Unit 1

Solutions of Complex Variable

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers and is written as
z = x + iy, where i = 1 .
The real numbers x and y are called the real and imaginary parts of z.
In the Argand’s diagram, the complex number z is represented by the point P(x, y).
If (r, ) are the polar coordinates of P,
then r = x 2  y 2 is called the modulus of z
y
and is denoted by | z |. Also  = tan–1 is called the
x
argument of z and is denoted by arg. z. Every non-zero complex
number z can be expressed as
z = r (cos  + i sin ) = rei
If z = x + iy, then the complex number x – iy is called the
conjugate of the complex number z and is denoted by z .
Clearly, | z | = | z |,| z |2 = z z ,
zz zz
and Re(z) = , Im(z) = .
2 2i

1.2. DEFINITIONS
Let S be a non-empty set of complex numbers and  be a positive real number.
1. Circle. |z – a| = r represents a circle C with centre at the point a and radius r.
2. Open disk. The set of points which satisfies the equation |z – z0| <  defines an open disk
of radius  with centre at z0 = (x0, y0). This set consists of all points which lie inside
circle C.
3. Closed disk. The set of points which satisfies the equation |z – z0|   defines a closed
disk of radius  with centre at z0 = (x0, y0). This set consists of all points which lie inside
and on the boundary of circle C.
4. Annulus. The set of points which lie between two concentric circles C1 : |z – a| = r1 and
C2 : |z – a| = r2 defines an open annulus i.e., the set of points which satisfies the inequality
r1 < |z – a| < r2.
2 MATHEMATICS III

The set of points which satisfies the inequality r1  |z – a|  r2 defines a closed annulus.
It is to be noted that r1  |z – a| < r2 is neither open nor closed.
5. Neighbourhood. -Neighbourhood of a point z0 is the set of all points z for which
|z – z0| <  where  is a positive constant. If we exclude the point z0 from the open disk
|z – z0| <  then it is called the deleted neighbourhood of the point z0 and is written as
0 < |z – z0| < .
6. Interior and exterior points. A point z is an interior point of S if all the points in some
-neighbourhood of z are in S and an exterior point of S if they are outside S.
7. Boundary point. A point z is a boundary point of S if every -neighbourhood of z
contains at least one point of S and at least one point not in S. For example, the points on
the circle |z – z0| = r are the boundary points for the disk |z – z0|  r.
8. Open and closed sets. A set S is open if every point of S is an interior point while a set
S is closed if every boundary point of S belongs to S. e.g. S = {z : |z – z0| < r} is open set
while S = {z : |z – z0|  r} is closed set.
9. Bounded set. An open set S is bounded if  a positive real number M such that
| z | M for all z S otherwise unbounded.
For example : the set S = {z : |z – z 0| < r} is a bounded set while the set
S = {z : |z – z0| > r} is an unbounded set.
10. Connected set. An open set S is connected if any two points z1 and z2 belonging to S can
be joined by a polygonal line which is totally contained in S.
11. Domain. An open connected set is called a domain denoted by D.
12. Region. A region is a domain together with all, some or none of its boundary points.
Thus a domain is always a region but a region may or may not be a domain.
13. Finite complex plane. The complex plane without the point z =  is called the finite
complex plane.
14. Extended complex plane. The complex plane to which the point z =  has been added
is called the extended complex plane.
1.3. FUNCTION OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
If x and y are real variables, then z = x + iy is called a complex variable. If corresponding to
each value of a complex variable z(= x + iy) in a given region R, there correspond one or
more values of another complex variable w (= u + iv), then w is called a function of the
complex variable z and is denoted by
w = f(z) = u + iv
For example, if w = z2 where z = x + iy and w = f(z) = u + iv
then u + iv = (x + iy)2 = (x2 – y2) + i(2xy)
 u = x2 – y2 and v = 2xy
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 3

Thus u and v, the real and imaginary parts of w, are functions of the real variables x and y.
 w = f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
If to each value of z, there corresponds one and only one value of w, then w is called a
single-valued function of z. If to each value of z, there correspond more than one values of
w, then w is called a multi-valued function of z. For example, w = z is a multi-valued
function.
To represent w = f(z) graphically, we take two Argand diagrams : one to represent the
point z and the other to represent w. The former diagram is called the XOY-plane or the
z-plane and the latter UOV-plane or the w-plane.
1.4. LIMIT OF f(z)
A function f(z) tends to the limit l as z tends to z0 along any path, if to each positive arbitrary
number , however small, there corresponds a positive number , such that
| f(z) – l | <  whenever 0 < | z– z0 | < 
and we write Lt f(z) = l, where l is finite
z  z0

