Power Electronics

Semester : V
Branch : Electrical Engineering

Prof. Omprakash Kumar, Electrical Engineering

Government Engineering College

K Kishanganj, Bihar
Energy Scenario
Share in Electricity Production
2.67 0.3
2.3 Coal
5.53
Gas
7.28
35.51
Hydropower
Nuclear
9.11
Wind
Solar
14.28 Oil
Bioenergy
22.47
Other renewables
Energy Scenario
• In India 70 % Electrical energy – thermal energy.
• Limited fuel – 200 years.
• Will civilization end after 200 years?
• Responsibility
• Solution: efficient use, improve conversion
efficiency and use renewable energy
resources.
Power conversion cycle
Issues
Pollution – Is it decreased?

Bulk load – induction motors & lighting

Motor load – constant or variable speed
Is variable voltage / frequency can be given?
Speed Computer- How to minimize switching
losses?
Fan speed regulator – electrical and electronic Is
size, heat and power loss reduced?
Air conditioner – On/Off problem
voltage deep and stress on cable reduced?
Transmission line loss – Can we reduce it?
Syllabus

Unit 1: Power Switching Devices

Unit 2: Thyristors Rectifiers

Unit 3: DC-DC Converters

Unit 4: Power Circuit of BOOST Converter

Unit 5: Single Phase Voltage Source Inverter

Unit 6: Three phase Voltage Source Inverter

Text/Reference
• M. H. Rashid, “Power electronics: circuits,
devices, and applications”, Pearson Education
India, 2009.
• N. Mohan and T. M. Undeland, “Power
Electronics: Converters, Applications and
Design”, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
• R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic,
“Fundamentals of Power Electronics”, Springer
Science& Business Media, 2007.
• L. Umanand, “Power Electronics: Essentials and
Applications”, Wiley India, 2009.
Unit 1

Power Switching Devices

CONTENT
Introduction to Power Electronics

VI Characteristics: Diode, Thyristor, MOSFET, IGBT

Firing Circuit for Thyristor

Voltage and Current Commutation of a Thyristor

Gate Drive Circuits for MOSFET and IGBT

Learning Outcomes

Design and evaluate

Analyze and interpret
firing circuits for
the I-V characteristics
thyristors

Outcome

Develop and implement

Analyze commutation
gate drive circuits for
circuits for Thyristor
MOSFETs and IGBTs
1. INTRODUCTION TO
POWER ELECTRONICS
What is power electronics?

Power electronics is a technology

associated with the efficient conversion
and control of electrical power by using
power semiconductor devices.

Goal
• Control the flow of energy from source to load.
Levels of Semiconductor Devices

Characte Signal Level Power Level

ristics
Voltage 25 to 30V Several Volt to kV
Current Several micro-amp to Several amp to kA
few amp
Power Several mW to few W Several W to MW
Doping Heavily Doped Lightly Doped
Note: In Power semiconductor devices, lightly doped
material are present in its cross section to withstand high
breakdown voltage.
Power electronic system
Generic structure of a power electronic system

Electronics
Power Power
(Solid state output
(static & Dynamic devices)
Devices)
Control input
Feedforward/Feedback Feedback/Feedforward
Controller
( measurements of input signals ) ( measurements of output signals )
Reference
(commanding)

Power electronics – brain and muscle.

Conversion of electric power
Electric
Power Power Power
input output
Converter

Control
input

Changeable properties in
Types of electric power
conversion

DC(Direct Current) Magnitude

Frequency, magnitude,
AC (Alternating Current)
number of phases
Interdisciplinary Nature of PE
Systems & Signal
Control theory processing
Circuit
Simulation &
theory
computing

Electric Power
machines Electronics
electronics

Power Solid state

systems physics
Electromagnetics.
Applications of power electronics
Electric Drives: Speed Control of electric motors

To control the outlet, we

need to control motor speed
as there is no throttle valve.

By employing variable
speed motors in the
applications like pumps,
fans, blowers, compressors
(where 𝑇𝐿 ∝ 𝜔2 ) the
overall efficiency of the
system can be improved. Pump Without Throttle Valve
This can be done using some
power electronics circuit.
Applications of power electronics
Power System: High Power Range
• Reactive power compensation

FACTS •
•
Active power control
Stability enhancement
• Active filters

• HVDC transmission
• In order to interconnect two systems operating
HVDC at different frequencies HVDC transmission is
preferrable. It can be done using some PE
circuits

AC DC
𝑓1 𝑓2
to to
DC AC
Applications of power electronics
Transportation: Medium power range
Rail: Electric traction: DC series motor is popular motor used
in traction. At present Induction motor is also used in
traction.
Ex: In 1960s, IM (Multilevel Inverter fed IM Drives) is used
in Bullet trains in Japan.
Air: UPS

Road: AC Buses require UPS, Electric Vehicles, Hybrid

electrical vehicles.
Applications of power electronics
Domestic Applications: Low power range

Mobile Charger

Fan Regulator

Air conditioning, Refrigerator, heaters, Computers,

UPS
Applications of power electronics
Renewable energy sources: Medium power range

Solar Energy System

Wind Energy Conversion System

Advantages of Power Electronics
PEC are stationary in nature & no rotating parts so efficiency
is high.

In PEC the semiconductor devices will operate as switch.

Due the switch operation losses are very less.

