Application of electronics:

Electronics is the science of controlling the flow of electricity. Signals represent information. Signals may
represent letters, numbers, sounds, images or other information.
Semiconductors:
Some materials, such as silicon, conduct electric change better than insulator but not as well as conductors.
These materials are called semiconductors and they are essential to the operation of electronic devices.
Engineers can adjust their capacity to essential to the operation of electronic devices. Engineers can adjust
their capacity to conduct electric charge very precisely by doping them adding small amounts of other
substances (e.g. boron, arsenic or phosphorus) to change their electrical properties. But it is possible to add
very small amounts of certain impurities such as arsenic or phosphors which have more electrons per atom
than silicon. In this way extra free electron are produced that can move and form an electric current. These
semiconductors are know as N-type semiconductors because of the negative charge of the electrons.
Another type of semiconductors because is formed by adding small quantities of other impurities such as
aluminum, Boron or gallium, which have fewer electrons per atom than silicon. These semiconductors are
called P-type semiconductors referring to the positive referring to the positive charge associated with the
holes.
Transistor:
Transistors are the key components in modern electronic controlling the flow of electric current in almost all
electronic equipment. It consist of a thin layer of one type of semiconductor material between two thicker
layers of the opposite type. If the middle layer called the emitter and the collector, are part of a larger
electric circuit(the output). The middle layer, called the base, is connected to a different circuit(the input)
and it controls the passage of current from the emitter to the collector.
The transistor carries out two essential functions;
As a switch. Blocking or unblocking the input electric current(the base) will automatically switch on or off
the output current(from emitter to collector).
As an amplifier. Fluctuations in the input current are copied by the same fluctuations in the output current.
But since the output current is large, the pattern of fluctuations is magnified.
These two functions are the basis of all electronic system.
Transducers:
Transducers are devices that can translate the phenomena of the physical world into electrical signals or
translate voltages and currents into the sounds, lights and forces of the outside world.
Transducers are able to change the type of energy that is carrying information without changing the
information itself. Typical examples are the microphone, the electronic thermometer.
Many transduvers use sensors in a similar way to measure thermal, mechanical or chemical quantities.
Basic electronic components:
A resistor controls the amounts of electric current flowing in a circuit. Resistors are made of different
materials, including carbon, metal oxide and coils of wire. Their resistance is measured in units called
ohms. Some resistors have a precise fixed value of resistance, indicated by specially coded coloured band
around them. These can be used as volume controls in radio and amplifiers. Other special types of resistor
are useful as sensors. Light-dependent resistors decrease in resistance with more light. Thermistors,
decrease in resistance when their temperature rises. A capacitor (also called a condenser ) is a device that
can store an electric charge. It consist of two metal plates with an insulating material, called a dielectric,
between them. The ability to store electric energy is called capacitance. The basic unit used to measure
capacitance is the fared. One important application of a capacitor of capacitor is to block direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. A capacitor does permit DC to flow thought it, but its
continuous charging and discharging action permits AC to pass. Capacitors are used as filters in electronic
circuits and in applications such as computer memories and the flash in digital cameras.
An Inductor is a device that can either block electric current or transfer it the next stage of a circuit through
electromagnetic induction. It consist of a coil of wire wound around a supporting core that may be
magnetic or non-magnetic. The strength of the inductor is increased by using an iron core. An inductor
opposes the flow of alternative current but allows direct current to pass. Inductors are used in tuners,
transformers and ignition systems. The unit to measurement for inductance is the henry(H).
A diode is made two opposite types of semiconductor material( usually silicon or germanium) placed side
by side to form a junction, p-type on one side and n-type on the other. The diode will only allow electric
current to pass in one direction. The means that it functions as a rectifier. Other type of diode called light-
emitting diodes(Leds) give out light when a current passes through.
Conventional and integrated circuits:
A conventional circuit consists of separate electronic components attached to a base and connected by
wires. An Integrated circuit consist of a chip usually silicon, which has its components and connectors
formed on the chip itself. Integrated circuit are much smaller and lighter than conventional circuit. They can
be mass produced very cheaply. They can be mass produced very cheaply. They work faster, need less
power, generate less heat and cost less operate than conventional circuit. In addition, integration circuits
are more reliable because they have fewer connections that might fail. They are more vulnerable than
conventional circuit can be damaged by strong currents and high voltages.
William Schockley the father of the transistor
The transistor (short for transfer resistor) was born when two scientists observed that when electrical
signals were applied to contacts on a crystal of germanium, the output power was larger than the input.
Schockley had recognized for a long time than the solution to one of the technological nightmares of the
time- the cost and unreliability of the vacuum tubes used a valves. Vacuum tubes were large, hot, fragile
and short-lived. Crystal could do the job faster, more reliably and with 1 million times less power. Now the
discovery has been made. Schockley was determined to make his mark on the discovery. He found his own
company. Over the following years, Shockley developed and produced a silicon transistor, which offered
several advantages. Unlike germanium it could also operate at higher temperatures. Schockley was the man
who brought the silicon to Silicon Valley. Shockleys invention had created a new industry, the basic of all
modern electronics.
How an electronic system works
An electronic system usually operates in three stages.
Input. Information enters the system in the form of electric signals.
Processing. The signals are transformed in some wat.
Output. The processed signals are presented in a form that can be read and understood.
An electronic calculator provides a simple example. It consists basically of a keypad a printed circuit board
under the keypad. Pressing a key creates a pulse of electric charge, a signal representing either a number or
an operation. The signal carried to the circuits wire. Each circuit has particular job. Some store signals
temporarily . Others change signals according to instructions. Finally circuits send signals that light up the
display screen to show the result of a calculation.
Analogue and digital :
The information can be in the form either of analogue or digital signals. Analogue signals copy the
movements of the phenomena they represent. An analogue multimeter has a pointer which moves
backwards and forwards across a scale granduaded. In electronic devices analogue signals represent waves
of sounds, light or other natural phenomena. Digital signals represent information in the form of numbers.
Digital signals are the result of converting analogue signals into a numerical form, which is easier to
transmit, store and display. Letters, words and symbolic can also be converted into numbers. Binary
numbers:
Computers and other electronic devices to use binary number system, based on multiples of two digits(0
and 1). By combining digital and binary systems all information is converted into a numbers and all numbers
are reduced to a series of 0s and 1s. Advantages of digital: digital form offers several advantages:
Reliability. Digital signals are less susceptible to distortion or degradation.
Security: be encoder using mathematical formulae.
Compression: the quantity of data transmitted can be reduced.
Compatibility: Because all data has the same numerical form, it is easy for digital devices to communicate
with each other

