Chapter 6:

Methods
Objectives
 To define methods with formal parameters (§6.2).
 To invoke methods with actual parameters (i.e., arguments) (§6.2).
 To define methods with a return value (§6.3).
 To define methods without a return value (§6.4).
 To pass arguments by value (§6.5).
 To develop reusable code that is modular, easy to read, easy to debug,
and easy to maintain (§6.6).
 To write a method that converts hexadecimals to decimals (§6.7).
 To use method overloading and understand ambiguous overloading
(§6.8).
 To determine the scope of variables (§6.9).
 To apply the concept of method abstraction in software development
(§6.10).
 To design and implement methods using stepwise refinement (§6.10).

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 2

Program 1: Sum Many Numbers
 Write a program that will sum three sets of
numbers and then display the sum of each:
– sum of integers from 1 to 10
– sum of integers from 20 to 37
– sum of integers from 35 to 49
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 3

Program 1: Sum Many Numbers
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 This program is really easy
 For each set of numbers:
– make a variable sum
– make a for loop and sum from the first number to the second
number
– print the final sum
 So this is very easy to do
 Unfortunately, we have to do it three times!

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 4

Program 1: Sum Many Numbers
 Step 2: Implementation
public class SumManyNumbers{
public static void main(String[] args) {
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
sum += i;
System.out.println("Sum from 1 to 10 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 20; i <= 37; i++)
sum += i;
System.out.println("Sum from 20 to 37 is " + sum);

sum = 0;
for (int i = 35; i <= 49; i++)
sum += i;
System.out.println("Sum from 35 to 49 is " + sum);
}
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 5

Program 1: Sum Many Numbers
 Observation
– Each sum is doing something very similar
– In fact, each sum is essentially doing the same thing
– The only difference is the range of numbers
 the starting and ending numbers of the sum
– So why do we *repeat* our code three times?
– Wouldn't it be nice if we could write "common" code
and then reuse it when needed?
 That would be PERFECT!
– This is the idea of methods!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 6
Program 1: Sum Many Numbers
 Step 2: Implementation

 Here, we write a method to calculate the sum

– And then, inside main, we call/invoke the method three times
 You don't need to understand this perfectly right now
 We will spend the next two weeks understanding it!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 7
Methods
 What is a method?
– A method is a collection of statements grouped
together to perform an operation.
– Guess what?
 You have already used many predefined methods!
 Examples:
System.out.println System.exit
Math.pow Math.random
input.nextInt "some string".toUpper

 These methods are defined in the Java library

 In this chapter, you learn how to create your own methods!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 8
Defining a Method
 A method consists of:
– method name
– parameters
– return value type
– Body

 Syntax:
modifier returnValueType methodName(list of parameters) {
// Method body
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 9

Defining a Method
 Sample method:
– We will now look at a sample method
– This method is VERY easy
 Given two integers, find the larger value
– Although the logic is easy, we will study this sample
method in detail
– We need to understand the anatomy of a method
 anatomy: a study of the structure or internal workings of
something
 In summary: we need to fully understand all components of
the method and how it works!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 10
Defining a Method
 Sample method:
– Given two integers, determine the maximum value

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 11

Defining a Method
 Method Header:
– Specifies the modifiers, return value type, method
name, and parameters of the method

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 12

Defining a Method
 Modifiers:
– The static modifier is used for all methods in 202
 the reason will be discussed later

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 13

Defining a Method
 Return Value:
– Some methods compute a value and return it
 returnValueType is the data type of the return value

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 14

Defining a Method
 Return Value:
– Some methods compute a value and return it
 returnValueType is the data type of the return value
– Other methods perform operations but do not return a
value
 In this case, returnValueType is the keyword void.
 Example:
– The returnValueType is void in the main method.
– If a method returns a value, it is called a value-
returning method
– Else, it is called a void method
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 15
Defining a Method
 Formal Parameters:
– These are the variables defined in the method header
 Think of formal parameters as placeholders

