CS 4632

Database Internals

Based on Ch12:
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarchan Database System Concepts, 7th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 200?

1
Learning Outcome: At the completion of this course,
students should have
1. explain the basic ACID properties how it is
implemented in Databases
2. describe the basic fundamental concepts in
transaction processing
3. apply the knowledge of database internals to
improve the performance of a database system
4. demonstrate the use of an appropriate database
solution for an application that requires complex
data storage and manipulation.

Recommended Text: Silberschatz, Korth and

Sudarchan Database System Concepts, 5th Edition,
McGraw-Hill, 2005
2
Evaluation
Weekly Quizzes 25 %
Best 5x5 out of 8
Group Project 25 35 %
Indiv Contribution 10 %
Mid Term 20%
Final Exam 40%
MPAs 40%
Best 4 out of 6

3
■ Pre-requisites
⚪ Basics of Database Systems
⚪ Relational Model and Relational Algebra
⚪ Structured Query Language (SQL)
⚪ Database Design Process and E-R model
⚪ Relational Database Design,
Normalization
⚪ Application Programming with Databases

4
Main Topics

■ Database Indexing and Hashing,

■ Query Processing and Optimization,
■ Physical Database Design tuning decisions,
■ Transaction Management in Databases,
■ Database Administration,
■ Parallel and Distributed Databases,
■ Temporal Databases, Spatial, Text and Multimedia
Databases, Object Databases,
■ NoSQL Databases
■ Current applications and research trends in
advanced database topics.

5
Review
■ Basics of Databases
⚪ A database is a collection of interrelated
data
⚪ A database management system (DBMS)
consists of a database and a set of
programs (software) designed for
accessing, maintaining and utilizing
database.
⚪ Advantages of DBMS over file-processing
systems
⚪ Levels of abstraction: physical level, logical
level, view level 6
Review

■ Data Model: A collection of conceptual tools

for describing
⚪ data
⚪ data relationships
⚪ data semantics
⚪ consistency constraints
■ Widely used data models
⚪ Relational Model
⚪ The Entity-Relationship (E-R) Model
⚪ Object-Based Model
⚪ Semi-structured Data Model
7
Review (Cont)
■ The relational model uses a collection of
tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data.
■ E-R model is based on a perception of a real
world that consists of a collection of basic
objects, called entities, and of relationships
among these objects.
■ Object-Based model use concepts of object
orientation together with E-R model or
relational model
■ Semi-structured data model permits
individual data items of the same type to
have different sets of attributes (implemented
using XML) 8
Review
■ Relational Model
⚪ Based on the concept of tables, where column
headers are attributes
⚪ Closely related to the concept of relation in
mathematics
■ Relational Algebra
⚪ Six fundamental operations (select, project,
union, set difference, Cartesian product,
rename)
⚪ Additional operations (set intersection, natural
join, division, assignment)
⚪ Extended relational algebra operations
(generalized projection, aggregate functions,
outer-join) 9
Indexing and Hashing

10
Indexing and Hashing
■ Basic Concepts
■ Ordered Indices
■ B+-Tree Index Files
■ B-Tree Index Files
■ Static Hashing
■ Dynamic Hashing
■ Comparison of Ordered Indexing and
Hashing
■ Index Definition in SQL
■ Multiple-Key Access 11
Basic Concepts
■ Indexing mechanisms are used to speed up access to
desired data.
⚪ E.g., author catalog in library

■ Search Key - attribute or set of attributes used to look up

records in a file. search-key pointer
■ An index file consists of records (called index entries) of
the form

Index files are typically much smaller than the original file
■ Two basic kinds of indices:
⚪ Ordered indices: search keys are stored in sorted
order
⚪ Hash indices: search keys are distributed uniformly
12
across “buckets” using a “hash function”.
Index Evaluation Metrics
■ Access types supported efficiently.
E.g.,
⚪ records with a specified value in the
attribute
⚪ or records with an attribute value falling in
a specified range of values.
■ Access time
■ Insertion time
■ Deletion time
■ Space overhead
13
Ordered Indices
■ In an ordered index, index entries are stored sorted on
the search key value. E.g., author catalog in library.
■ Primary index: in a sequentially ordered file, the index
whose search key specifies the sequential order of the file.
⚪ Also called clustering index

⚪ The search key of a primary index is usually but not

necessarily the primary key.
■ Secondary index: an index whose search key specifies
an order different from the sequential order of the file.
Also called
non-clustering index.
■ Index-sequential file: ordered sequential file with a primary
index.
14
Dense Index Files

■ Dense index — Index record appears

for every search-key value in the file.