Note. In real variables, x x0 implies that x approaches x0 along the number line, either from
left or from right. In complex variables, z  z0 implies that z approaches z0 along any path,
straight or curved, since the two points representing z and z0 in a complex plane can be joined
by an infinite number of curves.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: Find the limit of f(z) = z 2 + 4 at z = 3.

Solution: Lt f ( z )  Lt z 2  4
z 3 z 3

= ( 32 ) + 4 = 9 + 4 = 13
z
Example 2: Find limit of the function f ( z )  at z = 0
z
z
Solution: Given f ( z ) 
z

x  iy
 f ( z) 
x  iy
z 0 implies (x, y) (0, 0)
i) Suppose z 0 along x -axis. Then y=0, z=x and z = x and –z = x
4 MATHEMATICS III

z x
Lt  Lt  1
z 0 z z 0 x
ii) Suppose z  0 along y -axis. Then x = 0, z = iy and –z = –iy
z   iy 
Lt  Lt    1
z0 z iy 0 iy 

z
Lt does not exist.
z0 z

z 2  3iz  2
Example 3: Find limit of f (z ) = at z = –i
zi

z 2  3iz  2
Solution: Given f (z ) = , we have z = x+iy.
zi
z  i  x  0, y  1
(Now along x  0 and then y  1 )
2

Lt  f ( z )  Lt
 x  iy   3i(3  iy )  2
z  i x0
y 1
( x  iy )  i

 Lt
 iy  2  3i(iy )  2
y 1 iy  i

 y2  3 y  2
 Lt
y 1 i( y  i)

  y  1 y  2
 Lt
y 1 ( y  1)i

 ( y  2) 1
 Lt  i
y 1 i i

also along y  -1 and then x  0 .

( x  iy ) 2  3i( x  iy )  2
Lt f ( z )  Lt
z  i y  -1
x 0
x  iy  i
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 5

( x  i) 2  3i ( x  i )  2  0
 Lt   for n
0

x 0 x ii

2( x  i )  3i
 Lt  2i  3i  i
x0 1
 Lt f ( z )  i.
z  i

1.5. CONTINUITY OF f(z)

A single-valued function f(z) is said to be continuous at a point z = z0 if f(z0) exists,
lim f(z) exists and Lt f(z) = f(z0).
z  z0 z  z0
A function f(z) is said to be continuous in a region R of the z-plane if it is continuous at
every point of the region. A function f(z) which is not continuous at z0 is said to be discontinuous
at z0.
If the function f(z) = u + iv is continuous at z0 = x0 + iy0 then the real functions u and v
are also continuous at the point (x0, y0). Therefore, we can discuss the continuity of a complex
valued function by studying the continuity of its real and imaginary parts. If f(z) and g(z) are
f ( z)
continuous at a point z0 then the functions f(z)  g(z), f(z) g(z) and , where g(z0)  0 are
g( z)
also continuous at z0.
If f(z) is continuous in a closed region S then it is bounded in S i.e., |f(z)|  M  z  S.
1
Also, the function f(z) is continuous at z =  if the function f   is continuous at  = 0
 

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: f (z) = xy3+i(3x–2y) is continous for all z.

Solution: Given f (z ) = xy 3 + i (3x–2y),
we have f (z) = u + iv comparing on bothsides u(x, y) = xy3, v(x,y) = 3x–2y.
Since u(x,y) and v (x,y) both are continuous

 f ( z ) is also continuous every where.