Amplifier:
Amplifiers transform a weak electrical signal into much stronger one. They are vital elements in almost all
electronic equipment, especially television, radio, audio devices and computers. When signals are amplified
they can easily become distorted. A common technique to avoid such distortion is called negative
feedback. Part of the signal is fed back and compared with the input signal. In this way distortions can be
precorrected and eliminated. A single amplifier is often not enough to raise the output to the desired level
and so multistage amplification( called a cascade) is used. The output of the first amplifier is fed into a
second, whose output is fed to third, and so on, until the output level is satisfactory.
Oscillotors:
Oscillators produce continually repeated patterns of voltage or current at a fixed frequency. They have
several important applications they provide a timing mechanism which control electronic devices such as
computers. Every oscillator circuit contains three basic elements: something that fixes the frequency ,an
amplifier and a feedback path. An oscillators circuit converts direct-current power into an alternating-
current wave-form. The elements that determine the frequency of the wave-form may be a tuned
inductance-capacitance circuit or vibrating crystal. Cristal-controlled oscillators provide the highest precision
and stability.
Read a data sheet
The data sheet describes exactly what an electronic component does. It is the document that tells you
Typical device performance
Minimum and maximum requirements and characteristics
What you can do the device without harming it
Suggested uses and hints
There is no standard format for data sheets but they frequently contain these items:
The general description gives a brief summary of what the device is and what it can do. The features section
point out some of the most interesting characteristics. Under applications there is a list of the most
common uses of the device. Diagrams may show the precise measurements of length, width etc. in the case
of integrated circuit, the diagram shows the arrangements and name of each pin on the chip, a
configuration diagram may show how the device is typically combined with other components. The
electrical characteristics section of a data sheet indicates the minimum, typical and maximum voltage and
current parameters for the device. The data sheet should also note the absolute maximum ratings of the
device, in other words its tolerances, that indicates the maximum and minimum conditions the component
can handle without permanent damage. Supply voltage, storage temperature and power dissipation, for
example, are possible tolerance conditions. Another section of data sheet provides information about
typical performance characteristics, this is often given in the form of graphs or waveforms. They can show
characteristics when several variables are being compared. In the end, ordering information contains a list
of all variations of the device such as package type, speed, power etc.
What is a microprocessor?
The microprocessor is an integrated circuit with a memory which can store lists of coded instructions. By
following these instruction the same chip can do a variety of jobs. The microprocessor uses logic circuits to
decode instructions and manipulate data that can be stored in the memory or sent to other device such as
display screens. Most microprocessor work digitally, transforming all the input information into a code of
binary numbers. Each 1 or 0 in the code is called a bit, a contraction of binary digit. The bits are organized
into groups called words, a word that consist of 8 bits is called a byte. The speed of a microprocessor
depends on the maximum word length that it can handle. The earliest microprocessor were slow, had
limited memories and could only work with 4-bit words; but modern microprocessor operate with 32-bit
and 64-bit words and so they are able to carry out series of instructions. Microprocessor function as CPU of
a computer, but they have innumerable other applications in , for example, video games console, mobile
phones, calculators, security system etc.
The race to build the integrated circuit:
Two people had the idea for an integrated circuit at almost the same time. In Dallas, Jack Kilby built a model
of integrated circuit and his company, Texas Instruments, applied for a patent.
In 1959, Robert Noyce realized that a whole circuit could be made on a single chip. While Kilby had worked
out to make individual components, Noyce thought of a much better way to connect the parts. He used a
new chemical etching method to lay down tracks between components, thus eliminating expensive and
complicated wiring. In the end Noyces chip won the race for the patent
What is a microprocessor?
The microprocessor is an integrated circuit with a memory which can store lists of coded instructions. By