15
Sparse Index Files
■ Sparse Index: contains index records for only
some search-key values.
⚪ Applicable when records are sequentially
ordered on search-key
■ To locate a record with search-key value K we:
⚪ Find index record with largest search-key value
<K
⚪ Search file sequentially starting at the record to
which the index record points

16
Sparse Index Files (Cont.)
■ Compared to dense indices:
⚪ Less space and less maintenance overhead for
insertions and deletions.
⚪ Generally slower than dense index for locating
records.
■ Good tradeoff: sparse index with an index entry for
every block in file, corresponding to least search-key
value in the block.

17
Multilevel Index
■ If primary index does not fit in memory, access
becomes expensive.
■ Solution: treat primary index kept on disk as a
sequential file and construct a sparse index on it.
⚪ outer index – a sparse index of primary index

⚪ inner index – the primary index file

■ If even outer index is too large to fit in main memory,

yet another level of index can be created, and so on.
■ Indices at all levels must be updated on insertion or
deletion from the file.

18
Multilevel Index (Cont.)

19
Index Update: Insertion
■ Single-level index insertion:
⚪ Perform a lookup using the search-key value
appearing in the record to be inserted.
⚪ Dense indices – if the search-key value does not
appear in the index, insert it.
⚪ Sparse indices – if index stores an entry for each
block of the file, no change needs to be made to the
index unless a new block is created.
■ If a new block is created, the first search-key value
appearing in the new block is inserted into the index.
■ Multilevel insertion (as well as deletion) algorithms are
simple extensions of the single-level algorithms
20
Index Update: Deletion
■ If deleted record was the only record in the file with its
particular search-key value, the search-key is deleted from
the index also.
■ Single-level index deletion:
⚪ Dense indices – deletion of search-key: similar to file
record deletion.
⚪ Sparse indices –

■ if an entry for the search key exists in the index, it is

deleted by replacing the entry in the index with the
next search-key value in the file (in search-key order).
■ If the next search-key value already has an index
entry, the entry is deleted instead of being replaced.

21
Secondary Indices
■ Frequently, one wants to find all the records whose
values in a certain field (which is not the
search-key of the primary index) satisfy some
condition.
⚪ Example 1: In the account relation stored
sequentially by account number, we may want
to find all accounts in a particular branch
⚪ Example 2: as above, but where we want to find
all accounts with a specified balance or range of
balances
■ We can have a secondary index with an index
record for each search-key value
22
Secondary Indices Example

Secondary index on balance field of account

■ Index record points to a bucket that contains

pointers to all the actual records with that particular
search-key value.
■ Secondary indices have to be dense 23
Primary and Secondary Indices

■ Indices offer substantial benefits when searching for

records.
■ BUT: Updating indices imposes overhead on
database modification --when a file is modified,
every index on the file must be updated,
■ Sequential scan using primary index is efficient, but
a sequential scan using a secondary index is
expensive
⚪ Each record access may fetch a new block from
disk
⚪ Block fetch requires about 5 to 10 micro seconds,
versus about 100 nanoseconds for memory
access 24
+
B -Tree Index Files
B+-tree indices are an alternative to indexed-sequential files.

■ Disadvantage of indexed-sequential files

⚪ performance degrades as file grows, since many overflow
blocks get created.
⚪ Periodic reorganization of entire file is required.
■ Advantage of B+-tree index files:
⚪ automatically reorganizes itself with small, local, changes,
in the face of insertions and deletions.
⚪ Reorganization of entire file is not required to maintain
performance.
■ (Minor) disadvantage of B+-trees:
⚪ extra insertion and deletion overhead, space overhead.
■ Advantages of B+-trees outweigh disadvantages
+
⚪ B -trees are used extensively

25
+
B -Tree Index Files (Cont.)
A B+-tree is a rooted tree satisfying the following
properties:
■ All paths from root to leaf are of the same length
■ Each node that is not a root or a leaf has between
⎡n/2⎤ and n children.
■ A leaf node has between ⎡(n–1)/2⎤ and n–1
values
■ Special cases:
⚪ If the root is not a leaf, it has at least 2
children.
⚪ If the root is a leaf (that is, there are no other
nodes in the tree), it can have between 0 and
(n–1) values.
26
B+-Tree Node Structure