As the losses are less, the heat delivered out from the circuit
will also less.

As the heat is less PEC are compact in size.

As the heat is less the no. of failure is also less and hence
better reliability.

PECs can be controlled very effectively in close loop

operation.
Disadvantage of Power Electronics

Harmonics
THE HISTORY
Application of
fast-switching
Invention of fully-controlled
Thyristor semiconductor
devices GTO
GTR IGBT
Mercury arc rectifier Power diode Power MOSFET Power MOSFET
Vacuum-tube rectifier Thyristor Thyristor Thyristor
Thyratron (microprocessor) (DSP)
1900 1957 mid 1970s late 1980s

Pre-history 1st phase 2nd phase 3rd phase

The thread of the power electronics history precisely follows and

matches the break-through and evolution of power electronic
devices
Power semiconductor devices
Power Diodes

Thyristors – SCR, LASCR, TRIAC, GTO, SITH, MCT

Transistors –MOSFET, IGBT, SIT, BJT

Power diode
• A power diode is a two terminal pn-junction
device and pn-junction is normally formed by
alloying, diffusion and epitaxial growth.

• Symbol:
Power diode: The p-n Junction
• A p-n junction is formed when p-type semiconductor
is brought in metallurgical or physical contact with n-
type semiconductor.

• p-region – has greater concentration of holes

- free holes are called majority carriers
- free electrons are called minority carriers

• n-region- has greater concentration of electrons

- free electrons are called majority carriers
- holes are called minority carrier
Power diode: The p-n Junction
a. If doping density in p-type semiconductor is equal to the
doping density in n-type semiconductor, then it is called
p-n junction.
b. If doping density in p-region is much greater than that in
n-region, it is called 𝒑+ 𝒏 junction.
c. If doping density in n-type is less than that given in part
(b), the junction is called 𝒑+ 𝒏− junction.
d. If both p and n layers are heavily doped, it is called 𝒑+ 𝒏+
junction.
e. If both p and n layers are very lightly doped, it is called
𝒑− 𝒏− junction.
Power diode: Depletion Layer
• When physical contact between p and n regions is made,
free electrons in n material diffuse across the junction into p
material.
• Free holes in p material diffuse across the junction into n
material.
• Diffusion of each electron from n to p, leaves a positive
charge behind in n-region near the junction.
• Diffusion of each hole from p to n, leaves a negative charge
behind in p-region near the junction.
Power diode: Depletion Layer
• As result of this diffusion, n region near the junction
becomes positively charged and p region near the
junction becomes negatively charged.
• These charges near the junction establish an electric field
across the junction. When this electric field grows strong
enough, it stops further diffusion.
• The region extending into both p and n semiconductor
layers called depletion region or space-charge region.
• And the electric field generated across the depletion layer
due to charge near junction is called barrier potential.
• Silicon : 0.7 Volts
• Germanium: 0.3 Volts
Power diode: Effect of Forward Biasing
• When positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-
type material and negative terminal to the n-type material,
the p-n junction is forward biased.
Power diode: Effect of Forward Biasing
• Positive terminal of the battery sucks electron from p
material leaving holes there. These holes travel through p
material towards the negative charges at the p-n junction
and thus neutralize partly these negative charges.
• Similarly, negative terminal of the battery injects electron
from n material. These electrons travel through n material
towards the holes at the p-n junction and thus neutralize
partly these positive charges.
• As a result, with of the depletion layer gets reduced.
Power diode: Effect of Reverse Biasing
• In case p material is connected to negative terminal of the
battery and n-material is connected to positive terminal of
battery, then it can be deduced that width of the depletion
layer increases.
Basic Structure of Power diode
• A signal diode constitutes a simple p-n junction as
shown before.
• Power diode should be constructed such that it can
handle high voltage (reverse breakdown voltage) and
high current (forward current).
Basic Structure of Power diode
• Power diodes consists of:
• Heavily doped n+ substrate
• Lightly doped n- layer
• Heavily doped p+ layer diffused in to n- layer to form the
anode of the power diode.
Basic Structure of Power diode
• 𝑛− layer is not present in signal diode.
• The function of the 𝑛− layer is to absorb the depletion
layer of the reverse biased 𝑝+ 𝑛− junction.
• Greater the breakdown voltage, more the 𝑛− layer
thickness.
• 𝑝+ 𝑛− junction is a junction with lightly doped layer on its
one side requires large breakdown voltage.
VI Characteristics of Power diode
VI Characteristics of Power diode
VI Characteristics of Power diode
• When diode is forward biased:
• Anode is +ve w.r.t cathode
• From Vs=0 to cut in / threshold / turn-on voltage,
forward diode current is very small.

• Beyond cut in voltage, the diode current rises rapidly

and diode is said to conduct.

• When diode conducts, there is forward voltage drop of

the order 0.8 to 1 Volt.
VI Characteristics of Power diode
• When diode is reverse biased:
• Cathode is +ve w.r.t anode
• In reverse biased condition, a small reverse current
called leakage current (micro-amp or mA) flows.
• When reverse voltage becomes very large i.e.
breakdown voltage, reverse current becomes very
high.
• High breakdown voltage and reverse current leads to
excessive power loss that may destroy the diode.
• So, we need to operate power diode below breakdown
voltage i.e. PIV.
Reverse recovery characteristics
• Reverse recovery phase: when the diode’s forward bias
is suddenly removed or reversed, it enters into reverse
recovery phase.
Reverse recovery characteristics
• In reverse recovery phase, forward diode current
becomes zero, the diode starts to conduct in the reverse
direction because of the recombination of stored charges in
the depletion region and the semiconductor layers. This
current is called reverse recovery current.

