Power System Switchgear and Protection( EET- 301)

Reference Books Authors

Principle of Power System V.K. Mehta

Power System Protection and Switchgear B. Rabindranath and M. Chandra

Switchgear and Protection Sunil S. Rao

Electrical Power Soni Gupta and Bhatnagar

Electrical Power System C. L. Wadhawa

Protective Relaying in Electric Power Systems M. Titarenko and I. Noskov-Dukelsky

The Art and Science of Protective Relaying Crussel Mason

Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram

1. Protective Relays Preliminaries

1.1. Introduction
1.1.1. Need of protection system
1.1.2. Nature
1.1.3. Types of faults
1.1.4. Effect of faults and faults statistics
1.2. Functions characteristic of relays
1.3. Role of protections
1.4. Types of protections
1.4.1. Primary
1.4.2. Secondary
1.5. Characteristic of relays
1.6. Over current relays
1.7. Electromagnetic relays

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INTRODUCTION Chapter-1
1.1 Need for Protective Systems

An electrical power system consists of generators, transformer, transmission and

distribution lines, etc. Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a
power system. The heavy currents associated with short circuits likely to cause damage to
equipments if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are not provided for the
protection of each section of the power system.
If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is
needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of
the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If
a short circuit persists on a system, for a longer period, it may cause damage to some
important sections of the system. A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire. It may
spread in the system and damage a part of it. The system voltage may reduce to a low
level and individual generators in a power station or groups of generators in different
power station may loose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuits may cause
the total failure of the system.
A protective scheme includes circuit breaker and protective relays to isolate the faulty
section of the system from the healthy sections. A circuit breaker can disconnect the faulty
element of the system when it is called upon to do so by the protective relay. The function
of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault and issue a command to the circuit
breaker to disconnect the faulty element of the system. It is a device which senses
abnormal conditions on a power system by constantly monitoring electrical quantities of
the system, which differ under normal and abnormal condition. The basic electrical
quantities which are likely to change during abnormal conditions are current, voltage,
phase-angle and frequency. Protective relays utilize on or more of these quantities to
detect abnormal conditions on a power system.
Protection is needed not only against short circuit but also against any other abnormal
conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other abnormal
conditions are over speed of generators and motors, over-voltage, under-frequency, loss of
excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator, etc. Protective relays are also
provided to detect such abnormal conditions and issue alarm signals to alert operators or
trip circuit breaker.
A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault, rather it
takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to this is the Buchholz
relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of some internal faults in
power transformers

1.2 Nature and Causes of Faults

Faults are causes either by insulation failure or by conducting path failure. The failure
of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may damage some
equipments of the power system. Most of the faults on the transmission and distribution
line are caused by over-voltages due to lighting or switching surges, or by external
conducting object falling on overhead lines. Overvoltage due to lighting or switching

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surges cause flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits. Sometimes,
insulators get punctured or break. Sometimes, certain foreign particles such as fine
cement dust or soot in industrial areas or salt in coastal areas or any dirt, in general,
accumulates on the surface of string and pin insulators. These reduce their insulation
strength and causes flashovers. Short circuit is also caused by tree branches or other
conducting object falling on the overhead lines.
Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch on of the phases and
earth wire (or the metallic support structure which is at earth potential). If the conductors
are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path and the conductor becomes open-
circuited. If the broken conductor falls to the ground, it results in a short circuit. Joint
failure on the cable or overhead lines are also a cause of failure of the conducting path. The
opening of one or two of the three phases makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced
currents flowing in the rotating machines set up harmonics, thereby, heating the machines
in the short periods of time. Therefore, unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the
normal operation of a power system. Other causes of faults on overhead lines are direct
lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes, ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms,
earthquakes, creepers etc. In the case of cables, transformer, generators and other
equipment, the causes of faults are: failure of the solid insulation due to aging, heat,
moisture or overvoltage, mechanical damage, accidental contact with earth or earthed
screens, flashover due to over-voltages, etc.
Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation, testing
or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices, etc. Certain faults
occur due to the poor quality of system components or because of a faulty system design.
Hence the occurrence of such faults can be reduced by improving the system design, by
using components and materials of good quality and by better operation and maintenance.
1.3 Types of Faults
Two broad classifications of faults are:
(i) Symmetrical faults (ii) Unsymmetrical faults

1.3.1 Symmetrical Faults ·

A three-phase fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a three-phase fault, all the·
three phases are short circuited (Fig 1.1). There may be two situations-all the three phases
may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-circuited without involving the
ground. A three-phase short circuit is generally treated as a standard fault to determine
the system fault level.

Fig. 1.1
1.3.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase to phase short circuit; ingle phase
open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of faults.

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(a) Single Phase to Ground (L-G) Fault
A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a single
phase to ground fault as shown in Fig.1.2. It may be due to the failure of the insulation
between a phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor breaking and falling
to the ground.

Fig. 1.2
(b) Two-Phase To Ground (2L-G) Fault
A short circuit between any two phases and the earth (Fig. 1.3) is called a double line to
ground fault or two-phase to ground fault.

Fig. 1.3
(c) Phase To Phase (L-L) Faults
A short circuit between two-phase is called a line to line or phase to phase fault as
shown in Fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4
(d) Open Circuited Phases
This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when
one or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the overhead line fails.
Such situations may also arise when circuit breaker or isolators open but fail to close one
or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced currents flow in the
system, thereby heating rotating machines. Protective schemes must be provided to deal
with such abnormal situations.
(e) Winding Faults
All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and transformer
windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type of fault, namely the
short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings.

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1.3.3 Simultaneous Faults
Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or
simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may occur
at the same or different points of the system. An example of two different types of faults
occurring at the same point is a single line to ground fault on one phase and breaking of
the conductor of another phase, both simultaneously present at the same point. The
simultaneous presence of an L-G fault at one point and a second L-G fault on another phase
at some other point is an example of two faults of the same type at two different points. If
these two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they are treated as a double line to
ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, it is known as a cross-country earth
fault. Cross-country faults are common on systems grounded through high impedance or
Peterson coil but they are on solidly grounded systems.

1.4 Effect of Faults

The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following effect on
a power system, if it remains uncleared.
(a) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other
elements of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set up to
heavy current.
(b) Arcs associated with short circuit may cause fire hazards. Such fires, resulting
arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also a possibility of
the spreading to other parts of the system if the fault is not-isolated quickly.
(c) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting in
the loss of industrial loads.
(d) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents, thereby
heating the rotating machines.
(e) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power station
may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the system. Loss of
stability of interconnected systems may also result. Subsystems may maintain
supply for their individual zones but load shedding would have to be resorted in
the sub-system which was receiving power from the other subsystems before the
occurrence of the fault.
(f) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers, thereby
causing a loss of revenue.
High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements of a
power system to minimize the effects of faults and other abnormalities.

1.5 Fault Statistics

For the design and application of a protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of
the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of a power system. Usually the
power stations are situated far away from the load centers, resulting in hundreds of
kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to atmospheric conditions. The
chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of external objects on the lines,
flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc., are greater for overhead lines
than for other parts of the power system. Table 1.1 gives an approximate idea of the fault
statistics.
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TABLE 1.1 Percentage Distribution Of Faults In Various Elements Of A Power System
Element % of Total Faults
Overhead lines 50
Underground cables 9
Transformers 10
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, PTs, Relays control
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equipment, etc.

From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total fault on overhead lines. Hence it is
overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing protective
schemes for a power system.
Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different type (mainly the different
types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident that the frequency of
line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault, and hence the protection
against L-G fault requires greater attention in planning and design of protective schemes
for overhead lines.
TABLE 1.2 Frequency Of Occurrence Of Different Types Of Faults On Overhead Lines
Types of faults Fault symbol % of total faults
Line to Ground L-G 85
Line to Line L-L 8
Double Line to Ground 2L-G 5
Three-Phase 3-ϕ 2

In the case of cable 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junction. Cable
faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures are not
recommended for cables.

1.6 Protective Relays Basics

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiate the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective elements from the rest of the system.
The relay detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuit by constantly
measuring the electrical quantity which are different under normal and fault conditions.
The electrical quantity which makes change under fault condition are voltage, current,
frequency and phase angle. Through the change in one or more of these quantities, the
fault signals, their presence type and location to the protective relays. Having detected the
fault and the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the
opening of the breaker and disconnection of faulty circuit.

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Fig.1.5
A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig.1.5. This diagram shows one phase of three phase
system for simplicity. The relay circuit connection can be divided into three parts, viz.
(a) First part is the primary winding of current transformer CT, which is connected in
series with the line to be protected.
(b) Second part consists of secondary winding of CT and the relay operating coil.
(c) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either AC or DC. It consists of a
source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary
contacts.
When a short circuit occur at a point on the transmission line, the current flowing in the
line increased to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through the relay
coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit
of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the
rest of the system. In this way, the relay ensure the safety of circuit equipment from
damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the system.
The basic function/principle of the relay can be understand in block diagram form also
(Fig.1.6). All the relays had three essential fundamental elements, as illustrated in figure.

Fig.1.6
• Sensing element sometime also called the measuring element respond to the
change in the actuating quantity, the current in the protected system in case of
overcurrent relay.
• Comparing elements have to compare the action of actuating quantity on the relay
with a preselected relay setting.

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• Control element on a pickup of the relay accomplishes a sudden change in the
control quantities such as closing of the operative current circuit.

1.7 Fundamental Requirements (Functional Characteristics) Of Protective

Relaying

The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal from
service of any element of the power system when it starts to operate in any abnormal
manner or interfere with the effective operation of rest of the system. In order that
protective relay system may perform this condition satisfactorily, it should have the
following qualities:
(a) Selectivity
(b) Speed
(c) Sensitivity
(d) Reliability
(e) Simplicity
(f) Economy.

(a) Selectivity: It is the ability of protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
It is the basic requirement of the relay in which it should be possible to select which
part of the system is faulty and which is not and should isolate the faulty part of the
system from healthy one. Selectivity achieved in two ways:
(i) Unit system of protection and
(ii) Non unit system of protection.
(i) Unit system of protection means the one in which the protection responds only to
faults within its own zone and does not make note of the condition elsewhere, e.g.,
that is the differential protection of transformers and generators. Here the
protection scheme will work only if the fault is in the transformer or the generator
respectively.
(ii) Non unit system protection is one in which the selectivity is obtained by grading
the time or current setting of the relay at different location, all of which may
respond to a given fault.

(b) Speed
A protective relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which
may result in damage to the equipment, nor should it be too fast which may result in
undesired operation during transient faults.
The shorter the time of which a fault is allowed to persist on the system, the more load
can be transferred between given points on the power system without loss of
synchronism. Fig.1.7 shows the curve which represent the power that can be transmitted
as a function of fault clearing time for various types of faults.
It can be seen from the curve that the severest fault is the three-phase fault and the
least severe is L-G fault in terms of transmission of power.

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Fig.1.7: Power Transmitted during various faults on a system as function of rely
plus breaker time.
The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the following
reasons:
(i) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault current for
a long time.
(ii) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If the faulty
section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault may
shut-down consumers’ motors and generators on the system may become unstable.
(iii) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type
of fault into the other more severe type.
(c) Sensitivity: It is the ability of relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity.
Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-ampere input to the coil of the relay
necessary to cause it operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause
relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus a 1 VA relay is more sensitive
than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that the relay system should be sensitive so that it
operate with low value of volt-ampere input.
(d) Reliability: The relay should be reliable is a basic requirement. It must be operated
when it is required. There are various components which go into operation before a
relay operates. Therefore, every components and circuit which is involved in the
operation of the relay plays an important role; for example, lack of suitable current
and voltage transformers may result in a unreliable operation.
Since the protection relay remains idle most of the time on the power system, proper
maintenance will play a vital role in improving the reliable operation of the relay.
Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on the long experience. This can be
achieved partly (i) simplicity and robustness in construction (ii) high contact pressure
(iii)dust free enclosures (iv) good contact material (v) good workmanship, and (vi)
careful maintenance.
(e) Simplicity: The Relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the
greater will be its reliability.
(f) Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is
the economic aspect. Sometimes it is the economically unjustified to use an ideal
scheme of protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the
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protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost. However, when the
apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (i.e. generator, main transmission
line, etc.) economic considerations are often subordinated to the reliability.

1.8 Classification of Relays

Protective relays may be classified
I. According to construction and principle of operation
II. According to their applications
III. According to their timing characteristics
IV. Based upon numbers of input

(I) According To Construction And Principle Of Operation

According to construction and principle of operation relay may be classified as:
(i) Electromagnetic Attraction Type
• Attracted Armature Type: In this type of relay, the operation depend upon
movement of an armature under the influence of attractive force due to
magnetic field set up by current flowing through the relay winding.
• Solenoid Type: This type of relay operation depends on the moment on iron
plunger core along the axis of solenoid.
(ii) Electromagnetic Induction Type: In this type of relay, the operation depends on
the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder free to rotate by the interaction of
induced eddy current and the alternating magnetic field producing them.
(iii)Electro-Dynamic Type: In this type of relay, the moving member consist of a coil
free to rotate in the electromagnetic field.
(iv) Moving Coil Type: This type of relay moving member consists of a coil free to rotate
in the air gap of a permanent magnet.
(v) Thermal relay: In this type of relay, the movement depends upon the action of heat
produced by the current flowing through the elements of the relay.

(II) According to application of the relay may be classified as:

(i) Overvoltage/Overcurrent/Over Power Relay: The relay operates where the

voltage or current or power rises above the specified value.
(ii) Under Voltage/Undercurrent/Under Power Relay: The relay operates when
the voltage or current or power fall below the specified value.
(iii) Directional or Reverse Current Relay: The relay operates when applied current
assumes a specified phase displacement with respect to the applied voltage and
the relay is compensated for fall in voltage.
(iv) Directional or Reverse Power Relay: This type of relay operates when the
power in the circuit flows in specific direction. A directional power relay is so
designed that it obtained its operating torque by interaction of magnetic field
derived from both voltage and current of the circuit to be protected.
(v) Differential Relay: The relay operates when some specified phase or magnitude
difference between two or more electrical quantities occurs.
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(vi) Distance Relay: In this relay, the operation depends upon the ratio of voltage to
the current flowing in the circuit to be protected.
(III) According to the time characteristic, the relay can be divided
into the following classes:
(i) Instantaneous Relay: In this relay, the complete operation take place after a very
short (negligible) duration for the incidence current or other quantity resulting in
operation.
(ii) Definite Time Lag Relay: In this relay, the time of operation is sensibly independent
of the magnitude of the current or other quantity causing operation.
(iii) Inverse Time Lag Relay: In these relays the time of operation is approximately
inversely proportional to the magnitude of current or other quantity causing
operation.
(iv) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (I.D.M.T.) Lag Relay: In this relay, the time of
operation is approximately inversely proportional to the smaller value of current or
other quantity causing operation and tends to be definite minimum time as the value
increases without limit.
In induction type of relay, the time lag may be achieved by employing a permanent
magnet which is so arrange that the relay rotor cuts the flux between the poles of these
magnets such a magnet is called as ‘drag’ magnet.

(IV) Based Upon Number of Inputs

(i) Single Input Relay (Level Detector): These relays have only one input signal
and are also known as level detector. Such relay continuously monitor one
electrical quantity and compare it with certain constant reference base
quantity. An example of this type of relay is an over current relay.
(ii) Two Input Relay (Comparator): These relays have two input signals also
known as comparator. Such relay measure one quantity and compare it with
another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are distance relay
and differential relay. These comparators are of two types amplitude
comparator and phase comparator.
(iii) Multi-Input Relay/Comparator: Multi input comparator has more than two
input signals and are used for the realization of special characteristics other
than straight line or circles. These comparators are also of two types i.e. multi
input phase comparator and multi input amplitude comparator.

1.9 Types of Protection

When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system; it must be cleared quickly in
order to avoid damage and/or interference with the rest of the system. It is a usual
practice to divide the protection scheme into two classes’ viz. Primary protection and
backup protection.
(a) Primary Protection: It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect the
component/ part of the power system. Referring to Fig.1.8, each line has an over-
current relay that protects the line. If fault occur on any line, it will be cleared by its
relay and circuit breaker. This forms the primary or main protection and serves as
first line of defense. The service record of primary relying is very high with well over
90% of all operations being correct. However, sometimes faults are not cleared by
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primary relay system because of trouble within the relay wiring system or breaker.
Under such conditions, backup protection does the required job.

Fig. 1.8
(b) Backup Protection: It is the second line of defense in case of failure of primary
protection. It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying
will be given enough time to function if it is able to do so. Thus referring to Fig.1.8,
relay ‘A’ provides backup protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is not
cleared by its relay and breaker, the relay ‘A’ on the group breaker will operate after a
time delay and clear the entire group of lines. It is evident that when backup relaying
functions, the larger part is disconnected than when primary relaying functions
correctly. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better maintenance of
primary relaying. Time graded schemes such as over current or distance protection
schemes are the examples of those providing inherent backup protection.
The backup protection is further classified as following three types
(a) Remote Backup Protection: When a backup relay is located at a neighboring station,
they back up the entire primary protective scheme which includes the relay circuit
breaker, potential transformer, current transformer and other elements as in case of
primary protective scheme. It is widely used backup protection for transmission lines
and a cheapest and the simplest form of backup protection. It will not fail due to the
factors causing the failure of primary protection, this is most desirable form of
protection.
(b) Relay Backup Protection: This is a local backup. Backup protection is provided by
placing an additional relay. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails
and its operation takes place without delay. This is very costly, so it is placed where a
remote backup is not possible. They should be supplied from separate current and
potential transformer.
(c) Breaker Backup Protection: This is also a local backup protection. This is necessary
for a bus bar system where a number of circuit breakers are connected to it. A circuit
breaker fails to trip, when a protective relay operates in response to a fault, this fault
is treated as bus bar fault. If the proper breaker does not trip within a specified time
then after a time delay, the main relay closes the contact a backup relay which trips all
other circuit breakers on the bus.

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2 Protective Relays
In this chapter we will discuss different types of protective relays.

2.1 Overcurrent Relays

The Operation of all overcurrent relays tends to become asymptotic to a definite minimum
value with increase in the value of current. This is inherent in electromagnetic relay due to
saturation of magnetic circuit, so by varying the point of saturation different
characteristics are obtained.

2.1.1 Classification of Overcurrent Relay

Depending upon the time of operation, the relays are classified as:
(I) Instantaneous overcurrent relay
(II) Time overcurrent relay
(a) Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
(b) Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(i) Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T.) Relay
(ii) Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(iii) Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(I) Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay: This relay operates without intentional time
delay. It has a special advantage of reducing the time of operation to a minimum for
fault close to the source when the fault current is very high. The operating time is
approximately 10 mS. The construction of instantaneous relay is usually moving
armature, plunger or induction disc (Fig.2.1). This relay is effective only when the
impedance between the relay and source (ZS) is very small as compared to protective
section impedance (ZL).

Fig.2.1
An important characteristic of an instantaneous relay is drop out ratio.

Dropout Current
Dropout Ratio =
Pickup Current

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Dropout ratio is usually less than 1.
(II) Time Overcurrent Relay: This relay operates with a time delay. The time delay is
adjustable for a given setting, actual time delay depends on the current flowing
through the relay coil. In general, higher current flow will cause a faster operation of
relay. The minimum current at which the relay operates (pickup current) is also
adjustable. Time overcurrent relay can be classified as:
(a) Definite Time Overcurrent Relay: It operates after a pre calculated time when
current become higher than its pick value. Fig.2.2 shows the definite time
characteristics of overcurrent relay. As shown in Fig,2.2, the operating time is
constant above the pickup value irrespective of magnitude of current.
(b) Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: It operates when current exceeds its pick up
value. This relay has inverse time characteristics in which fault current increases
with decrement in operating time. When saturation occurs at a very early stage than
time of operation remain same. Fig.2.2 shows the inverse time current
characteristics of inverse time overcurrent relay. They are more inverse near the
pick-up value of actuating quantity and less inverse as it is increased. They may be
classified as:
(i) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent Relay: In I.D.M.T. relay the
operating time is inversely proportional to the fault current near its pickup value and
constant about a pickup value of relay. This relay gives an inverse time
characteristics at lower values of fault currents and definite time characteristic at its
higher value of fault currents.
This type of relay is used for protection of distribution line and provision for current and
time settings.

Fig. 2.2: Characteristic of various over current relays.

(ii) Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: In this relay, the saturation of the core
occurs at later stage. It gives more inverse characteristics lies between an I.D.M.T.
characteristics and extremely inverse characteristics as shown in Fig.2.2.
It can be used where and I.D.M.T. relay failed due to better selectivity. Calculation of time
current characteristics is:
13.5
Standard Formula ⇒ t =
I -1

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K
General Expression ⇒ t = n
I -1
Where n = 1.02 to 2; K = Constant.
(iii) Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: In this relay, the saturation occurs
at a still later stage. This characteristic is more inverse than that of very inverse and
I.D.M.T. relay as shown in Fig.2.2. Where I.D.M.T. and vary inversely relays are fails,
the extremely relays are employed. Its time-current characteristics is described by
I2 t=K
Where, I= operating current and t=operating time.
This relay is very suitable for machine's protection against overheating and protection of
alternator against overloads and internal faults. An extremely inverse relay is able to
distinguish between a fault current and inrush current due to its steep time current
characteristics. So that this relay is suitable for load restoration purpose.

2.2 Electromagnetic Relays

Most of the relays in service on the electric power system today are of
electromechanical type. They work on the following two main operating principle. (Based
on the principle of operation),these can be further classified into two groups:
(i) Electromagnetic attraction type relay
(ii) Electromagnetic induction type relay

2.2.1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relay

These operate by virtue of an armature attracted to the poles of an electromagnetic or
a plunger being drawn into a solenoid such relay may be actuated by DC or AC quantities.
Operating Principle: The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving elements is
proportional to square of the flux in air gap if saturation is neglected. It is proportional to
square of operating current, we get

Net force = K1I 2 - K 2

K1 = constant
I = operating current
K 2 = retaining torque
Whenrelay is on the verge of operation
F=0
K1I 2 = K 2
Hence,
K2
I=
K1

The important type of electromagnetic attraction type relays are:

(a) Attracted armature type relay
(b) Balance beam type relay
(c) Solenoid type relay

(a) Attraction Armature Type Relay

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Attraction armature type relay are simplest type of relays. These relays have a coil or an
electromagnet energized by a coil. The coil is energized to circuit current or voltage. A
plunger or rotating iron vane is subjected to the action of magnetic field produced by the
operating quantity. It is basically a single actuating quantity relay.

Fig,2.3
Fig.2.3 shows the schematic arrangement of an attraction armature type relay. It
consists of a laminated electromagnet 'M' carrying a coil 'C' and armature 'D' with spring
'S'. The armature is balanced by a spring. When a short circuit occurs, the current through
the relay coil increased sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted toward the
electromagnet which closes the trip circuit of circuit breaker.

(b) Balance Beam Type Relay

Fig.2.4 shows the schematic arrangement of balance beam type relay. It consists of an
iron armature fastened to balance beam. Under normal operating conditions, the current
flows through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in the horizontal position.
However, when a fault occurs, the current through the relay coil become greater than
pickup value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of
circuit breaker to the isolate the faulty circuit.

Fig.2.4

(c) Solenoid Type Relay

Fig.2.5 shows a schematic arrangement of a solenoid type relay. It consists of a solenoid
and movable iron plungers. Under normal operating conditions, the current through the
relay coil C is such that it hold the plunger by gravity or spring in the position shown.
However, on the occurrence of fault, the current through the relay coil becomes more than

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the pickup value causing the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid. The upward
movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and
disconnecting the faulty circuit.

Fig.2.5

2.2.2 Electromagnetic Induction Relays

Electromagnetic induction relay operates on the principle of induction motor and are
widely used for protecting relaying purpose involving AC quantities. They are not used
with DC quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction relay essentially
consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in two magnetic fields of the same frequency
but displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in the disc by interaction of one of
the magnetic fields with the current induced in the disc by the other.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.6
To understand the production of torque in an induction relay refer to the elementary arrangement
shown in Fig.2.6. The two AC fluxes ɸA and ɸB differing in phase by an angle θ is responsible to induced
EMF in the disc and causes the circulation of eddy current i1 andi2 respectively. The current lags behind
their respective flux by 900.

Referring to Fig.2.6 where the two flux and induced current are shown separately for
clarity,
Let
φ A = φ1 sin ωt
=φB φ2 sin(ωt + θ )
where φB leads φ A by an angle θ

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Assuming that path in which the rotor currents flow has negligible self-inductance, the
rotor currents will be in phase with their voltages.
dφ A
i1 ∝ e1 ∝
dt
d (φ1 sin ωt ) dφ A
i.e. i1 ∝ { e ∝ ∝ i1
dt dt
∝ φ1 cos ωt
i2 ∝ e2
and
dφ
i2 ∝ B
dt
d (φ2 sin(ωt + θ ))
∝
dt
∝ φ2 cos(ωt + θ )

By interacting of φ A with i2 and φB with i1 , a driving torque is produced

F1 ∝ φ Ai2
F 2 ∝ φB i1
Figure shows that force are in opposition.
∴ Net force F at the ins tant consider ed is
F ∝ F2 − F1
∝ φB i1 − φ Ai2
∝ φ2 sin(ωt + θ )φ1 cos ωt − φ1 sin ωt.φ2 cos(ωt + θ )
∝ φ2φ1[sin(ωt + θ ) cos ωt − sin ωt cos(ωt + θ )]
∝ φ2φ1 sin(ωt + θ − ωt )
∝ φ2φ1 sin θ
Torque acting on the disc
T ∝ φ2φ1 sin θ
∝ AB sin θ A ∝ φ1 and B ∝ φ2
T = KAB sin θ
Thus, the induction relay is a sine comparative in which the maximum torque is
developed. When θ =90o or 270o, and zero when θ =00 or 180o.

2.2.2.1 Classification of Induction Relay

The following type of structure are commonly used for obtaining the phase difference in
the fluxes and hence the operating torque in the induction relays
(a) Shaded pole structure
(b) Watt hour meter double winding structure
(c) Induction cup structure

(a) Shaded Pole Structure

The relay consists an operating coil which is fed by actuating current. The general
arrangement of shaded pole structure is shown in Fig2.7. It consists of a pivoted
aluminum disc to rotate in the air gap of an electromagnetic. One half of each pole
of a magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring. The
alternating flux ɸS in the shaded portion of the pole will owing to the reaction of
current induced in the ring, lag behind the flux ɸU in the unshaded portion by an
angle θ, these two AC fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to
rotate the disc. As proved earlier, the driving torque T is given by T ∝ φS φU sin θ .

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Assuming the flux ɸS and ɸU to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil,
T ∝ I 2 sin θ
This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in the relay
coil.. Such torque control is employed where directional feature is required

Fig.2.7
(b) Watt Hour Meter Structure
This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used in watt hour meter. The general
arrangement of this type of relay is shown in figure 2.8. It consists of a pivoted aluminum
disc arrangement to rotate freely between the poles of two electromagnet. The upper
electromagnet carries two windings; the primary and secondary. The primary winding
carries the relay current i1 while the secondary winding is connected in series with load of
the lower magnet. The primary current induces EMF in the secondary and so circulates a
current i2 in it. The fluxɸ2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in secondary
winding of the upper magnet will lag behind ɸ1by an angle θ. The two fluxesɸ1 andɸ2
differing in phase by θ will produced a driving torque on the disc proportional to ɸ1ɸ2sinθ.

Fig.2.8
An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be controlled by
opening or closing the secondary winding circuit. If this circuit is opened no flux can be set
up by the lower magnet. However, greater value of current in the primary winding may be
and consequently not torque will be produced. Therefore, the relay can be made
inoperative by opening the secondary winding circuit.
Closing of contacts carried on arm attached to the spindle which clears the trip circuit
of circuit breaker.

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(c) Induction Cup Structure Relay
Fig.2.9 shows the general arrangement of an induction Cup structure. It most closely
resembles to an induction motor except that the rotor iron is stationary only the rotor
conductor position free to rotate. The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which
turns on its Axis. The rotating field is produced by two pairs of coils wound on four poles
as shown in Fig.2.9. The rotating field induces current in the cup to provide the necessary
driving torque. If ɸ1 and ɸ2 represents the fluxes produced by the respective pair of poles.
The torque produced is proportional to ɸ1ɸ2Sinθ, where θ is phase difference between
two fluxes. A control spring and back stop or closing of the contact carried on an arm are
attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.

Fig.2.9
Induction Cup structure are more efficient torque producer than either the shaded pole
or watt hour meter structure. Therefore, this type of relay has very high speed and may
have an operating time less than 0.1 second. the ratio of reset to pickup is inherently high
in case of induction relays as compared to electromagnetic( attraction type) relays as their
operation does not involve any change in air gap of the magnetic circuit.

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