routers are slower than bridges Bridges are faster than routers because
they connect networks that are using the
same protocol
8. Costly Less Costly
Difference between Repeater and bridge

S.No. Repeater Bridge

1. Repeaters operate at the physical Bridges operate at the data link layer
layer of the OSI model
2. A repeater merely strengthens the A bridge act as bridge between two networks or
signal. You can have a repeater that network subnets.
only acts on one wire.
3. A repeater regenerates the received A bridge can join segments o workgroups LANs
signals and then retransmits the
regenerated signal on other segments.
4. They do not need any addressing data They require addressing data
from the frame