6 MATHEMATICS III

 z 2  2i
 2 z  1 i
Example 2: Verify the continty of f ( z )   z  2 z  2
6 z  1 i

Now
z 2  2i
Solution: We have f ( z ) 
z2  2z  2

Lt
z 2  2i
 Lt
 z  1  i  z  1  i 
Now z 1 i
 2

z  2 z  2 z 1 i ( z  1  i)( z  1  i )

 Lt
 z  1  i
z 1 i ( z  1  i)


1  i   1  i 
2  2i
 1-i
(1  i )  1  i 2i

but f (1+i )  1-i  f(z) is not continuous at 1+i

z
Example 3: Verify f ( z )  is continuous at z = 0
z

z
Solution: Limit f ( z )  is does not exist at z = 0
z
 f(z) is not continous at z = 0.
Example 4: Show that f ( z )  z is continous at z0
Solution: Given f ( z )  z
Now f ( z )  f ( z0 )  z  z 0
For given   0 choose    , we get

f ( z )  f ( z0 )   for z  z0    

i.e., whenever z  z 0   there exist f ( z )  f ( z0 ) 

 f(z) is continuous at z = z0
2
Example 5: Discuss the continuty of f ( z )  z  4 at z  2i
z  2i
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 7

Solution: By defination we have to prove for  0 there exists a d>0

Such that f ( z )  f (2i)   for z  2i  

z2  4 z  2i z  2i   Lt ( z  2i)  f (2i)  4i

Now z Lt
 2i
f ( z )  Lt
z  2i
 Lt
z  2i z 2i ( z  2i ) z  2i

Let f ( z )  f (2i)  

z2  4 ( z  2i)( z  2i )
  4i   4i  z  2i
z  2i ( z  2i)

Choose    z  2i   for f(z)-f (2i) 

 f (z ) is continous at z = 2i

1.6. DERIVATIVE OF f(z)

Let w = f(z) be a single-valued function of the variable z=(x + iy), then the derivative or
differential co-efficient of w = f(z) is defined as
dw f ( z  z)  f ( z)
 f  ( z)  Lt
dz z  0 z
provided the limit exists, independent of the manner in which z  0.
Also we can define as f ' ( z ) at z = z0
f ( z)  f ( z0 )
f ' ( z )  Lt
z  z0 z  z0

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: Find derivative of f (z) = z 2 by using defination of derivative.

Solution: Then f (z) = z2.
f ( z  z )  f ( z )
f ( z )  Lt
z 0 z

( z  z ) 2  z 2
 Lt
z  0 z

z 2  2 z (z )  ( z ) 2  z 2
 Lt
z  0 z
 Lt 2 z  z  2 z.
z  0
8 MATHEMATICS III

1.7. ANALYTIC FUNCTION AT A POINT

A function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if it is one-valued and differentiable not only
at z0 but at every point of some neighbourhood of z0.

1.7. 1 ANALYTIC FUNCTION

A function f(z) is said to be analytic in a certain domain D if it is analytic at every point of D.
1
Note: A function f(z) is said to be analytic at z =  if the function f   is analytic at z = 0.
z

1.8. ENTIRE FUNCTION

A function f(z) which is analytic at every point of the finite complex plane is called an entire
function.
Ex : Since the derivative of a polynomial exists at every point, a polynomial of any
degree is an entire function. Rational functions are entire functions. e z ,sin z , cos z are also
entire function.
1.9. NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITIONS FOR f(z) TO BE ANALYTIC

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the function

w = f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
to be analytic in a region R, are
u u v v
(i) , , , are continuous functions of x and y in the region R.
x y x y

u v u v
(ii)  ,  .
x y y x

The conditions in (ii) are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations or briefly C-R

equations.
Proof. (a) Necessary Condition. Let w = f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic in a region
dw
R, then = f (z) exists uniquely at every point of that region.
dz

Let x and y be the increments in x and y respectively. Let u, v and z be the
corresponding increments in u, v and z respectively. Then,
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 9

f ( z  z)  f ( z) (u  u)  i(v  v)  (u  iv)

f (z) = Lt  Lt
z  0 z z  0 z

Lt  u v 
=  i  ...(1)
z  0  z z 
Since the function w = f(z) is analytic in the region R, the limit (1) must exist independent
of the manner in which z  0, i.e., along whichever path x and y  0.
First, let z  0 along a line parallel to x-axis so that y = 0 and z = x.
[since z = x + iy, z + z = (x + x) + i(y + y) and z = x + iy]

Lt u v  u v
 From (1), f ( z )   i   i ...(2)
x  0  x x  x x

Now, let z  0 along a line parallel to y-axis so that x = 0 and z = i y.

