+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
9th Edition
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Chapter 7
Input/Output
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Generic
Model
of an I/O Module
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External Devices

 Provide a means of exchanging

 Three categories:
data between the external  Human readable
environment and the computer  Suitable for communicating with the
computer user
 Attach to the computer by a link to  Video display terminals (VDTs), printers
an I/O module
 The link is used to exchange control,  Machine readable
status, and data between the I/O  Suitable for communicating with
module and the external device equipment
 Magnetic disk and tape systems, sensors
 peripheral device and actuators
 An external device connected to an  Communication
I/O module
 Suitable for communicating with remote
devices such as a terminal, a machine
readable device, or another computer
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External
Device
Block
Diagram
+ Most common means of
computer/user interaction
Keyboard/Monitor User provides input through the
keyboard
The monitor displays data provided by
International Reference Alphabet the computer
(IRA)

 Basic unit of exchange is the character Keyboard Codes

 Associated with each character is a code
 When the user depresses a key it generates an
 Each character in this code is represented by electronic signal that is interpreted by the
a unique 7-bit binary code transducer in the keyboard and translated into
 128 different characters can be represented the bit pattern of the corresponding IRA code

 This bit pattern is transmitted to the I/O module

 Characters are of two types:
in the computer
 Printable
 Alphabetic, numeric, and special  On output, IRA code characters are transmitted
characters that can be printed on paper or to an external device from the I/O module
displayed on a screen  The transducer interprets the code and sends the
 Control required electronic signals to the output device
 Have to do with controlling the printing or either to display the indicated character or
displaying of characters perform the requested control function
 Example is carriage return

 Other control characters are concerned

with communications procedures
I/O Modules Control and
timing
• Coordinates the flow

Module Function of traffic between

internal resources and
external devices

Processor
Error detection communication
• Detects and reports • Involves command
transmission errors decoding, data, status
The major reporting, address
recognition
functions for an
I/O module fall
into the
following
categories:

Data buffering Device

• Performs the needed communication
buffering operation to • Involves commands,
balance device and status information,
memory speeds and data
I/O Module Structure
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Programmed I/O
 Three techniques are possible for I/O operations:
 Programmed I/O
 Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module
 Processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O operation
 When the processor issues a command it must wait until the I/O operation is
complete
 If the processor is faster than the I/O module this is wasteful of processor
time
 Interrupt-driven I/O
 Processor issues an I/O command, continues to execute other instructions,
and is interrupted by the I/O module when the latter has completed its work
 Direct memory access (DMA)
 The I/O module and main memory exchange data directly without processor
involvement
Table 7.1
I/O Techniques

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I/O Commands
 There are four types of I/O commands that an I/O module may receive when
it is addressed by a processor:

1) Control
- used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do

2) Test
- used to test various status conditions associated with an I/O module and its
peripherals

3) Read
- causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from the peripheral and place
it in an internal buffer

4) Write
- causes the I/O module to take an item of data from the data bus and
subsequently transmit that data item to the peripheral
Three
Techniques
for Input of a
Block of Data
I/O Instructions

With programmed I/O there is a close correspondence between the I/O-related instructions
that the processor fetches from memory and the I/O commands that the processor issues to
an I/O module to execute the instructions

Each I/O device connected through I/O modules is given a unique

identifier or address

When the processor

The form of the
instruction depends on issues an I/O command, Memory-mapped I/O
the way in which the command contains
external devices are the address of the
addressed desired device

Thus each I/O module There is a single address space for memory A single read line and a single write line are
must interpret the locations and I/O devices needed on the bus
address lines to
determine if the
command is for itself
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I/O Mapping Summary

 Memory mapped I/O

 Devices and memory share an address space
 I/O looks just like memory read/write
 No special commands for I/O
 Large selection of memory access commands available

 Isolated I/O
 Separate address spaces
 Need I/O or memory select lines
 Special commands for I/O
 Limited set
Memory
Mapped
I/O

Isolated
I/O

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Interrupt-Driven I/O
The problem with programmed I/O is that the processor has to wait a long
time for the I/O module to be ready for either reception or transmission of
data

An alternative is for the processor to issue an I/O command to a module

and then go on to do some other useful work

The I/O module will then interrupt the processor to request service when it
is ready to exchange data with the processor

The processor executes the data transfer and resumes its former processing
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Simple Interrupt
Processing
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Changes
in Memory
and Registers
for an
Interrupt
Design Issues