• When the stored charges fully recombine, and the diode

achieves a high impedance in the reverse direction, reverse
recovery current becomes zero. And diode returns in
reverse blocking state.
Reverse recovery characteristics
Reverse recovery characteristics
• Peak reverse recovery current (𝑰𝑹𝑴 ): it is the maximum
reverse current that flows during the reverse recovery
time.

• Reverse recovery time (𝒕𝒓𝒓 ): it is defined as the time

between the instant forward diode current becomes
zero and the instant reverse recovery current decays
to 25% of its reverse peak value 𝐼𝑅𝑀 .

• Reverse recovery charge(𝑸𝑹 ): it represents the total

charge that flows in the reverse direction during reverse
recovery time.
Reverse recovery characteristics
• The reverse recovery time is composed of two
segments of time:
• 𝒕𝒓𝒓 = 𝒕𝒂 + 𝒕𝒃

• 𝒕𝒂 : time between zero crossing of forward current and

peak reverse current IRM . During this time, charge stored
in depletion layer is removed.

• 𝒕𝐛 : time between peak reverse current IRM and ¼th of

peak reverse current IRM . During this time, charge stored
in semiconductor layers is removed.
Reverse recovery characteristics
𝒕𝒃
• Softness factor (S-factor): the ratio is called S-factor.
𝒕𝒂
It is the measure of voltage transients that occur during
the time diode recovers.

• If S-factor is unity: the diode is called soft – recovery

diode.

• If S-factor is less than unity: then diode is called

fast/snappy recovery diode.
Types of Power Diodes
• Based on the reverse recovery time ( 𝒕𝒓𝒓 ), power
diodes are of following types:
• General purpose diode
• Fast recovery diode
• Schottky diode
Types of Power Diodes
Properties General Purpose Fast Recovery Diodes Schottky Diodes
Diodes
Reverse About 25 micro-sec 5 micro-sec or less A few nanoseconds
Recovery
Time
Current Up to 3500 A Up to1000 A Up to 300 A
Rating
Voltage 50 V to 5000 V 50 V to 3000 V Up to 100 V
Rating
Application Battery charging, Used in choppers, SMPS,
Electric traction, commutation circuit, Used in choppers,
Electroplating, Inverters, Used in higher voltage
Welding, UPS, SMPS (Switched mode battery charger,
As free-wheeling power Supply circuit) Used in welding
diode in rectifier equipments
circuits
Note: Thus, power diodes now available with forward current ratings of
1A to several thousands ampere and reverse voltage rating of 50 V to
5000 V or above.
Thyristors
• A thyristor is a four-layers three-junction semiconductor
device, consisting of alternating P-type and N-type
materials(PNPN).

• Thyristor includes – TRIAC, DIAC, Silicon-controlled

switch, PUT(Programmable Unijunction Transistor), GTO,
RCT

• Thyristor also called silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR).

• Thyristors have low on-state conduction losses as

compared to power transistor.

• Thyristors have higher power handling capacities as

compared to power transistors.
Thyristors: Constructional Details
• p1- Similar to p2
• n1- Thickest of all – lightly doped
• p2- Thick Layer – moderately doped
• n2- Thin Layer- heavily doped

• The terminal connected to outer p

region is called anode (A).
• The terminal connected to outer n
region is called cathode(K).
• The terminal connected to inner p
region is called gate(G).
Thyristors: Symbol and Schematic

Circuit Symbol Schematic Diagram

Thyristors: Ratings
• Voltage Rating: 10kV
• RMS current rating: 3kA
• Power Handling Capacity: 30MW
• Such a high-power thyristor can be switched on by a low
voltage supply of about 1A and 10W.
Thyristors: Characteristics
• The study of SCR involves the following
characteristics:-
• Static V-I characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics
• Gate characteristics
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
• The anode and cathode are connected to main source E
through load.

• The gate and cathode are fed from a source Es which

provides positive gate current from gate to cathode.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics

• The thyristor has three basic modes of operation:-

• Reverse blocking mode(off-state)
• Forward blocking mode(off-state)
• Forward conduction mode(on-state)
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Reverse Blocking Mode
• If 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is negative and Switch, S is open i.e. cathode is
made positive w.r.t anode with switch S open, thyristor is
reversed biased.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Reverse Blocking Mode
• 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑱𝟑 are in reverse bias. And 𝑱𝟐 is in forward bias.
[Why?]
• Thyristor behaves as if two diodes are connected in series
with reverse voltage applied with them.

• A small leakage current of order micro-amp or mA flows,

called reverse leakage current.

• Reverse blocking mode : OP

Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Reverse Blocking Mode
• If reverse voltage is increased, an
avalanche occurs at 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑱𝟑 and
reverse current increases rapidly. The
voltage at which avalanche occurs is
called reverse breakdown voltage, 𝑽𝑩𝑹 .