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 16

Defining a Method
 Actual Parameters:
– When a method is invoked, you must send actual
values, which are then saved as formal parameters

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 17

Defining a Method
 Actual Parameters:
– When a method is invoked, you must send actual
values, which are then saved as formal parameters
– These actual (real) values are called actual parameters
– Note:
 You can use the word "parameters" or the word "arguments"
 BOTH are well-known
– The parameter list (or the argument list) refers to the
method's type, order, and number of parameters

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 18

Defining a Method
 Parameters:
– The parameter list (or the argument list) refers to the
method's type, order, and number of parameters
– Parameters are optional
– This means that some methods may have no
parameters
– In fact, you know some methods already, which have
no parameters:
 Math.random()
– There are no parameters for the Math.random() method

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 19

Defining a Method
 Method Signature:
– The method name and the parameter list together
constitute the method signature.

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 20

Defining a Method
 Method Body:
– Collection of statements that implement the method

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 21

Calling a Method
 Remember:
– A method is a collection of statements grouped
together to perform an action
– So inside the method, you define the actions
 You "do" everything that you want the method to "do"
 Question:
– How do we "start" the method? How do we run it?
 Answer:
– We call or invoke the method.

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 22

Calling a Method
 Two ways to call a method, depending on
whether the method returns a value or not
1. If the method returns a value, the "call" is usually
treated as a value:
 Example:
int larger = max(3, 4);
– Here, we "call" the method, max(3, 4)
– The maximum number, which is 4, will get returned
– We save that value (4) into the variable larger
 Example:
System.out.println(max(3, 4));
– Here, we directly print the result, which is 4

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 23

Calling a Method
 Two ways to call a method, depending on
whether the method returns a value or not
2. If the method returns void, the "call" to the method
is a basic statement.
 Example of the println() method:
System.out.println("This is a parameter.");
– Here, we "call" the println() method
– We send over the String, "This is a parameter"
– That method receives the string and prints to output

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 24

Calling a Method
 Program Control
– When you run a program, the control of the program
is in "main" (the main method)
 This is called program control
– When your call a method from main, program control
is transferred to the method you called
– main is basically waiting for the method to finish
 Once the method finishes, program control returns to main
 A called method returns control to the caller
– when its return statement is executed, or
– when its method-ending closing brace is reached

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 25

Program 2: TestMax
 Write a program that will call another method,
max, to determine the maximum of two
numbers. Method max should return the
maximum value.
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 26

Program 2: TestMax
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 In main, we just make two integers and give a value
– Of course, we could ask the user for two numbers
– Or we could generate two random numbers
• These are easy things and are not the purpose of this example
 Next, we call the max method
 This means we need to write a max method!
– max method should be easy
– Just check which number is larger
– Save the larger number into a variable
– Finally, return that variable (the larger number)

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 27

Program 2: TestMax
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 28

Program 2: TestMax
 Step 2: Implementation Details

– main method is from

lines 3 – 9
– On line 6, main calls
method max
– Method max is from
lines 12 – 21
– On line 21, result
is returned to main
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 29
Program 2: TestMax
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 30
animation

Calling Methods, cont.

pass the value of i

pass the value of j

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 31

animation

Trace Method Invocation

i is now 5

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 32

animation

Trace Method Invocation

j is now 2

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 33

animation

Trace Method Invocation

invoke max(i, j)

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

After this line executes, program control go to method max.

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 34

animation

Trace Method Invocation

invoke max(i, j)
Pass the value of i to num1
Pass the value of j to num2

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

Program control is now at method max.

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 35

animation

Trace Method Invocation

declare variable result

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 36

animation

Trace Method Invocation

(num1 > num2) is true since num1
is 5 and num2 is 2

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 37

animation

Trace Method Invocation

result is now 5

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 38

animation

Trace Method Invocation

return result, which is 5

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

Now, the maximum value is returned.

Program control returns to main.

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 39

animation

Trace Method Invocation

return max(i, j) and assign the
return value to k

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 40

animation

Trace Method Invocation

Execute the print statement

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 41

Caution
 A return statement is required for a value-
returning method
 Consider the following method:
– This method is 100% public static int sign(int n) {
if (n > 0)
logically correct return 1;
– However, it will give else if (n == 0)
return 0;
a compile error! else if (n < 0)
return -1;
– Why? }

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 42

Caution
 Why does this method give a compile error?
public static int sign(int n) {
if (n > 0)
return 1;
else if (n == 0)
return 0;
else if (n < 0)
return -1;
}

 Java sees that this method must return an int

 Java makes sure that a value must always be returned
 Java does not allow the possibility that a value will not be
returned
 If this possibility exists, Java will give a compile error
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 43
Caution
 Why does this method give a compile error?
public static int sign(int n) {
if (n > 0)
return 1;
else if (n == 0)
return 0;
else if (n < 0)
return -1;
}

 Yes, this code is logically correct for us

– Clearly, n can only be bigger than 0, equal, or less than zero
 However, Java sees the if/elseif/elseif block and Java
expects that "maybe" there can be an "else" statement
 And if that else statement is true, Java has no guarantee that
we will return inside that statement…therefore, an error
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 44
Caution
 Why does this method give a compile error?
– In summary: Java thinks it is possible that this method
will not return a value.
– An easy solution is presented below:

 We simply remove the condition of the final else if

statement, indicating that this is the final option
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 45
Calling a Method
 Activation Record:
– Each time a method is called, the system creates an
activation record
– The activation record stores all parameters and
variables for the method.
– The activation record is then placed in a specific area
of memory known as a call stack.
 aka "execution stack", "machine stack" or just "the stack"

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 46

Calling a Method
 Activation Record:
– When methodA calls methodB, for example, the
activation record for methodA is kept intact
 A new activation record for methodB is created for this
new methodB that was just called
 When methodB finishes its work and returns to the caller,
which was methodA, the activation record of methodB is
then removed from the stack of records
 Why?
– Because methodB is finished!
– Confused? Let us see an example…

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 47

animation

Trace Call Stack

i is declared and initialized

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
}

public static int max(int num1, int num2) {

int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 48

animation

Trace Call Stack

j is declared and initialized

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
}

public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2

int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

49 page 49
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Declare k

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

50 page 50
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Invoke max(i, j)

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

51 page 51
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

pass the values of i and j to num1
and num2

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

52 page 52
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Declare result

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i + result:
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

53 page 53
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

(num1 > num2) is true

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i + result:
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

54 page 54
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Assign num1 to result

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
Space required for the
System.out.println( max method
"The maximum between " + i + result: 5
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

55 page 55
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Return result and assign it to k

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
Space required for the
System.out.println( max method
"The maximum between " + i + result: 5
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:5
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

56 page 56
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
animation

Trace Call Stack

Execute print statement

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:5
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

57 page 57
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods
Calling a Method
 Activation Record and Call Stacks:
– While the last animated example was great, here is a
single image that shows the full process:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 58

void Method Example
 The previous example (max method) was a
value-returning method
– meaning, it returned a value (the max) to the caller
 Some methods do not return anything at all
 This type of method is called a void method
 The following program defines a method named
printGrade and invokes (calls) it to print the
grade based on a given score

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 59

Program 3: TestVoidMethod

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 60

Program 3: TestVoidMethod
 Run the Program:

– The printGrade method is void

 It does not return any value at all.
– A call to a void method must be a statement
– You can see it is invoked as a statement in line 4
– And like any Java statement, it ends with a semicolon

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 61
Program 4: TestReturnGradeMethod
 Redesign the printGrade method to return a
value. The new method, getGrade, should return
the letter grade as a char value.
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 62

Program 4: TestReturnGradeMethod
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 Same algorithm as the previous example.
 We will call the method and we will send over the numeric
grade as a parameter
 But instead of directly printing the value inside the
method
 We will return the value as a char!