• Because there will be

multiple I/O modules
how does the
processor determine
Two design which device issued
issues arise in the interrupt?
implementing • If multiple interrupts
interrupt I/O: have occurred how
does the processor
decide which one to
process?
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Device Identification
Four general categories of techniques are in common use:

 Multiple interrupt lines

 Between the processor and the I/O modules
 Most straightforward approach to the problem
 Consequently even if multiple lines are used, it is likely that each line will have multiple I/O modules
attached to it
 Softwarepoll
 When processor detects an interrupt it branches to an interrupt-service routine whose job is to poll each
I/O module to determine which module caused the interrupt
 Time consuming

 Daisy chain (hardware poll, vectored)

 The interrupt acknowledge line is daisy chained through the modules
 Vector – address of the I/O module or some other unique identifier
 Vectored interrupt – processor uses the vector as a pointer to the appropriate device-service routine,
avoiding the need to execute a general interrupt-service routine first
 Busarbitration (vectored)
 An I/O module must first gain control of the bus before it can raise the interrupt request line
 When the processor detects the interrupt it responds on the interrupt acknowledge line
 Then the requesting module places its vector on the data lines
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Intel
82C59A
Interrupt
Controller
+ Intel 82C55A
Programmable Peripheral Interface
+
Keyboard/Display
Interfaces to
82C55A
Drawbacks of Programmed and Interrupt-
Driven I/O

 Both forms of I/O suffer from two inherent drawbacks:

1) The I/O transfer rate is limited by the speed with

which the processor can test and service a device

2) The processor is tied up in managing an I/O

transfer; a number of instructions must be executed
for each I/O transfer

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 When large volumes of data are to be moved a more efficient
technique is direct memory access (DMA)
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Typical DMA
Module Diagram
DMA

DMA

+
DMA Operation
+
Alternative
DMA
Configurations
8237 DMA Usage of System Bus
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Fly-By DMA Controller

Data does not pass 8237 contains four DMA

through and is not stored channels
in DMA chip • Programmed
• DMA only between I/O Can do memory to independently
port and memory memory via register • Any one active
• Not between two I/O • Numbered 0, 1, 2, and 3
ports or two memory
locations
Table 7.2
Intel
8237A Registers

E/D = enable/disable
TC = terminal count
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Evolution of the I/O Function

1. The CPU directly controls a

4. The I/O module is given direct access to
peripheral device.
memory via DMA. It can now move a
2. A controller or I/O module is block of data to or from memory without
involving the CPU, except at the
added. The CPU uses
beginning and end of the transfer.
programmed I/O without
interrupts.
5. The I/O module is enhanced to become a
processor in its own right, with a
3. Same configuration as in step 2
specialized instruction set tailored for I/O
is used, but now interrupts are
employed. The CPU need not 6. The I/O module has a local memory of
spend time waiting for an I/O
its own and is, in fact, a computer in its
operation to be performed, thus
own right. With this architecture a large
increasing efficiency.
set of I/O devices can be controlled with
minimal CPU involvement.
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I/O
Channel
Architecture
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Parallel
and
Serial
I/O
+ Summary
Input/Output
Chapter 7
 Direct memory access
 External devices
 Drawbacks of programmed and
interrupt-driven I/O
 Keyboard/monitor  DMA function
 Disk drive  Intel 8237A DMA controller
 I/O modules
 Module function  I/O channels and processors
 I/O module structure  The evolution of the I/O function
 Programmed I/O  Characteristics of I/O channels
 Overview of programmed I/O
 I/O commands  The external interface
 I/O instructions  Types of interfaces
 Interrupt-driven I/O  Point-to-point and multipoint
 Interrupt processing
configurations
 Thunderbolt
 Design issues
 InfiniBand
 Intel 82C59A interrupt controller
 Intel 82C55A programmable peripheral
interface
 IBM zEnterprise 196 I/O structure
+ Key terms Chapter 7

 interrupt  programmed I/O

 interrupt-driven I/O  multiplexor channel
 I/O channel  selector channel
 I/O command  parallel I/O
 I/O module  serial I/O
 I/O processor  cycle stealing
 isolated I/O  direct memory access (DMA)
 memory-mapped I/O
 peripheral device
+ Homework
Input/Output
Chapter 7

 7.3
 7.4
 7.5
 7.6
 7.7
 7.9
 7.12
 7.14
 7.15
 7.17
 7.20