■ Typical node

⚪ Ki are the search-key values

⚪ P are pointers to children (for non-leaf nodes) or
i
pointers to records or buckets of records (for leaf
nodes).
■ The search-keys in a node are ordered
K1 < K2 < K3 < . . . < Kn–1
27
+
Leaf Nodes in B -Trees
Properties of a leaf node:
■ For i = 1, 2, . . ., n–1, pointer Pi either points to a file record with
search-key value Ki, or to a bucket of pointers to file records,
each record having search-key value Ki. Only need bucket
structure if search-key does not form a primary key.
■ If Li, Lj are leaf nodes and i < j, Li’s search-key values are less
than Lj’s search-key values
■ Pn points to next leaf node in search-key order

28
Non-Leaf Nodes in B+-Trees
■ Non leaf nodes form a multi-level sparse index on
the leaf nodes. For a non-leaf node with m pointers:
⚪ All the search-keys in the subtree to which P
1
points are less than K1
⚪ For 2 ≤ i ≤ n – 1, all the search-keys in the
subtree to which Pi points have values greater
than or equal to Ki–1 and less than Ki
⚪ All the search-keys in the subtree to which P
n
points have values greater than or equal to Kn–1

29
Example of a B+-tree

B+-tree for account file (n =

3)

30
Example of B+-tree

B+-tree for account file (n =

5)
■ Leaf nodes must have between 2 and 4
values
(⎡(n–1)/2⎤ and n –1, with n = 5).
■ Non-leaf nodes other than root must have
between 3 and 5 children (⎡(n/2⎤ and n with n
=5).
■ Root must have at least 2 children.
31
Queries on B+-Trees
■ Find all records with a search-key value of k.
1. N=root
2. Repeat
1. Examine N for the smallest search-key value > k.
2. If such a value exists, assume it is K . Then set N = P
i i
3. Otherwise k ≥ K . Set N = Pn
n–1
Until N is a leaf node
3. If for some i, key Ki = k follow pointer Pi to the desired record or
bucket.
4. Else no record with search-key value k exists.

32
Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion
1. Find the leaf node in which the search-key value would
appear
2. If the search-key value is already present in the leaf
node
1. Add record to the file

2. If necessary add a pointer to the bucket.

3. If the search-key value is not present, then

1. add the record to the main file (and create a bucket
if necessary)
2. If there is room in the leaf node, insert (key-value,
pointer) pair in the leaf node
3. Otherwise, split the node (along with the new
(key-value, pointer) entry) as discussed in the next 33
slide.
Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion (Cont.)
■ Splitting a leaf node:
⚪ take the n (search-key value, pointer) pairs (including the
one being inserted) in sorted order. Place the first ⎡n/2⎤ in
the original node, and the rest in a new node.
⚪ let the new node be p, and let k be the least key value in p.
Insert (k,p) in the parent of the node being split.
⚪ If the parent is full, split it and propagate the split further
up.
■ Splitting of nodes proceeds upwards till a node that is not full is
found.
⚪ In the worst case the root node may be split increasing the
height of the tree by 1.

34
Result of splitting node containing Brighton and Downtown on inserting Clearview
Next step: insert entry with (Downtown, pointer-to-new-node) into parent
Updates on B+-Trees: Insertion (Cont.)

B+-Tree before and after insertion of

“Clearview”

35
Updates on B+-Trees: Deletion
■ Find the record to be deleted, and remove it from the
main file and from the bucket (if present)
■ Remove (search-key value, pointer) from the leaf node
if there is no bucket or if the bucket has become empty
■ If the node has too few entries due to the removal, and
the entries in the node and a sibling fit into a single
node, then merge siblings:
⚪ Insert all the search-key values in the two nodes into
a single node (the one on the left), and delete the
other node.
⚪ Delete the pair (K , P ), where P is the pointer to
i–1 i i
the deleted node, from its parent, recursively using
the above procedure.
36
Updates on B+-Trees: Deletion

■ Otherwise, if the node has too few entries due to the

removal, but the entries in the node and a sibling do
not fit into a single node, then redistribute pointers:
⚪ Redistribute the pointers between the node and a
sibling such that both have more than the
minimum number of entries.
⚪ Update the corresponding search-key value in the
parent of the node.
■ The node deletions may cascade upwards till a node
which has ⎡n/2⎤ or more pointers is found.
■ If the root node has only one pointer after deletion, it
is deleted and the sole child becomes the root.
37
Examples of B+-Tree Deletion

Before and after deleting

“Downtown”

38
Examples of B+-Tree Deletion (Cont.)

Deletion of “Perryridge” from result of previous example

■ Leaf with “Perryridge” becomes underfull (actually empty, in this special case)
and merged with its sibling.
■ As a result “Perryridge” node’s parent became underfull, and was merged with
its sibling
⚪ Value separating two nodes (at parent) moves into merged node
⚪ Entry deleted from parent 39
■ Root node then has only one child, and is deleted
B-Tree Index Files
● Similar to B+-tree, but B-tree allows search-key values to
appear only once; eliminates redundant storage of search
keys.
● Search keys in nonleaf nodes appear nowhere else in the
B-tree; an additional pointer field for each search key in a
nonleaf node must be included.
● (a)Generalized B-tree leaf node

■ (b) Nonleaf node - pointers Bi are the bucket or file record

pointers.

40
B-Tree Index File Example

B-tree (above) and B+-tree (below) on

same data

41
B-Tree Index Files (Cont.)
■ Advantages of B-Tree indices:
+
⚪ May use less tree nodes than a corresponding B -Tree.

⚪ Sometimes possible to find search-key value before

reaching leaf node.
■ Disadvantages of B-Tree indices:
⚪ Only small fraction of all search-key values are found
early
⚪ Non-leaf nodes are larger, so fan-out is reduced. Thus,
B-Trees typically have greater depth than corresponding
B+-Tree
+
⚪ Insertion and deletion more complicated than in B -Trees
+
⚪ Implementation is harder than B -Trees.

■ Typically, advantages of B-Trees do not out weigh

disadvantages.
42
Multiple-Key Access
■ Use multiple indices for certain types of queries.
■ Example:
select account_number
from account
where branch_name = “Perryridge” and balance = 1000
■ Possible strategies for processing query using indices on
single attributes:
1. Use index on branch_name to find accounts with branch
name Perryridge; test balance = 1000
2. Use index on balance to find accounts with balances of
$1000; test branch_name = “Perryridge”.
3. Use branch_name index to find pointers to all records
pertaining to the Perryridge branch. Similarly use index on
balance. Take intersection of both sets of pointers
obtained.
43
Indices on Multiple Keys

■ Composite search keys are search

keys containing more than one attribute
⚪ E.g. (branch_name, balance)
■ Lexicographic ordering: (a1, a2) < (b1,
b2) if either
⚪ a1 < b1, or
⚪ a1=b1 and a2 < b2

44
Hashing

45
Static Hashing
■ A bucket is a unit of storage containing one or more
records (a bucket is typically a disk block).
■ In a hash file organization we obtain the bucket of
a record directly from its search-key value using a
hash function.
■ Hash function h is a function from the set of all
search-key values K to the set of all bucket
addresses B.
■ Hash function is used to locate records for access,
insertion as well as deletion.
■ Records with different search-key values may be
mapped to the same bucket; thus entire bucket has
to be searched sequentially to locate a record.
46
Example of Hash File Organization
Hash file organization of account file, using branch_name as key
(See figure in next slide.)

■ There are 10 buckets,

■ The binary representation of the ith
character is assumed to be the integer i.
■ The hash function returns the sum of the
binary representations of the characters
modulo 10
⚪ E.g. h(Perryridge) = 5

⚪ h(Round Hill) = 3

⚪ h(Brighton) = 3
47
Example of Hash File Organization

Hash file organization

of account file, using
branch_name as key
(see previous slide for
details).

48
Hash Functions
■ Worst hash function maps all search-key values to the same
bucket; this makes access time proportional to the number of
search-key values in the file.
■ An ideal hash function is uniform, i.e., each bucket is assigned the
same number of search-key values from the set of all possible
values.
■ Ideal hash function is random, so each bucket will have the same
number of records assigned to it irrespective of the actual
distribution of search-key values in the file.
■ Typical hash functions perform computation on the internal binary
representation of the search-key.
⚪ For example, for a string search-key, the binary
representations of all the characters in the string could be
added and the sum modulo the number of buckets could be
returned.

49
Handling of Bucket Overflows
■ Bucket overflow can occur because of
⚪ Insufficient buckets

⚪ Skew in distribution of records. This can

occur due to two reasons:
■ multiple records have same
search-key value
■ chosen hash function produces
non-uniform distribution of key values
■ Although the probability of bucket overflow
can be reduced, it cannot be eliminated; it is
handled by using overflow buckets.
50
Handling of Bucket Overflows (Cont.)
■ Overflow chaining – the overflow buckets of a given
bucket are chained together in a linked list.
■ Above scheme is called closed hashing.
⚪ An alternative, called open hashing, which does
not use overflow buckets, is not suitable for
database applications.

51
Deficiencies of Static Hashing
■ In static hashing, function h maps search-key values to a fixed
set of B of bucket addresses. Databases grow or shrink with
time.
⚪ If initial number of buckets is too small, and file grows,
performance will degrade due to too much overflows.
⚪ If space is allocated for anticipated growth, a significant
amount of space will be wasted initially (and buckets will be
underfull).
⚪ If database shrinks, again space will be wasted.
■ One solution: periodic re-organization of the file with a new hash
function
⚪ Expensive, disrupts normal operations
■ Better solution: allow the number of buckets to be modified
dynamically.

52
Dynamic Hashing
■ Good for database that grows and shrinks in size
■ Allows the hash function to be modified dynamically
■ Extendable hashing – one form of dynamic hashing
⚪ Hash function generates values over a large range —
typically b-bit integers, with b = 32.
⚪ At any time use only a prefix of the hash function to index
into a table of bucket addresses.
⚪ Let the length of the prefix be i bits, 0 ≤ i ≤ 32.
■ Bucket address table size = 2i. Initially i = 0
■ Value of i grows and shrinks as the size of the database
grows and shrinks.
⚪ Multiple entries in the bucket address table may point to a
bucket
⚪ Thus, actual number of buckets is < 2i
■ The number of buckets also changes dynamically due
to coalescing and splitting of buckets.

53
General Extendable Hash Structure

In this structure, i2 = i3 = i, whereas i1 = i – 1 (see next

slide for details)
54
Use of Extendable Hash Structure
■ Each bucket j stores a value ij
⚪ All the entries that point to the same bucket have the same
values on the first ij bits.
■ To locate the bucket containing search-key Kj:
1. Compute h(Kj) = X
2. Use the first i high order bits of X as a displacement into
bucket address table, and follow the pointer to appropriate
bucket
■ To insert a record with search-key value Kj
⚪ follow same procedure as look-up and locate the bucket, say
j.
⚪ If there is room in the bucket j insert record in the bucket.
⚪ Else the bucket must be split and insertion re-attempted
(next slide.)
■ Overflow buckets used instead in some cases (will see
55 shortly)
Insertion in Extendable Hash Structure (Cont)
To split a bucket j when inserting record with search-key value Kj:
■ If i > ij (more than one pointer to bucket j)
⚪ allocate a new bucket z, and set ij = iz = (ij + 1)
⚪ Update the second half of the bucket address table entries
originally pointing to j, to point to z
⚪ remove each record in bucket j and reinsert (in j or z)
⚪ recompute new bucket for Kj and insert record in the bucket
(further splitting is required if the bucket is still full)
■ If i = ij (only one pointer to bucket j)
⚪ If i reaches some limit b, or too many splits have happened
in this insertion, create an overflow bucket
⚪ Else
■ increment i and double the size of the bucket address
table.
■ replace each entry in the table by two entries that point to
the same bucket.
■ recompute new bucket address table entry for Kj
56
Now i > ij so use the first case above.
Deletion in Extendable Hash Structure
■ To delete a key value,
⚪ locate it in its bucket and remove it.
⚪ The bucket itself can be removed if it becomes
empty (with appropriate updates to the bucket
address table).
⚪ Coalescing of buckets can be done (can coalesce
only with a “buddy” bucket having same value of ij
and same ij –1 prefix, if it is present)
⚪ Decreasing bucket address table size is also
possible
■ Note: decreasing bucket address table size is an
expensive operation and should be done only if
number of buckets becomes much smaller than
57
the size of the table
Use of Extendable Hash Structure: Example

Initial Hash structure, bucket size = 2

58
Example (Cont.)
■ Hash structure after insertion of one Brighton
and two Downtown records

59
Example (Cont.)
Hash structure after insertion of Mianus record

60
Example (Cont.)

Hash structure after insertion of three Perryridge records

61
Example (Cont.)
■ Hash structure after insertion of
Redwood and Round Hill records

62
Extendable Hashing vs. Other Schemes
■ Benefits of extendable hashing:
⚪ Hash performance does not degrade with growth of file
⚪ Minimal space overhead
■ Disadvantages of extendable hashing
⚪ Extra level of indirection to find desired record
⚪ Bucket address table may itself become very big (larger
than memory)
■ Cannot allocate very large contiguous areas on disk
either
■ Solution: B+-tree structure to locate desired record in
bucket address table
⚪ Changing size of bucket address table is an expensive
operation
■ Linear hashing is an alternative mechanism
⚪ Allows incremental growth of its directory (equivalent to
bucket address table)
⚪ At the cost of more bucket overflows
Comparison of Ordered Indexing and Hashing

■ Cost of periodic re-organization

■ Relative frequency of insertions and deletions
■ Is it desirable to optimize average access time at the expense
of worst-case access time?
■ Expected type of queries:
⚪ Hashing is generally better at retrieving records having a
specified value of the key.
⚪ If range queries are common, ordered indices are to be
preferred
■ In practice:
⚪ PostgreSQL supports hash indices, but discourages use
due to poor performance
⚪ Oracle supports static hash organization, but not hash
indices
⚪ SQLServer supports only B+-trees
Bitmap Indices
■ Bitmap indices are a special type of index designed
for efficient querying on multiple keys
■ Records in a relation are assumed to be numbered
sequentially from, say, 0
⚪ Given a number n it must be easy to retrieve
record n
■ Particularly easy if records are of fixed size

■ Applicable on attributes that take on a relatively

small number of distinct values
⚪ E.g. gender, country, state, …
⚪ E.g. income-level (income broken up into a small
number of levels such as 0-9999, 10000-19999,
20000-50000, 50000- infinity)
■ A bitmap is simply an array of bits
Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
■ In its simplest form a bitmap index on an attribute
has a bitmap for each value of the attribute
⚪ Bitmap has as many bits as records
⚪ In a bitmap for value v, the bit for a record is 1 if
the record has the value v for the attribute, and
is 0 otherwise
Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
■ Bitmap indices are useful for queries on multiple attributes
⚪ not particularly useful for single attribute queries
■ Queries are answered using bitmap operations
⚪ Intersection (and)
⚪ Union (or)
⚪ Complementation (not)
■ Each operation takes two bitmaps of the same size and applies
the operation on corresponding bits to get the result bitmap
⚪ E.g. 100110 AND 110011 = 100010
100110 OR 110011 = 110111
NOT 100110 = 011001
⚪ Males with income level L1: 10010 AND 10100 = 10000
■ Can then retrieve required tuples.
■ Counting number of matching tuples is even faster
Bitmap Indices (Cont.)
■ Bitmap indices generally very small compared with relation size
⚪ E.g. if record is 100 bytes, space for a single bitmap is 1/800
of space used by relation.
■ If number of distinct attribute values is 8, bitmap is only 1%
of relation size
■ Deletion needs to be handled properly
⚪ Existence bitmap to note if there is a valid record at a record
location
⚪ Needed for complementation
■ not(A=v): (NOT bitmap-A-v) AND ExistenceBitmap
■ Should keep bitmaps for all values, even null value
⚪ To correctly handle SQL null semantics for NOT(A=v):
■ intersect above result with (NOT bitmap-A-Null)
Efficient Implementation of Bitmap Operations
■ Bitmaps are packed into words; a single word and (a basic
CPU instruction) computes and of 32 or 64 bits at once
⚪ E.g. 1-million-bit maps can be and-ed with just 31,250
instruction
■ Counting number of 1s can be done fast by a trick:
⚪ Use each byte to index into a precomputed array of 256
elements each storing the count of 1s in the binary
representation
■ Can use pairs of bytes to speed up further at a higher
memory cost
⚪ Add up the retrieved counts
■ Bitmaps can be used instead of Tuple-ID lists at leaf levels of
B+-trees, for values that have a large number of matching
records
⚪ Worthwhile if > 1/64 of the records have that value,
assuming a tuple-id is 64 bits
⚪ Above technique merges benefits of bitmap and B+-tree
indices