following these instruction the same chip can do a variety of jobs. The microprocessor uses logic circuits to
decode instructions and manipulate data that can be stored in the memory or sent to other device such as
display screens. Most microprocessor work digitally, transforming all the input information into a code of
binary numbers. Each 1 or 0 in the code is called a bit, a contraction of binary digit. The bits are organized
into groups called words, a word that consist of 8 bits is called a byte. The speed of a microprocessor
depends on the maximum word length that it can handle. The earliest microprocessor were slow, had
limited memories and could only work with 4-bit words; but modern microprocessor operate with 32-bit
and 64-bit words and so they are able to carry out series of instructions. Microprocessor function as CPU of
a computer, but they have innumerable other applications in , for example, video games console, mobile
phones, calculators, security system etc.
The microprocessor
There are three basic elements in a microprocessor: memory circuits to store data; logic circuits to change
or manipulate data; control circuits to direct the whole system and they are linked together by channels
called buses.
Memory circuits store bits permanently or temporarily. They contains thousands of capacitors which can
hold bits either in the form of an electric charge (1) or the absence of a charge (0). Each capacitors is
connected to the system by a metal conductor, with transistors usually acting as switches. When a signal
opens a switch, bits can travel along the conductor. There are two kind of memory: read only memory
(R.O.M.) and random access memory (R.A.M.). A ROM circuit is a permanent store of information and
contains instructions or program, for operating the system. It can be neither erased nor added to, while a
RAM circuit is uses to store information for a short time and its data can be added to or erased. When the
power is off, all stored charges in RAM are erased.
Logic circuits in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) manipulate data according to instruction. The bits go
through a sequence of switches that changes them in some way. Switches can also be used to compare two
bits in order to generate an output based on precise logical rules known as Boolean algebra. The process is
carried out through small groups of circuits called logic gates, that look at two bits of data, compares them
and produces a result by following precise instruction. The logical rules are based on Boolean algebra that
makes possible to break down complicated problems into a series of small steps each of which can be
analysed using a simple true/false question.
Control circuits direct and coordinate the work of all other parts of the system according to instruction. This
is done by means of an oscillators, called the clock which generates continuous pulses.
What is automation?
Replacing human workers with machines is called mechanization, automation is the integration of
machines into a self-controlling system.
Highly complex task. Automated system can make planning decisions that would be too complicated for
human operators. For example, many cities use automated systems to coordinate traffic lights. Sensors
determine the number and speed of vehicles on the street and send the data to a computer, which decides
how to time each traffic light.
Rapid decision-making. Automated system can react more quickly than people. For example, high speed
military aircraift. These aircraift use automated guidance system that can change direction much faster than
a pilot can if obstacles suddenly appear.
Highly repetitive tasks. Automated machinery is better at performing routine, repetitive tasks.
Dangerous work. Automated machines can operate in environments that are unsafe for people. They are
used, for example, for repairing underwater pipelines, defusing bombs, carrying out space research.
In addition once they have been set up enable businesses to cut costs. Automated made possible through
the internet and e-commerce has transformed many business operations.
Logic gate:
A logic gate is a circuit which looks at two bits of data( the input data), compares them and produce a
result( the output) by following precise instructions. There are different types of logic gate. By putting them
together in carefully planned sequence, it is possible to solve complex mathematical or logical problems
the logical rules are based on Boolean algebra. It makes possible break down complicated problem into a
serious of small steps, each of which can be analysed using a sample simple true/false questions. This
approach is easily adapted to the binary system of digital processing used in a microprocessor.1 indicates an
electrical input / output which is switched on and 0 equals an input/output which is switched off.