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 63

Program 4: TestReturnGradeMethod
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 64

Program 4: TestReturnGradeMethod
 Step 2: Implementation Details

– notice the return type for

the getGrade method
 char
– On line 3 and 4, we call the
getGrade method
– The answer is computed
inside the method, and then
returned and printed
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 65
Program 4: TestReturnGradeMethod
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 66
void Method Example
 Note:
– the return statement is not needed for void method
– However, it can be useful for terminating the method
and returning to the method's caller
– Syntax:
return;
– This is not too common
 However, it is useful for exiting the normal flow of control in
a void method
– Consider the following code, which uses a void
method to terminate if the score is invalid
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 67
void Method Example
 void Method with return statement:
public static void printGrade(double score) {
if (score < 0 || score > 100) {
System.out.println("Invalid score");
return;
}
if (score >= 90.0) {
System.out.println('A');
}
else if (score >= 80.0) {
System.out.println('B');
}
else if (score >= 70.0) {
System.out.println('C');
}
else if (score >= 60.0) {
System.out.println('D');
}
else {
System.out.println('F');
}
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 68

Check Point
 What are the benefits of using a method?

 Can a call to a value-returning method be a

statement by itself?

 Can you have a return statement in a void

method?

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 69

Passing Arguments by Values
 Power of a method is in its ability to work with
parameters
 When you call a method, you need to provide
the arguments (parameters)
– And these parameters MUST be given in the same
order as their respective parameters in the method
signature
– This is known as parameter order association

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 70

Passing Arguments by Values
 Example:
– We know the println() method works by taking one
String parameter
 Then it prints that String to the console
– What if we wanted to make a new println() method
– But this method will take two parameters
 The String itself
 And an integer, n, representing the number of times the
method should print the String

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 71

Passing Arguments by Values
 Example:
public static void nPrintln(String message, int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
System.out.println(message);
}

– What happens if we call nPrintn("Hello", 3)

 Answer: we will print the world "Hello" three times
– The String parameter, "Hello" is passed into the formal
parameter, String message
– And the value 3 is passed to the formal parameter, n

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 72

Passing Arguments by Values
 Example:
public static void nPrintln(String message, int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
System.out.println(message);
}

– How would we print the specialty "Computer Science"

100 times?
nPrintn("Computer Science", 100);
– Note, the following statement would be wrong:
nPrintn(100, "Computer Science");
– Why?

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas data types of the actual/formal
Chapter 6: Methods parameters do not match page 73
Passing Arguments by Values
 Caution:
– Arguments send from the caller MUST match the
formal parameter with respect to:
 The number of parameters
 The order of parameters
 The compatible type of parameters
– Here, compatible simply means that you can pass an argument to a
parameter without explicit casting
– Such as passing an int to a double
• This is allowed
– But of course, we cannot pass a double to an int
• Unless there was explicit casting

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 74

Passing Arguments by Values
 Remember:
– When you invoke a method with an argument, the
value of the argument is passed/sent to the formal
parameter inside the method
– This is referred to as pass-by-value
– Even if the argument is a variable, the value of the
variable is passed to the formal parameter
– The variable, therefore, is not affected regardless of
any changes made to the parameter inside the method
– Consider the following example…

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 75

Passing Arguments by Values
 Remember:

Click here to
view and trace
code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 76

Passing Arguments by Values
 And another example:
– We have seen that swapping the values of two
variables is a common practice
 So let us write a method to do this!
– Consider the following program that creates a method
for swapping the values of two variables
 So we will make a custom swap method
– We invoke the swap method by passing 2 arguments
– Interesting:
 The values of the arguments are NOT changed after the
method is invoked
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 77
Passing Arguments by Values
 And another example:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 78

Passing Arguments by Values
 And another example:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 79

Passing Arguments by Values
 And another example:
– Output:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 80
Passing Arguments by Values
 swap Method Explanation:
– Before swap method is invoked (line 12) num1 is 1
and num2 is 2
– After the swap method is invoked, num1 is still 1 and
num2 is still 2.
 Their values have NOT been swapped!
– Why?
 Values in a method have their own memory locations
 Therefore, any changes made inside the method do NOT
affect the original variables outside the method

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 81

Passing Arguments by Values
 swap Method Explanation:
– Common question:
 "In this example, the variables names were different when
we look at the formal and actual parameters. Would it make a
difference if the names were the same?
– Answer:
 No. Nothing will change.
 The parameter is a variable in the method with its own
memory space.
– Consider the following Activation Record for swap

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 82

Passing Arguments by Values
 Activation Record for swap:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 83

Check Point
 What is the output of the following programs:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 84

Check Point
 What is the output of the following programs:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 85

Modularizing Code
 What is the idea of modularizing code?
– To answer this, let us ask another question:
What is a module?
– Answer: a sub-group of a larger entity
– For example, you have a Chapter in your book, and
then inside the chapter, maybe you have 8 modules
– These are small, independent sections of the Chapter
 Imagine if the chapter did not have modules, and
you were told to “modularize the chapter”.
– This means, divide the chapter into modules!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 86
Modularizing Code
 What is the idea of modularizing code?
– This same idea applies to code
– New programmers often write long un-modularized
code, which is very difficult to read
– So we tell them: modularize the code!
– This makes the code easier:
 To maintain
 To read
 To debug
 and a best of all, it makes the code reusable!

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 87

Modularizing Code
 Use of methods:
– We already learned that methods can be used to reduce
redundant code and they facilitate reuse of code
– Methods are also used to modularize code and to help
improve the overall quality of the program
 GCD (modularized)
– In Chapter 5, we wrote a program to find the GCD of
two integers
– We can now re-write the program in a modularized
fashion by using a method to compute the GCD
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 88
Modularizing Code (GCD)
 GCD (modularized)

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 89

Modularizing Code (GCD)
 GCD (modularized) Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 90

Modularizing Code (GCD)
 Run the Program: Click here to view and trace code

– We encapsulated the GCD code inside a method

– Benefits:
 Isolates the GCD computation from the rest of the program
 Possible errors on GCD are limited to GCD method
– makes debugging easier
 GCD method can now be reused by other programs
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 91
Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Write a modularized program, which should
print the first 50 prime numbers, with ten
numbers printed per line
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 92

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 We really have two things to consider for this program:
1. We need to determine if a number is prime
2. We need to print 10 prime numbers per line
 And we can do both of these steps with methods
 We can make a method, isPrime, to determine prime
 And we can make another method that is used specifically
to print the numbers, printPrimeNumbers

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 93

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 In Chapter 5, we showed how to determine if a # is prime:

// Use a boolean variable isPrime and set initially to true

boolean isPrime = true;

for (int divisor = 2; divisor <= number/2; divisor++) {

// IF divisor evenly divides into number, number is NOT prime
if (number % divisor == 0) {
isPrime = false;
break; // Exit/break out of loop!
}
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 94

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 Method printPrimeNumbers
– We can keep a final variable: NUMBER_OF_PRIMES_PER_LINE
 We keep a counter to count the number of primes found
 We use the same while loop from Chapter 5
while (count < numberOfPrimes)
 We start with the number 2, and check if it is prime
 If so, we increment count
 Of course, we increment the tested value
 And we continue until we find the desired # of primes

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 95

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 96

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 97

Program 5: PrimeNumberMethod
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 98
Overloading Methods
 What is method overloading?
– Method overloading is when you have multiple
methods with the SAME method name
– However, the method signature is different
– This means that the number of parameters will be
different or the data types of the parameters will be
different

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 99

Overloading Methods
 Example max method:
– Previously, we made a max method to find the max
value of two integers
– What if the two values were doubles?
– Solution:
 Create another method with the same name
 The only difference is that the data type of the parameters
will be double
– So now your program has two max methods
 One that works with integers and one that works for doubles

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 100

Overloading Methods
 Example max method:
– So now if you call the max method with two integers,
the specific method that expects two integers will be
invoked
– And if you call the max method with two doubles, the
specific method that expects two doubles will be
invoked
– This is referred to as method overloading
– The Java compiler determines which method to use
based on the method signature

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 101

Program 6: TestMethodOverloading
 Write a program that finds the max of two
integers, the max of two doubles, and the max of
three doubles
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 102

Program 6: TestMethodOverloading
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 We need three methods
 And all of them will be called max!
 One will compute max of two integers
 One will compute max of two doubles
 One will compute max of three doubles

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 103

Program 6: TestMethodOverloading
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 104

Program 6: TestMethodOverloading
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 105

Program 6: TestMethodOverloading
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 106
Ambiguous Invocation
 What is Ambiguous Invocation?
– Sometimes there are two (or more) possible methods
that match the invocation (the method call)
– The result: the compiler cannot determine which
method should be used
– This is referred to as ambiguous invocation
 ambiguous means “not clear”
– Ambiguous invocations will cause a compile error

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 107

Ambiguous Invocation
 Example:
public class AmbiguousOverloading {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(max(1, 2));
}
public static double max(int num1, double num2) {
if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}
public static double max(double num1, int num2) {
if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 108

Ambiguous Invocation
 Example:
– So in this Class, we have two max methods
– Both have two parameters:
 The 1st has: int and double
 The 2nd method has: double and int
– Neither method is better than the other
– In summary: the compiler cannot choose a “best”
option
– Result: compiler error

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 109

Check Point
 What is wrong in the following program:
public class Test {
public static void someMethod(int x) {

public static int someMethod(int y) {

return y;
}
}

– Signatures MUST be different

– Here, they are the same!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 110
Check Point
 Given two method definitions:
public static double m(double x, double y)

public static double m(int x, double y)

tell which of the two methods is invoked for:

a) double z = m(4, 5);
b) double z = m(4, 5.4);
c) double z = m(4.5, 5.4);

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 111

Scope of Local Variables
 Reminder from Chapter 2:
– The scope of a variable is the part of the program
where the variable is understood
 While we discussed “scope” previously, we now discuss it in
more detail!
 A variable declared inside a method is referred to as a local
variable
 The scope of a local variable begins from the declaration and
continues until the end of the block that contains the variable
 A local variable must be declared and assigned a value
before it can be used

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 112

Scope of Local Variables
 Scope details:
– A parameter is a local variable
– And a parameter is “declared” inside the method
signature
 This means the scope of parameters are for the entire
method!
– A variable declared in the initial-action part of a for
loop has its scope in the entire loop
– However, a variable declared inside a for-loop body
has its scope limited inside the loop body
 from the declaration to the end of the for-loop block
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 113
Scope of Local Variables
 Scope details:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 114

Scope of Local Variables
 Scope details:
– You can declare a local variable with the same name in
different blocks in a method.
 So even though the name is the same, you can do this with
the condition IF it is in different blocks in the method
– You cannot declare a local variable twice within the
same block or in nested blocks

– Consider the following picture…

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 115

Scope of Local Variables
 Scope details:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 116

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Write a class, which has methods to generate a
random character, a random lowercase letter, a
random uppercase letter, and a random digit
character. Then write a program to print 175
random lowercase letters.
 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 117

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Reminder:
 A character is coded using an integer
 So generating a random character really means generating
a random integer!
 Remember: every possible character has a Unicode value
between 0 and FFFF in hexadecimal (65535 in decimal)
 So generating a random character really means generating
a random decimal value between 0 and 65535 inclusive
(int) (Math.random() * (65535 + 1))

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 118

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Details:
 So how do we generate a random lowercase letter?
 Well, you can either remember the exact decimal values for
each character (hard to remember)
 OR you can just cast the character values as ints
(int) ‘a’
– For example, the line above will give us the integer value of ‘a’
 So we want a random integer between (int) ‘a’ and (int) ‘z’
 Solution:
(int)((int)'a' + Math.random() * ((int)'z' - (int)'a' + 1))

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 119

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Details:
 It is actually even easier than this though!
 All numeric operators can be applied to char operands
 The char operand will be implicitly cast to an int if the other
operand is an int or a char
 Therefore, the previous expression can be simplified to:
'a' + Math.random() * ('z' - 'a' + 1)
 And a random lowercase letter is:
(char)('a' + Math.random() * ('z' - 'a' + 1))

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 120

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Details:
 This allows us to realize a very simply but useful discovery:
 A random character between any two characters, ch1 and ch2
(with ch1 < ch2) can be generated as follows:
(char)(ch1 + Math.random() * (ch2 – ch1 + 1))
 So now we can make a generic method, which will have two
characters as parameters
 And this generic method will generate the random character
between those two character parameters
 We now make a class with five overloaded methods to get a
certain type of character randomly
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 121
Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 122

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 123

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Algorithm:
 So now we need to solve the original problem:
Print 175 random lowercase letters
– Only 25 letters per line
 This is easy!
 We will have a loop, and inside the loop, we will simply call
our method each time, of course with ‘a’ and ‘z’ as
parameters

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 124

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Step 2: Implementation

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 125

Program 7: RandomCharacter
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 126
Method Abstraction
 Main idea for developing software!
– To develop quality software, programmers must fully
understand and be comfortable with the idea of method
abstraction
 What is method abstraction?
– We separate the implementation of a method from the
actual use of the method
– The client/customer can use a method without knowing
how to actually code it
– The details of the method are hidden from the client
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 127
Method Abstraction
 Information Hiding (Encapsulation)
– Again, the details of the implementation are
encapsulated inside the method
– And they are hidden from the client
– This is called Information Hiding or encapsulation
– The client has access to the method header
 They can call the method with certain parameters
 And they hope to get a return value from the method
– But what is inside the method is hidden from them
– In fact, they don’t care…they just want it to work!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 128
Method Abstraction
 Information Hiding (Encapsulation)
– So think of the method as a “BLACK BOX” that
contains the implementation…but it is hidden

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 129

Stepwise Refinement
 Method Abstraction helps makes programs easier
– because the implementation of a specific idea is
removed from the main body of the program
– So the program is easier to read and understand
 This idea is part of Stepwise Refinement
 What is stepwise refinement?
– The idea of solving a larger problem/program in
smaller steps
– Certainly, solving something small is easier than
solving something larger
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 130
Stepwise Refinement
 Method Abstraction helps makes programs easier
– because the implementation of a specific idea is
removed from the main body of the program
– So the program is easier to read and understand
 This idea is part of Stepwise Refinement
 What is stepwise refinement?
– The idea of solving a larger problem/program in
smaller steps
– Certainly, solving something small is easier than
solving something larger
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 131
Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Write a program that prompts the user to enter
the calendar year and month and then displays
the exact calendar for that input.

 Remember:
– Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Step 2: Implementation Phase

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 132

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Expected output:

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 133

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Requirements:
 First requirement: do NOT START CODING!!!
 New programmers want to start code right away
 And they also care about the DETAILS of the program
 Yes, details are important…but not at the beginning
– The main requirement is to truly understand what the
programming is asking of you
– So for this problem, let us use method abstraction to
isolate the details from the actual program design

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 134

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Problem Components:
 We can start by breaking the program into two main
components:
– Get input from user
– Print the calendar

 Clearly, getting input from the user is easy and can be left for
later discussion
 The main work is in printing the calendar
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 135
Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Problem Components:
 And printing the calendar can also be broken down into two
components:
– Print the month title
– Print the month body

 Printing the month title is easy

– It consists of three lines, month and year, a long dashed line, and
then the names of the week
– The only “calculation” here is determining the name of the month
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 136
Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Problem Components:
 Printing the month body will take some thought
 There are two main things we must compute
– Starting day of month
– # of days in month

 So how can you get the starting day of the month?

– This problem on its own can be complicated and requires its own
thought and strategy

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 137

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– So how can you get the starting day of the month?
 Assume we know that the start day for January 1, 1800 was a
Wednesday
START_DAY_FOR_JAN_1_1800 = 3
 You could compute the total number of days between
January 1, 1800 and the first date of the calendar month
 The start day of the calendar month is:
(totalNumberOfDays + START_DAY_FOR_JAN_1_1800) % 7
 Summary: the problem of getting the starting day can be
further broken down into the problem of getting the total
number of days since January 1, 1800
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 138
Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Okay. So how can we get the total number of days?
 Simple, each year is 365 days.
 And then for the last year, you must count the number of
days before that specific month
 This means you need to save the number of days in each
month
– And you can write a separate method for this
 But wait! There is something else to consider!
 LEAP YEAR!
 So you must also test for a leap year

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 139

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Method getNumberOfDaysInMonth():
public static int getNumberOfDaysInMonth(int year, int month) {
if (month == 1 || month == 3 || month == 5 || month == 7 ||
month == 8 || month == 10 || month == 12)
return 31;

if (month == 4 || month == 6 || month == 9 || month == 11)

return 30;

if (month == 2)
return isLeapYear(year) ? 29 : 28;
return 0; // If month is incorrect
}

/** Determine if it is a leap year */

public static boolean isLeapYear(int year) {
return year % 400 == 0 || (year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0);
}

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 140

Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– So you can see that many components are needed to
solve this problem
– You cannot just start coding immediately
– Instead, you must identify, step-by-step, or component-
by-component, what is needed for your program
– What we just did was called the “Top-Down
Approach”
– The design diagram is shown on the next pages

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 141

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 142

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 143

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 144

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 145

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 146

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 147

Design Diagram
printCalendar
(main)

readInput printMonth

printMonthTitle printMonthBody

getMonthName getStartDay

getTotalNumOfDays

getNumOfDaysInMonth

isLeapYear

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 148

Implementation: Top-Down
 Step 1: Problem-solving Phase
– Top-down approach is to implement one method in the
structure chart at a time from the top to the bottom.
 Stubs can be used for the methods waiting to be
implemented.
 A stub is a simple but incomplete version of a method.
 The use of stubs enables you to test invoking the method
from a caller.
 Implement the main method first and then use a stub for the
printMonth method and so on

Click here to view a skeleton of the code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 149
Program 8: PrintCalendar
 Run the Program:

Click here to view and trace code

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 150
Benefits of Stepwise Refinement
 Some programs can be very long
– This last program was only 100 lines, but it had several
logically independent components
 Stepwise refinement breaks the larger problem
down into smaller, more manageable subproblems
 Each subproblem can be implemented using a
method
 This approach makes the program easier to:
– write, reuse, debug, test, modify, and maintain

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 151

Benefits of Stepwise Refinement
 Reusing methods:
– Stepwise refinement encourages code reuse
– The isLeapYear method is defined once
– However, it is used twice:
 Inside the getTotalNumberOfDays
 Inside the getNumberOfDayInMonth

© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 152

Benefits of Stepwise Refinement
 Easier developing, debugging, and testing
– Each subproblem is developed in a method
– This means each subproblem can be developed,
debugged, and tested independently of other
components of the problem
– This isolates errors
– Whenever you develop large programs, use this
stepwise refinement approach
– It may seem to take longer at first
– But it saves time and makes debugging much easier!
© Dr. Jonathan Cazalas Chapter 6: Methods page 153
Chapter 6:
Methods