• Reverse avalanche region – PQ

• When reverse voltage is less than 𝑉𝐵𝑅 ,

the device offers a high impedance in the
reverse direction. The SCR in the reverse
blocking mode may be treated as an
open switch.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Blocking Mode
• If 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is positive and Switch, S is open i.e. anode is
positive w.r.t cathode with switch S open, thyristor is forward
biased.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Blocking Mode
• 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑱𝟑 are in forward bias. And 𝑱𝟐 is reverse bias.
[Why?]

• In this mode a small current called forward leakage current

flows.
• Forward blocking mode : OM
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Blocking Mode

• As the forward leakage current

is small, SCR offers high
impedance.

• Therefore, a thyristor can be

treated as an open switch in
forward blocking mode.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Conduction Mode
• If 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is positive and Switch, S is open i.e. anode is
positive w.r.t cathode with switch S open, thyristor is forward
biased.
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Conduction Mode
• When 𝑉𝐴𝐾 is increased further
with gate circuit open, reverse
biased junction 𝑱𝟐 will have
an avalanche breakdown at
voltage called forward
breakover voltage, 𝑽𝑩𝑶 .

• After this breakdown, thyristor

gets turned on with point M at
once shifting to N and then to a
point anywhere between N
and K.
• Forward conduction mode: NK
Thyristors: Static V-I Characteristics
Forward Conduction Mode
• Thus, a thyristor can be brought from forward
blocking mode to forward conduction mode by
turning it on by applying:
• A positive gate pulse between gate and
cathode.
• A forward breakover voltage across anode to
cathode.
Thyristors: Turn On Methods

1. Forward Voltage Triggering

2. Gate Triggering
3. dv/dt Triggering
4. Temperature Triggering
5. Light Triggering
Thyristors: Forward Voltage Triggering

• When forward voltage

between anode and
cathode is applied i.e. 𝑉𝐴𝐾
= +Ve and Switch S open.

• 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑱𝟑 - FB
• 𝑱𝟐 - RB
Thyristors: Forward Voltage Triggering

• As 𝑱𝟐 is RB, a depletion
layer is formed across 𝑱𝟐 .
• Now if 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is increased,
the width of the depletion
layer decreases.
Thyristors: Forward Voltage Triggering
• Now if 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is increased further till 𝑽𝑩𝑶 , avalanche
breakdown will happen at junction 𝑱𝟐 and depletion layer
across 𝑱𝟐 will vanish.
• As a result, a large forward anode current will flow. And
SCR comes in ON state.
• After the avalanche breakdown, junction 𝑱𝟐 loses its
reverse blocking capacity. Therefore, if 𝑽𝑨𝑲 is reduced
below 𝑽𝑩𝑶 , SCR will continue conduction of the current
(Holding Current).
Thyristors: Forward Voltage Triggering

• The magnitude of 𝑽𝑩𝑹 is slightly more than 𝑽𝑩𝑶 .

Therefore, 𝑽𝑩𝑶 is taken as the final voltage rating
of the device.
Thyristors: Gate Triggering

• The thyristor has breakover voltage, 𝑽𝑩𝑶 equals to

about 800V which is greater then applied
voltage(400V) across anode and cathode, 𝑉𝐴𝐾 .

• So, if the gate circuit is open and we apply normal

working voltage of 400V, the thyristor will not turn-on
and will be in forward blocking mode.
Thyristors: Gate Triggering

• When we apply a positive gate voltage between

gate and cathode, gate current established and
charges are injected into inner p layer.
• Due to this forward breakover voltage reduces. And
thyristor comes in turn-on state.
• Higher the magnitude of gate current, lower is the
forward breakover voltage.
Thyristors: Gate Triggering

• When positive gate current is

applied between gate and
cathode, a significant no. of
electrons from n2 layer cross
junction 𝑱𝟑 (because n2 layer is
heavily doped as compared to
p2 layer).
• After crossing junction 𝐽3 , these
electrons diffuse through p2 layer
and cross junction 𝐽2 . And enter
into n1 layer.
• These electrons will reduce the
positive charges on n1 side of
depletion layer.
• This reduces the width of
depletion region across 𝑱𝟐 .
• As a result, breakover voltage of
𝑱𝟐 reduces.
• If magnitude of gate current is
further increased, more electrons
would reach n1 layer and
further reduce the width of
depletion layer across 𝐽2 .
• As a consequence, thyristor gets
turned on at much lower
forward voltage applied.
Thyristors: Gate Triggering

For, 𝑰𝒈𝟑 > 𝑰𝒈𝟐 > 𝑰𝒈𝟏 > 𝑰𝒈𝟎 𝑰𝒈 < 0a - 𝑽𝑩𝑶 remains constant
𝑽𝟑 < 𝑽𝟐 < 𝑽𝟏 < 𝑽𝑩𝑶 𝑰𝒈 > 0a - 𝑽𝑩𝑶 starts reducing
Voltage required to turn on
the thyristor reduces as gate
current increases.
𝒅𝒗
Thyristors: triggering
𝒅𝒕

• When forward voltage is there

across the anode and cathode.
• 𝑱𝟏 and 𝑱𝟑 : FB
• 𝑱𝟐 : RB
• Due to charges across the 𝑱𝟐 ,
junction 𝑱𝟐 acts as capacitor.

• Let junction capacitance is 𝑪𝒋 .

• Now if forward voltage is
suddenly applied, almost
entire voltage appears across
junction 𝑱𝟐 .
𝒅𝒗
Thyristors: triggering
𝒅𝒕
• The charging current 𝒊𝒄 :-
𝒅𝑸 𝒅(𝑪𝒋 𝑽𝒂 )
𝒊𝒄 = =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅(𝑽𝒂 ) 𝒅(𝑪𝒋 )
= 𝑪𝒋 +
𝑽𝒂
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• As junction capacitance is almost
𝒅(𝑪𝒋 )
constant, 𝑽𝒂 = 0.
𝒅𝒕
𝒅(𝑽𝒂 )
𝒊𝒄 = 𝑪𝒋
𝒅𝒕
• Even if 𝑽𝒂 is small, rate of rise of
𝒂 𝒅(𝑽 )
forward voltage is high, thus
𝒅𝒕
the charging current 𝒊𝒄 would be
large.
• This charging current plays the role
of gate current and turns on the SCR
even though gate signal is zero.
Thyristors: Temperature/Thermal Triggering
• During forward blocking, almost entire
applied voltage appears across 𝑱𝟐 .
This voltage across 𝑱𝟐 associated with
leakage current.
• This leakage current raises the
temperature of this junction.
• Due to increase in the temperature,
width of the depletion layer decreases.
• This further leads to more leakage
current and therefore, more junction
temperature.
• With this cumulative process, at some
high temperature (within safe limit),
depletion layer of 𝑱𝟐 vanishes and SCR
gets turned on.
Thyristors: Commutation Method
• The process of turning-off a thyristor is
called commutation.

• The thyristor can be turned-off in two

ways:-
• By applying reverse voltage across
SCR.
• By reducing anode current below
holding current

• The technique to turn off an SCR can

be broadly classified as:-
• Natural Commutation
• Forced Commutation
Thyristors: Natural Commutation

• From 0 to 𝝅, 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕)= Positive i.e. anode to cathode

voltage is positive i.e. FB. So, SCR will conduct (ON state).
• From 𝝅 to 𝟐𝝅, 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕)= Negative i.e. anode to
cathode voltage is negative i.e. RB. So, SCR will not conduct
(OFF switch).
• At 𝝎𝒕= 𝝅, 𝑽𝑺 =0, So, 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎, 𝒊𝑶 = 𝟎, therefore, SCR will get
turned off at this instant.
• This is known as natural commutation as no external circuit is
required to turn-off the thyristor.
Thyristors: Natural Commutation
• Natural commutation takes place when supply is AC(Single or
three phase)
• It is also known as line commutation or class F commutation.
𝝅
• Circuit turn-off time, 𝒕𝒄 =
𝝎
• 𝒕𝒄 must be greater than SCR turn-oof time.

• Voltage controllers, phase-controlled rectifiers, cycloconverters

use Natural Commutation.
Thyristors: Forced Commutation
• Natural commutation is not possible for DC supply because
polarity of the DC remains unchanged.

• Hence some external circuit is required to reduce the SCR current

below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across
the SCR.

• Switching-off the SCR by means of some external circuit is

called Forced Commutation and the external circuits known as
the commutation circuit.

• When commutating circuit is turned-on, it develops a reverse

voltage across the device and forward current is brought down
to zero immediately and the SCR is turned OFF.
Thyristors: Types of Forced Commutation
• Based on the arrangement of commutating components and
manner in which anode current is brought down to zero, forced
commutation is classified as:

• Class A commutation : Load Commutation

• Class B commutation : Current Commutation
• Class C commutation
• Class D commutation
• Class E commutation
Thyristors: Class A Commutation
• Commutating component : L, C – connected in series with load
resistance R.

• When the SCR is turned-on by applying gate pulse, forward

current start to flow in the circuit.
• Capacitor begins to charge and inductor starts to store energy.
• Capacitor gets charged up to peak of the supply input.
• And once the inductor gets fully energized,
it will try to release its energy.
it will change its polarity and acts as
source, its energy will be stored by the
capacitor in the form of charge.
• And now inductor will not allow the flow
of current. The output current starts to
decrease and reaches to zero and
commutate the SCR.
Thyristors: Class A Commutation
Thyristors: Class A Commutation
Necessary Condition

• The circuit must be underdamped to achieve load commutation.

• The current through the circuit:-

In terms of Laplace transform:

Thyristors: Class A Commutation
Necessary Condition

• On simplifying,

The characteristics equation for the above equation is given as:

The standard characteristics equation is given as,

ξ = damping ratio and

𝜔𝑛 = natural angular frequency
Thyristors: Class A Commutation
• On comparing above two equations,

• For underdamped system, ξ < 1

This is the condition for an underdamped system.

Thyristors: Class A Commutation
• The resonant frequency is given as,

• The maximum conduction time of SCR is given as

Thyristors: Class A Commutation
• Que. The given circuit is initially relaxed. Thyristor is turned on
at t=0.
1. Obtain expression for current i(t)
2. Determine the conduction time of thyristor.
Thyristors: Class A Commutation
• Sol.
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
• Commutating component : C, L, Auxiliary Thyristor TA
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
• When switch S is closed, a current begins to flow from
𝑽𝑺 , S, C, L, D, R and 𝑽𝑺

After some time, capacitor gets charged to voltage 𝑽𝑺 with left

plate positive.
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
• At t=0, 𝑻𝟏 is gated and turned-on
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎 (𝒂𝒔 𝑺𝑪𝑹 𝒊𝒔 𝑶𝑵)

Only one loop 𝑽𝑺 , S, 𝑻𝟏 , R and 𝑽𝑺 will contain current.

𝑽𝑺
𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝑰𝑶 =
𝑹
As there is no path for capacitor to get discharge, So
𝒊𝑪 = 𝟎 and 𝑽𝑪 remains 𝑽𝑺 .
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
• Now to turn-off thyristor 𝑻𝟏 , we fire auxiliary thyristor TA at t= 𝒕𝟏

Loop 𝑽𝑺 , S, 𝑻𝟏 , R and 𝑽𝑺 will contain current.

𝑽𝑺
𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝑰𝑶 =
𝑹
Now capacitor has a path to discharge, So
𝑪
𝒊𝑪 = −𝑽𝑺 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ω𝒐 𝒕 = −𝑰𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ω𝒐 𝒕
𝑳
𝟏
where, ω𝒐 = =Resonant frequency
𝑳𝑪
• Voltage across C,
𝟏
𝑽𝑪 𝒕 = ‫ 𝒔𝒐𝒄 𝑺𝑽 = 𝒕𝒅 𝑪𝒊 ׬‬ω𝒐 𝒕
𝑪

• At 𝒕𝟏 + 𝝅, 𝒊𝑪 =0, 𝑽𝑪 =- 𝑽𝑺
• After 𝒕𝟏 + 𝝅, i.e. 𝒕𝟐 , 𝒊𝑪 tends to reverse, due to which TA gets
turned off.
• And resonant current 𝒊𝑪 starts to
build up through C, L, D, 𝑻𝟏
opposite to forward thyristor
current 𝒊𝑻𝟏 of 𝑻𝟏 .

• KCL, 𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝑰𝑶 - 𝒊𝑪
As 𝒊𝑪 increases, 𝒊𝑻𝟏 decreases.
After some times, 𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎, when 𝒊𝑪 = 𝒊𝑶 . And thyristor 𝑻𝟏 gets
turned-off at 𝒕𝟓 .
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
•
Thyristors: Class B Commutation
• As thyristor is commutated by the gradual build up resonant
current in the reverse direction, this method of commutation is
also called current commutation.
• This method of commutation used in chopper circuit.
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• In this commutation, a thyristor carrying load current is
commutated by transferring its load current to another incoming
thyristor.

• Triggering of SCR 𝑻𝟏 , commutates SCR 𝑻𝟐 and vice-versa.

Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• Capacitor is initially uncharged.
• At t=0, SCR 𝑻𝟏 is gated and turned ON.
• One current flows through 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑻𝟏
𝑽𝑺
𝒊𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏
• Another current flows through
𝑹𝟐 , C, 𝑻𝟏
−𝒕
𝑽𝑺 𝑹 𝑪
𝒊𝑪 = 𝒆 𝟐
𝑹𝟐
−𝒕
= 𝑰𝒄𝒑 𝒆 𝑹𝟐 𝑪

𝑽𝑺
At t=0, 𝒊𝑪 = 𝑹𝟐
• At t=0, the current through SCR 𝑻𝟏 :-
𝟏 𝟏
𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 [ + ]
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• After t=0, Capacitor starts to charge,
So 𝑽𝑪 charged to 𝑽𝑺 with RHS plate
+Ve.

• And Capacitor current decays to 0.

𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑻𝟐

• At t=t1, To turn-off SCR 𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 is

gated and turned ON, the capacitor
voltage 𝑽𝑪 appears as reverse
potential 𝑽𝑺 across 𝑻𝟏 and turn it off.
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = −𝑽𝑺 and 𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• KVL in 𝑽𝑺 , R, C and 𝑻𝟐 :
𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝑪 + ‫𝑺𝑽 = 𝒕 𝒅 𝑪𝒊 ׬‬
𝑪
Applying LT
𝟏 𝑰𝑪 𝑺 𝑪𝑽𝑺 𝑽𝑺
𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝑪 (𝑺)+ − =
𝑪 𝑺 𝑺 𝑺
Applying ILT
−𝒕
𝟐𝑽𝑺 𝑹 𝑪
𝒊𝑪 𝒕 = 𝒆 𝟏
𝑹𝟏
As this current flows in opposite direction-
−𝒕
𝟐𝑽𝑺 𝑹 𝑪
𝒊𝑪 𝒕 = − 𝒆 𝟏
𝑹𝟏
−𝟐𝑽𝑺
At t=t1, 𝒊𝑪 𝒕 =
𝑹𝟏
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• Voltage across capacitor:
𝟏 𝒕
𝑽𝑪 𝒕 = ‫ 𝒕 𝒅 𝑪𝒊 𝟎׬‬+ 𝑽𝑺
𝑪
−𝒕
𝟏 𝒕 𝟐𝑽𝑺 𝑹 𝑪
= ‫ 𝟎׬‬− 𝒆 𝟏 𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑽𝑺
𝑪 𝑹𝟏
−𝒕
= 𝑽𝑺 [2 𝒆 𝑹𝟏 𝑪 -1]

As capacitor voltage 𝑽𝑪 appears as reverse potential across 𝑻𝟏 ,

−𝒕
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = −𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 [1-2 𝒆 𝑹𝟏 𝑪 ]