How automation works

Automation regulate itself through a feedback system, called a loop, enables a machine to monitor its own
output, compare it with a set of standards and adjust its performance. This is carried out in three steps:
measurement, evaluation and control.
Measurement. Automated system must be able to measure the physical variables. This is done through
sensor which measure properties such as dimensions, weight, temperature, pressure, color, or electrical
resistance.
Evaluation. Information is then evaluate decide if corrective action is required.
Control. If discrepancies exist, the computer activates the controller to bring the performance of the system
into line with the programmed values.
A modern automated factory may have thousands of interconnected self-regulating loops. The application
of automation to the control of manufacturing operations is called process control and it is widely used in
many industries.
How robot works

A typical robot consists of same components of human behavior.

The robot has a movable physical structure of some have motorized wheels, others have dozens of
movable segments, connected together with joints like bones.
The robot has an artificial muscle system, either a hydraulic system or a pneumatic system.
Hydraulic robots need pump to pressurize the hydraulic fluid and pneumatic robots need an air compressor.
A power source is required to drive this machinery. Most robots operate on electricity and have
battery or, alternatively, plug into the wall. To move a hydraulic leg, the robots controller opens the valve
leading to a piston attached to that leg. The pressurized fluid activates the piston, moving the leg forward.
Sensory system some advanced models have a form of vision using video cameras. The most
common robotic sense is the ability to monitor movement, using a system based on light sensor. As the
robot moves, beams of light shine.
The robots brain is a computer that controls all the components in the device.
Artificial intelligence and robots
However, the ultimate objective of AI is to recreate the human thought process but Roboticists are a long
way from achieving this, but todays AI machines can replicate some elements of intellectual ability.
AI robot-computer collects information about to stored data and considers various possible actions.
The computer can only solve problems for which it is programmed. They recognize if a certain action
achieves a desired result. The robot stores this information and attempts the successful action the next time
it encounters the same situation.
They recognize human body language and voice inflection and respond appropriately. We know that the
brain contains billions of neurons, and that we think and learn by establishing electrical connections
between different neurons. But we still dont know exactly how these connections lead to the ability to
reason.
Curriculum vitae:
A curriculum vitae or CV is a written overview of a person's experience and other qualifications.
In some countries, CV is the first document that you send to a potential employer often followed by an
interview.
What the CV should contain:

How to write a good CV: