ANALYTIC

GEOMETRY
Analytic Geometry

One of the great achievements in

mathematics that occurred in the early
1600s was the merging of two
branches of mathematics—algebra
and geometry—into a single, unified
body of knowledge, now known as
analytic geometry.
Analytic Geometry

Credit for this great accomplishment

goes to the French mathematician
Rene Descartes (1596-1650). The
same method was also independently
discovered by another famous French
mathematician Pierre de Fermat
(1601-1665). Descartes’ s unifying
concept became not only the basis for
analytic geometry but had been most
fruitful in the development of calculus.
POINTS IN A
PLANE
Points in a Plane

Objectiv
esDescribe the basic concepts of the
1.
Cartesian coordinate system which
include the coordinate axes, ordered
pairs, abscissa, ordinate, quadrants, and
origin.

2. Plot ordered pairs of real numbers in the

rectangular coordinate system.

3. Determine the coordinates of given

points in the xy-plane.
Points in a Plane

4. Find the increment in x, denoted by ∆x,

and increment in y, denoted by ∆y, as a
particle moves from one point to another
in the xy-plane.

5. Compute the distance between two

points.

6. Classify whether a triangle formed by

three given points is a right triangle or
an isosceles triangle.
Points in a Plane

7. Locate the midpoint of a line segment

joining two points using analytical and
graphical methods.

8. Sketch the graph of a given equation

and determine its:
a. intercepts
b. symmetry
c. asymptotes
The Cartesian
Coordinate
System
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

It was the French mathematician and

philosopher Rene Descartes who is
credited with the idea of unifying
algebra with geometry. This field of
study is called analytic geometry.
Descartes associated every point in the
plane with a pair of real numbers
resulting in the xy-coordinate system.
This system is also referred to as the
Cartesian coordinate system in his
honor.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

The xy-coordinate system is based

on two perpendicular number lines. Any
point on a number line is associated
with a single real number which we call
its coordinate. The origin of a number
line is its zero point. The two real
number lines intersect at their zero
points and usually have the same unit
of length drawn in the figure.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System These number

lines are called

the coordinate
axes. The
horizontal axis is
called the x-axis
and the vertical
axis is called the
y-axis. The point
where they
intersect is
called the
origin.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

The coordinate
axes divide the
whole plane into
four regions
called
quadrants that
are labeled from
the upper right
corner,
counterclockwise
.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

For the horizontal axis, the zero point

is at the origin. Thus, all points to the
right of the origin on the x-axis are
positive; all points to the left of the
origin are negative.
On the y-axis, all points extending
upward from the origin are positive; all
points downward from the origin are
negative.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

All points are symmetric about the

origin. This means that +a on the x-axis
which lies a units to the right from the
origin has a mirror image of –a which is
a units to the left of the origin. On the y-
axis, +b above the origin has a mirror
image of –b below the origin.
Because the references in this system
are the two-coordinate axes—the x-axis
and the y-axis—this system is called the
xy-coordinate system.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

Every point in the Cartesian

coordinate system is associated with a
pair of real numbers (a, b). From any
point P, we draw perpendicular lines to
the coordinate axes. Then we assign a
pair of real numbers (a, b) to the point.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System
The number a
corresponds to the
point on the x-axis
and is called the x-
coordinate of P. It
is the distance from
the y-axis to the
point P. The number
b corresponds to
the point on the y-
axis and is called
the y-coordinate
of P. It is the
distance from the x-
axis to the point P.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

The pair of real numbers (a, b) is

called the coordinate pair of point P. In
symbols, we write P(a, b) to designate
that point P has the coordinate pair (a,
b).
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

It is important to note that the

coordinate pair is an ordered pair
which implies that the order of the real
numbers is important. The x-
coordinate, also called the abscissa, is
the first number a, while the y-
coordinate, also called as the ordinate,
is the second number b.
The Cartesian Coordinate
System

We call the set of all points

determined by the ordered pair (a, b)
as the xy-plane or the Cartesian
plane. There is a one-to-one
correspondence between the points in
the xy-plane and the set of all ordered
pairs of real numbers. This means that
each point in the xy-plane corresponds
to an ordered pair of real numbers.
Also, each ordered pair of real numbers
represent a point in the xy-plane.
Points in the
Four
Quadrants
Points in the Four Quadrants

The signs of the coordinates

determine the quadrant where the
point lies. In the first quadrant, the two
coordinates are both positive or greater
than zero. In the second quadrant, the
x-coordinate is negative (x ‹ 0), while
the y-coordinate is positive (y › 0). Both
coordinates are negative in the third
quadrant. In the fourth quadrant, the
abscissa is positive (x › 0), while the
ordinate is negative (y ‹ 0).
Points in the Four Quadrants

Signs of the Coordinates

in the Four Quadrants

First Quadrant (Q-I) x>0 y>0

Second Quadrant
x<0 y>0
(Q-II)
Third Quadrant (Q-
x<0 y<0
III)
Fourth Quadrant (Q-
x>0 y<0
IV)
Points in the Four Quadrants

Example 1.1
Tell the quadrant where each of the
following ordered pairs are found.

a. (-1, 2) Q II

b. (3, 2) QI

c. (2, -5) Q IV

d. (-1, -2) Q III

Points in the Four Quadrants

In representing points in the plane,

we may use capital letters such as P, Q,
A, or B. Subscripts are also used in
order to differentiate one point from
another. For example, two distinct
points may be represented by P1 and
P2.
Locating a
Point
in the Plane
Locating a Point in the Plane

How do we locate a point in the

rectangular coordinate system?

In locating the point (a, b) in the

coordinate system, the abscissa tells
whether we go right or left of the origin,
while the ordinate tells whether we go
up or down the x-axis.
Locating a Point in the Plane

Example 1.2
Locate the points A(4, -3) and B(-3, 4)
in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Solution:
We always
start from the
origin. For
point A, the
abscissa is 4
and the
ordinate is -3.
Locating a Point in the Plane

Example 1.2
Locate the points A(4, -3) and B(-3, 4)
in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Solution:
So the point is
located in Q
IV. We count 4
units to the
right from the
origin and
then go 3
units down.
Locating a Point in the Plane

Example 1.2
Locate the points A(4, -3) and B(-3, 4)
in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Solution:
For B(-3, 4),
we count 3
units to the
left from the
origin and go
4 units
upward. This
point is in
Q II.
Points on the
Coordinate
Axes
Points on the Coordinate Axes

When either the x-coordinate or y-

coordinate is zero, the point is either on
the x-axis or on the y-axis. It is on the
x-axis if y = 0, so the coordinates are
either (+x, 0) or (-x, 0). It is on the y-
axis if x = 0, so the coordinates are
either (0, +y) or (0, -y).
Points on the Coordinate Axes

Example 1.3
Locate the points C(0, -5) and D(6, 0) in
the xy-plane.
Solution:
For point C the
x-coordinate is
zero, so the
point is on the
y-axis, 5 units
below the
origin.
Points on the Coordinate Axes

Example 1.3
Locate the points C(0, -5) and D(6, 0) in
the xy-plane.
Solution:
The y-
coordinate of
point D is zero,
so the point is
on the x-axis,
6 units to the
right of the
origin.
Finding the
Coordinates of
a Point
Finding the Coordinates of a
Point

How do we determine the coordinates

of a point?

We simply draw perpendicular lines

from the point to the two coordinate
axes and find the coordinates.
Finding the Coordinates of a
Example 1.4
Point

Determine the coordinates of points P1

and P 2.
Solution:
P1 is on the x-
axis so its
ordinate is 0.
It is 4 units to
the right of
the origin,
P1
hence its
coordinates
are (4, 0).
Finding the Coordinates of a
Example 1.4
Point

Determine the coordinates of points P1

and P 2.
Solution:
We draw
perpendicular
lines from P2 to
the coordinate
axes and
indicate that its
P2 P1
x-coordinate is -3
and its y-
coordinate is -4.
So, P2 is (-3, -4).
Increments
in x and y
Increments in x and y

When a particle moves from one

point to another in the Cartesian plane,
there are changes in its coordinates.
These net changes, called the
increments of the coordinates, are
determined by subtracting the
coordinates of the starting point (initial
point) from the corresponding
coordinates of the point where the
particle stops (final point).
Increments in x and y
Increments in x and y

In general, when a particle moves from

P1(x1, y1) to P2(x2, y2), the increment in x
is
∆x = x2 – x1
and the increment in y is
∆y = y2 – y1
where ∆x (read as “delta x”) stands for
the increment in x and ∆y (read as
“delta y”) stand for the increment in y.
Note that ∆ is the Greek letter delta
and stands for “difference.”
Increments in x and y
Example 1.5
Find the increments in the x and y
coordinates as a particle moves from
Solution:
M(3, -2) to N(-1, 5).
The initial point
is M(3, -2) and
the final point is
N(-1, 5).

(x1, y1) = (3, -2)

and
(x2, y2) = (-1, 5)
Increments in x and y
Example 1.5
Find the increments in the x and y
coordinates as a particle moves from
Solution:
M(3, -2) to N(-1, 5).
The increment in
x,
∆x = x2 – x1
= (-1) – (3)
= -4
The increment in
y,
∆y = y2 – y1
= 5 – (-2)
=7
Increments in x and y
Example 1.6
Find the increments in the x and y
coordinates
Solution: as a particle moves from
M(5,
x1 -4) to N(5,
= 5,y 6).
1 = -4
x2 = -1, y2 =
5
The increment in
x,
∆x = 5 – 5
=0
The increment in
y,
∆y = 6 – (-4)
Increments in x and y
We see that the increments in the
coordinates may be positive,
negative, or zero. The sign tells the
direction of the movement of the
particle. That is, a positive increment is
directed to the right while a negative
increment is directed to the left. A
positive increment in y is directed
upward, while a negative increment in y
is directed downward. A zero increment
means no change with respect to the
coordinate. This implies that the
movement is perpendicular to that
coordinate axis.
The Distance
Between
Two Points
The Distance Between Two
Points
The distance between the points
M(x1, 0) and N(x2, 0) on the x-axis is the
absolute value of the increment in x
(∆x) or
MN = |∆x| = |x2 – x1|
where MN is the symbol for the
distance between M and N.
Note that since the distance between
any two points on the x-axis is the
absolute value of the increment in x,
then it is always nonnegative.
The Distance Between Two
Points

The distance between the points X(0,

y1) and Y(0, y2) on the y-axis is the
absolute value of the increment in y
(∆y) or
XY = |∆y| = |y2 – y1|
Again, since we take the absolute
value, then the distance is positive.
The Distance Between Two
Points
Example 1.7
Determine the distance between the
Solution:
points P1(5, 8) and P2(-3, 8).
x1 = 5,y1 = 8
x2 = -3, y2 =
8
Since the two
points have the
same y-
coordinate and
P1P2 is parallel to
the x-axis, we
use P1P2 = |∆x|.
The Distance Between Two
Points
Example 1.7
Determine the distance between the
points P1(5, 8) and P2(-3, 8).
Solution:
P1P2 = |∆x|
= |x2 – x1|
= |-3 – 5|
= |-8|
=8
The Distance Between Two
Points
Example 1.8
Find the distance between points P1(5,
-4) and P2(5, 6).
Solution:
x1 = 5,y1 = -4
x2 = 5, y2 =
6
P1P2 = |∆y|
= |y2 – y1|
= |6 – (-4)|
= |10|
= 10
The Distance Between Two
Points

Suppose we now have two points,

P(x1, y1) and Q(x2 , y2). These two points
do not necessarily have the same
coordinates.
The Distance Between Two
Points

We draw a line through P parallel to

the y-axis. Every point on this line has
an x-coordinate of x1. Also, we draw a
line through Q parallel to the x-axis.
Every point on this line has a y-
coordinate of y2. Let R be the point of
intersection of the lines drawn. This
point has the coordinates R(x1, y2).
The Distance Between Two
Points

Since PR is parallel to the y-axis, then

PR = |∆y| = |y2 – y1|

and since QR is parallel to the x-axis,
then

QR = |∆x| = |x2 – x1|

The Distance Between Two
Points At point R, the
angle formed by
the intersecting
lines is a right
angle. Hence, it is
a right triangle
with hypotenuse
PQ. Then, to find
the distance
between P and Q,
we can apply the
Pythagorean
(PQ)2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2
theorem.
– y1)2
The Distance Between Two
Points
Example 1.9
Find the distance between P(2, -2) and
Solution:
Q(6, 1).
Let (x1, y1) = (2,
-2)
(x2, y2) = (6, 1)

PQ =√(6-2)2 + [1–
(-2)]2
=√42 + 32
=√25
=5
The Midpoint
Formula
The Midpoint Formula

The midpoint between two points is

defined as the point halfway or in the
middle of the line segment that joins
the two points. It is equidistant from the
two points. To find the midpoint of a
line, we use the midpoint formula,
M = x1 + x2 ,
(
y 1 + y2
2 2
)
The Midpoint Formula

Example 1.10
Determine the midpoint of the line
segment that joins P(-5, 2) and Q(3, 4).
Solution:
There are two ways of solving this
problem. The first method is the
analytical method. The other method
is the graphical method which involves
plotting the points in the xy-plane and
actually measuring the location of the
midpoint and reading its coordinates.
The Midpoint Formula

Example 1.10
Determine the midpoint of the line
segment
Solution: that joins P(-5, 2) and Q(3, 4).
a. Analytical Method
With (x1, y1) = (-5, 2) and (x2, y2)
= (3, 4), the apply the midpoint
formula and get the x-coordinate of
the midpoint as
Mx = x1 + x2 = -5 + 3 = -2
= -1
2 2 2
My = y1 + y2 = 2 + 4 = 6 = 3
2 2 2
The Midpoint Formula

Example 1.10
Determine the midpoint of the line
segment that joins P(-5, 2) and Q(3, 4).
Solution:
a. Analytical Method

Therefore, the midpoint of PQ is

M(-1, 3).
The Midpoint Formula

Example 1.10
Determine
Solution: the midpoint of the line
segment
b. that joins P(-5, 2) and Q(3, 4).
Graphical
Method
Points P(-5, 2)
and Q(3, 4) are
plotted in the
figure. Using a
ruler, the
midpoint M is
located where
its coordinates
are
The Graph of
an Equation
The Graph of an Equation

In this section, the discussion will be

limited to the steps followed in
sketching the graph of an equation.
Some characteristics of the graph of an
equation like the intercepts, its
symmetry, and asymptotes are also
discussed. The more complicated
concepts and properties are dealt with
in more advanced courses.
The Graph of an Equation
An equation is a statement that
indicates the equality of two
mathematical expressions involving
variable(s). The open sentence 3x – 2 =
1 is an equation in one variable x, while
the open sentence 2x + 5y = 1 is an
equation in two variables x and y. When
x = 1 is substituted in the first equation,
we have 3x – 2 = 1
3(1) – 2 = 1
3–2=1
1 = 1 The sentence is true.
The solution set for the equation 3x – 2 = {
1 }.
The Graph of an Equation

For the second equation, let us

substitute
x = -2 and y = 1. We obtain the
following:
2x + 5y = 1
2(-2) + 5(1) = 1
-4 + 5 = 1
1 = 1 The
sentence is true.

Therefore, the ordered pair (-2, 1) is a

solution to the equation 2x + 5y = 1.
The Graph of an Equation

The set of all ordered pairs (x, y) that

will make the equation in two variables
x and y true is called the solution set
of the equation. When the solution set
of an equation is plotted in the
rectangular coordinate system, it
describes the graph of the equation.
The graph of the equation is the set of
points whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy
the equation.
The Graph of an Equation

The graph of an
equation may be a
straight line or a
curve. Every point
on the line or the
curve satisfy the
equation and,
conversely, every
ordered pair (x, y)
that satisfies the
equation lies on the
line or curve.
The Graph of an Equation

Sketching the Graph of an

Equation
How do we sketch the graph of a
given equation in one or two variables?
Basically, there are three steps to
follow:

1. Choose some values for either of

the variables and substitute these
values in the equation to solve for
the other variable.
The Graph of an Equation

Sketching the Graph of an

Equation
2. Set up the table of values of x
and y and obtain the
corresponding ordered pairs
(x, y).

3. Plot the points representing the

ordered pairs in the Cartesian
plane and join the points by a
straight line or a smooth curve.
The Graph of an Equation
Example 1.11
Sketch the graph of the equation x + y =
5. Choose three points and connect
them.
Solution:
Step 1. Assign values for x and y.
Values of y, where y =
Values of x
5–x
x1 = 0 y1 = 5 – 0 = 5

x2 = 1 y2 = 5 – 1 = 4

x3 = 2 y3 = 5 – 2 = 3
The Graph of an Equation
Example 1.11
Sketch the graph of the equation x + y =
5. Choose three points and connect
them.
Solution:
Step 2. Set up the table of values.

x y (x, y)

0 5 (0, 5)

1 4 (1, 4)

2 3 (2, 3)
The Graph of an Equation
Example 1.11
Sketch the graph of the equation x + y =
5. Choose three points and connect
them.
Solution:
Step 3. Plot the points and connect
them.
The Graph of an Equation

Intercepts of the Graph

The points where the graph
intersects the coordinate axes (both the
x-axis and the y-axis) are considered
important points. The x-intercept is the
x-coordinate of the point where the
graph intersects the x-axis. It is the
value of the variable x when y = 0.
When the x-intercept is equal to a, the
point has the coordinates (a, 0).
The Graph of an Equation

The y-intercept
Intercepts of the Graph
is the y-coordinate
of the point of
intersection
between the
graph and the y-
axis. Thus, a
graph whose y-
intercept is b
intersects the y-
axis at the point
(0, b).
The Graph of an Equation

The graph of an equation may have

several intercepts or none at all. A
graph has no x-intercept when it does
not intersect either one of the
coordinate axes. If the curve crosses
only the y-axis, it has no x-intercept. If
it intersects only the x-axis, it has no y-
intercept.
The Graph of an Equation

1. In this
figure, there is
no
intercept. The
graph does not
cross the x-
axis nor the y-
axis.
The Graph of an Equation

2. In this
figure, there is
one
intercept,
A(1, 0). The
graph
intersects
only the x-axis
and there is no
y-intercept.
The Graph of an Equation

3. In this
figure, there
are two
intercepts. The
x-intercept is 2,
while the y-
intercept is -3.
The Graph of an Equation

4. In this
figure, there
are three
intercepts: two
x-intercepts
and one y-
intercept. The
two x-
intercepts are 2
and -2, while
the y-intercept
is -1.
The Graph of an Equation

5. In this
figure, there
are four
intercepts: two x-
intercepts and
two y-
intercepts.
The two x-
intercepts are 3
and -3, while the
two y-
intercepts
The Graph of an Equation

Symmetry About an Axis

A curve has symmetry about an
axis if there is a reflection or a mirror
image of the curve on the other side of
the axis of symmetry. This means that
if the xy-plane is folded along the axis
of symmetry , the graph on one side of
the axis of symmetry will coincide with
the graph on the other side. The axis of
symmetry may be the x-axis, the y-
axis, or any line in the plane.
The Graph of an Equation

1. In this figure,
the curve has
symmetry or is
symmetric about
the y-axis. The curve
on the left side of
the y-axis is the
mirror image of the
curve on the right
side. Note that if
the point (a, b) is
on the graph, then
so is (-a, b).
The Graph of an Equation

2. In this figure,
the curve is
symmetric about
the x-axis. The
curve above the x-
axis has a refection
below it. The axis of
symmetry is the
x- axis. We note
also that if the
point (a, b) is on
the graph, then so
is (a, -b).
The Graph of an Equation

3. Sometimes the
axis of symmetry is
neither of the
coordinate axes.
In this figure, the
curve is
symmetric about the
line defined by the
equation x + y =
1.
The Graph of an Equation

A graphAbout
Symmetry may the Origin
also be symmetric
about the origin as
presented in the
figure. The graph
at the first
quadrant has a
reflection at the
third quadrant.
Note that if (a, b) is
a point of the
graph, then so is (-
a, -b).
The Graph of an Equation

Asymptote of the Curve

In the figure,
observe that the
curve gets closer
and closer to the
line x = 2, but the
curve does not
cross the line.
There are graphs of
equations that
approach a line but
do not intersect it.
The Graph of an Equation

Asymptote of the Curve

This line that the
graph approaches
but does not touch
is called an
asymptote. The
asymptote may be
the x-axis, the y-
axis, or any line in
the plane.
Important Terms
Abscissa
Asymptote
Cartesian coordinate system
Cartesian plane
Coordinate axes
Distance between two points
Graph of an equation
Increment
Intercept
Midpoint
Important Terms
Ordered pair
Ordinate
Origin
Quadrant
Rectangular coordinate system
Symmetry
x-axis
xy-plane
y-axis
Summary
o Analytic geometry describes
geometric figures by means of
algebraic equations.

o The Cartesian coordinate system

defines points, lines, and geometric
figures in the plane with respect to
two coordinate axes– the x-axis and
the y-axis. Each point in the plane
is in one-to-one correspondence
with an ordered pair of real
numbers.
Summary
o To plot the ordered pair (a, b) in the
Cartesian plane, the first number a
is plotted along the x-axis, while the
second number b is plotted along
the y-axis.

o As a particle moves from point P(x1,

y1) to Q(x2, y2), it undergoes net
changes in x called the increment
in x.
Δx = x2 – x1
and net changes in y called the
increment in y,
Δy = y2 – y1
Summary

o The distance PQ between two points

P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) in the
Cartesian coordinate system is equal
to
PQ = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2
– y1)√
2

o The midpoint of the line segment

joining two points in the Cartesian
coordinate system has the
M x1 + x2 , y1
coordinates
(
+ y2
2 2
)
Summary
o The graph of an equation is the set
of points whose coordinates satisfy
the equation. To graph a given
equation, we construct a table of
values of ordered pairs that are
solutions to the equation, plot the
points , and then connect these
points by either a straight line or a
smooth curve.

o The intercepts are points of

intersection of a graph and the x-
axis or the y-axis.
Summary

o A graph has symmetry about an axis

when each point on the curve has a
mirror image on the other side of
the axis. The axis of symmetry may
be the x-axis, the y-axis, or any line
in the plane. A curve may also have
symmetry about the origin.

o When a curve gets nearer and

nearer a line but does not cross it,
the line is called an asymptote to
the curve.