Once the transient over after t1,

𝑽𝑺
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝑽𝑺 , 𝑽𝑪 = −𝑽𝑺 , 𝒊𝑪 = 𝟎, 𝒊𝑻𝟐 = ,𝒊 = 𝟎, 𝒊𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑹𝟐 𝑻𝟏
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• Circuit turn-off time, 𝒕𝑪𝟏 -
−𝒕
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝑽𝑺 [1-2 𝒆 𝑹𝟏 𝑪 ]
𝑽𝑻𝟏 =0,
−𝒕𝑪𝟏
𝑽𝑺 [1-2 𝒆 ]=0
𝑹𝟏 𝑪

𝒕𝑪𝟏 = (𝑹𝟏 𝑪)𝒍𝒏(𝟐)

• Circuit turn-off for 𝑻𝟐 ,

𝒕𝑪𝟐 = (𝑹𝟐 𝑪)𝒍𝒏(𝟐)
Thyristors: Class C Commutation
• With the turn-on of 𝑻𝟐 at t1, capacitor voltage 𝑽𝑺 suddenly
appears as reverse bias across 𝑻𝟏 to turn it off.
• On account of this, class C commutation is also called voltage
commutation or complementary impulse commutation.

• This commutation is used in inverters.

Thyristors: Class D Commutation
• 𝑻𝟏 - Main thyristor, TA – Auxiliary thyristor

• Initially, 𝑻𝟏 and TA – OFF

• And, Capacitor is charged to 𝑽𝑺 ,
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 , with upper plate +Ve
• At t=0, 𝑻𝟏 is turned-on
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎
Thyristors: Class D Commutation
• Applying KCL
𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝒊𝑶 + 𝒊𝑪

Applying KVL in loop

𝑪
𝒊𝑪 =𝑽𝑺 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒐 𝒕)=𝑰𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒐 𝒕)
𝑳
• Capacitor voltage changes from
𝑽𝑺 to −𝑽𝑺 co-sinsoidaly and the lower plate becomes positive.
𝟏 𝒕
𝑽𝑪 = ‫)𝒕 𝒐𝝎(𝐬𝐨𝐜 𝑺𝑽 = 𝒕 𝒅 𝑪𝒊 𝟎׬‬
𝑪

• At 𝝎𝒐 𝒕=𝝅,
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒐 𝒕)=𝑰𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝅)=0
𝒊𝑻𝟏 = 𝒊𝑶 + 𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑶
𝑽𝑪 = −𝑽𝑺
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝟎 (As SCR 𝑻𝟏 is turned ON)
Thyristors: Class D Commutation
• At t=t1, Auxiliary thyristor TA is
gated and turned ON.
KVL in loop:-
𝑽𝑻𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪 =-𝑽𝑺
• As reverse voltage is being
applied across thyristor 𝑻𝟏 , so
𝑻𝟏 will be turned off as soon as
𝑻𝟐 is turned ON.

• Loop 2, current will pass through C and TA. So capacitor will

change from −𝑽𝑺 to 𝑽𝑺 .
• There will be a constant load current 𝑰𝒐 , Therefore, charging of
capacitor will be linear.
𝒊𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝟎
𝒊𝑻𝑨 = 𝑰𝟎
Thyristors: Class D Commutation
• With the firing of thyristor TA,
a reverse voltage 𝑽𝑺 is suddenly
applied across T1, so this method
is called voltage commutation.

• An auxiliary thyristor is used for

Turning off the main thyristor, this
Type of commutation is called
Auxiliary commutation.

• This commutation is used in

Chopper circuits.
Power Transistor
• Power diodes are uncontrolled devices, their turn-on and turn-off
states are not under control.
• Power transistors, however posses controlled characteristics.
These are turned ON when a current signal is applied to base.
• The transistors remain in the ON-state as long as control signal is
present. When the control signal is removed, a power transistor is
turned off.
• Transistors require simpler switching technique; therefore, these
are extremely used in DC-DC and DC-AC converters.
Power Transistor : Types
1. BJT – Bipolar Junction Transistor
2. MOSFETs – Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor
3. IGBT – Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
4. SIT – Static Induction Transistors
5. COOLMOS - Infineon's Cool Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Power MOSFET
• A power MOSFET has three terminals called
• drain(D)
• Source(S)
• Gate(G)
• Arrow in symbol indicates the direction of electron flow.
Power MOSFET: Types
• P-Channel Enhancement Power MOSFET
• N-Channel Enhancement Power MOSFET
• P-Channel Depletion Power MOSFET
• N-Channel Depletion Power MOSFET
N-Channel Enhancement Power MOSFET
Construction:
• On p-substrate (or body), two heavily doped 𝒏+ regions are
diffused. An insulating layer of Silicon Dioxide (𝑺𝒊 𝑶𝟐 ) is
grown on the surface.
N-Channel Enhancement Power MOSFET
Construction:
• 𝒏+ regions make contact with source and drain terminals.
• A layer of metal is deposited on 𝑺𝒊 𝑶𝟐 layer in b/w source and
drain terminals to form the gate of MOSFET.
Working:
• When gate circuit is open, Junction 𝑱𝟏 is reverse biased by
input 𝑽𝑫𝑫 . Therefore, no current flows from drain to source.
• When gate is made positive w.r.t source (𝑽𝑮𝑺 ), an electric field
is established. Therefore, negative charges are induced in the
p-substrate below 𝑺𝒊 𝑶𝟐 layer.
• These negative charges
form n-channel b/w two
𝒏+ regions and current can
flow drain to source as
shown by arrow.
Working:
• If gate to source voltage (𝑽𝑮𝑺 ) is made more positive, induced n-
channel becomes more deep and therefore more current flows
from D to S.
• This shows that drain current 𝑰𝑫 is enhanced by gradual increase
of gate voltage. Hence the name enhancement MOSFET.
• Disadvantage of n-channel planar MOSFET:
Conducting n-channel b/w drain and source gives large on-state
resistance. This leads to high power dissipation in n-channel. So
planar MOSFET is feasible only for low-power MOSFETs.
N-Channel VDMOS High Power MOSFET
Construction:
• On 𝒏+ substrate, high resistivity
𝒏− layer is epitaxially grown.
• The thickness of 𝒏− layer
determines the voltage blocking
capability of the device.
• On other side of 𝒏+ substrate a
metal layer is deposited to form the
drain terminal.
• p-regions are diffused in 𝒏− layer.
• 𝒏+ regions are diffused in the p-region.
N-Channel VDMOS High Power MOSFET
Working:
• When gate circuit voltage is zero
and 𝑽𝑫𝑫 is present, 𝒏+ 𝒑 junctions
are reverse biased and no current
flows from drain to source.
• When gate terminal is made
positive w.r.t source, an electric field
is established.
• As a result, a sufficient number of electrons are accumulated to
Form a virtual n-channel in p regions below 𝑺𝒊 𝑶𝟐 layer. So, a
current from drain to source flows as shown.
N-Channel VDMOS High Power MOSFET
Working:
• With gate voltage increased,
Current 𝑰𝑫 also increases.
• Length of n-channel can be
controlled and therefore on-resistance
Can be made low if short length is
used for the channel.
PMOSFET Circuit Diagram
PMOSFET: Transfer Characteristics
• Transfer characteristics shows
the variation of drain current
𝑰𝑫 as a function of gate-
source voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺 .

• Threshold voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 is the

minimum positive voltage
between gate and source to
induce n-channel.
𝑽𝑶𝒖𝒕 < 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 - OFF State
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
• MOSFET is operated in the
cut-off and ohmic regions for
OFF and ON operation.

• When device turns on,

PMOSFET traverse from cut
off to active region and
finally to ohmic region.

• When device turns off,

PMOSFET takes backward
journey from ohmic to active
to cut-off region.
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
Cutoff state
• The MOSFET is in cutoff state
when gate-source voltage
𝑽𝑮𝑺 is less than the threshold
voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 (2 to 3 V).
• During off state, the device is
open circuited and must be
able to withstand applied
power supply voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺
i.e. during OFF state, 𝑽𝑫𝑺
must be less than the drain-
source break down voltage
B𝑽𝑫𝑺𝑺 to avoid avalanche
breakdown of drain-body(p)
junction.
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
Ohmic State:
• When large gate-source
voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺 𝟓 is applied, the
device is driven into ohmic
region with small drain to
source voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺 𝑶𝑵 .

• Here ON state voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺 𝑶𝑵

must be kept minimum to
keep power loss dissipation
within reasonable limits.
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
Active Region:
• In active region, drain current
𝑰𝑫 remains constant.

• Thus 𝑰𝑫 does not depend on

drain to source voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺 .
It depends on gate to source
voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺 .
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
Active Region:
• In active region, drain current
𝑰𝑫 remains constant.

• Thus, 𝑰𝑫 does not depend on

drain to source voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺 .
It depends on gate to source
voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺 .
PMOSFET: Output Characteristics
Observations:
• Since output, load or drain
current depends on 𝑽𝑮𝑺 ,
MOSFET is a voltage
controlled device.

• 𝑰𝑫 increases with 𝑽𝑮𝑺

• 𝑽𝑮𝑺 should be more than

𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 to turn it on.

• Forward voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑺 applied

to MOSFET must be less than
B𝑽𝑫𝑺𝑺 in order to avoid
avalanche breakdown.
PMOSFET: Switching Characteristics
• The switching characteristics of a power MOSFET are
influenced to a large extent by the internal capacitance of the
device and internal impedance of gate drive circuits.

• When MOSFET is turned-on : Input capacitance starts to charge

from 0 to gate threshold voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 . It causes a delay called
turn-on delay time (𝒕𝒅𝒏 )

• The gate voltage further rises from 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 to 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑷 . It causes

another delay of 𝒕𝒓 called rise time.
• 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑷 - it is a sufficient voltage to drive the MOSFET into ON
state.
• During 𝒕𝒓 , drain current rises from zero to full-on current 𝑰𝑫 .
Thus, the total turn-on time is
𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒅𝒏 + 𝒕𝒓
PMOSFET: Switching Characteristics
• 𝒕𝟏 : at 𝒕𝟏 gate voltage is removed,
and turn-off process initiated.
• 𝒕𝒅𝒇 - turn-off delay time: it is the
time during which input
capacitance discharges from
overdrive gate voltage 𝑽𝟏 to 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑷 .
• 𝒕𝒇 - fall time: the fall time is the
time during which input
capacitance discharges from 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑷
to threshold voltage 𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 .
• During, 𝒕𝒇 , drain current falls from
𝑰𝑫 to zero. Thus, when 𝑽𝑮𝑺 <
𝑽𝑮𝑺𝑻 , PMOSFET turn off is
completed.