Lt  u v  1 u v
 From (1), f ( z )   i  
y  0  iy iy  i y y
v u 1
= y  i y ...(3)  i
i
u v v u
From (2) and (3), we have i  i
x x y y

u v u v
Equating the real and imaginary parts,  and  .
x y y x

Hence the necessary condition for f(z) to be analytic is that the C-R equations must be
satisfied.
(b) Sufficient Condition. Let f(z) = u + iv be a single-valued function possessing partial
derivatives u , u , v , v at each point of a region R and satisfying C-R equations.
x y x y

u v u v
i.e.,  and  .
x y y x

We shall show that f (z) is analytic, i.e., f (z) exists at every point of the region R.
10 MATHEMATICS III

By Taylor’s theorem for functions of two variables, we have, on omitting second and
higher degree terms of x and y.
f(z + z) = u(x + x, y + y) + iv(x + x, y + y)
  u v    u v 
 u ( x, y )   x  y   i v( x, y )   x  y 
  x y    x y  

 u v   u v 
 u ( x, y )  iv ( x, y )    i x    i y
 x x   y y 
 u v   u v 
 f ( z )    i x    i y
 x x   y y 
 u v   u v 
or f(z + z) – f(z) =   i x    i y
 x x   y y 
 u v   v u 
   i x     i y | Using C-R equations
 x x   x y 
 u v   u v 
   i x    i iy |  – 1 = i2
 x x   x x 
 u v   u v 
   i (x  iy )    i z |  x + iy = z
 x x   x x 
f ( z  z)  f ( z) u v
   i
z x x
f ( z  z)  f ( z) u v
 f (z) = Lt  i
z  0 z x x
u v
Thus f (z) exists, because , exist.
x x
Hence f(z) is analytic.
Note 1. The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are called conjugate functions.
Thus, if f(z) = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) is an analytic function, then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are conjugate
functions. The relation between two conjugate functions is given by C-R equations.
Note 2. When a function f(z) is known to be analytic, it can be differentiated in the ordinary
way as if z is a real variable.
Thus, f(z) = z2  f (z) = 2z
f(z) = sin z  f (z) = cos z etc.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 11

1.10. CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES

Let (r, ) be the polar coordinates of the point whose cartesian coordinates are (x, y), then
x = r cos , y = r sin ,
z = x + iy = r (cos  + i sin ) = rei
 u + iv = f(z) = f(rei) ...(1)
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. r, we have
u v
i = f  (reei) . ei ...(2)
r r
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. , we have

u v  u v 
i = f  (reei) . irei = ir   i  | Using (2)
   r r 
v u
=–r  ir
r r
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
u v v u
r and r
 r  r
u 1 v v 1 u
or  and  which is the polar form of C-R equations.
r r  r r 

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1. (i) Prove that the function sinh z is analytic and find its derivative.

(ii) Show that f(z) = log z is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at the

1
origin and that its derivative is   .
z
Solution: (i) Here f(z) = sinh z
u + iv = sinh (x + iy)
u + iv = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
 u = sinh x cos y and v = cosh x sin y
u u
= cosh x cos y, = – sinh x sin y
x y
12 MATHEMATICS III

v v
= sinh x sin y, y = cosh x cos y
x
u v u v
  and 
x y y x
Thus C-R equations are satisfied.
u u v v
Since sinh x, cosh x, sin y and cos y are continuous functions, , , and are
x y x y
also continuous functions satisfying C-R equations.
Hence f(z) is analytic everywhere.
u v
Now f (z) = i
x x
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
= cosh (x + iy) = cosh z.
(ii) Here f(z) = u + iv = log z = log (x + iy)
Let x = r cos  and y = r sin  so that
x + iy = r (cos  + i sin ) = rei
log (x + iy) = log (r ei) = log r + i
1  y
log (x2 + y2) + i tan–1  
=
2 x
Separating real and imaginary parts, we get
1  y
u= log (x2 + y2) and v = tan–1  
2 x
u x u y
Now, = 2 2
,  2
x x y y x  y 2

v y v x
and = 2 2
, 
x x y y x 2  y 2
We observe that the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u v u v
= y and y = –
x x
2 2
are satisfied except when x + y = 0 i.e., when x = 0, y = 0
Hence the function f(z) = log z is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at the
origin.
u v x  iy
Also, f (z) = +i =
x x x 2  y2
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 13

x  iy 1 1
=  
( x  iy)( x  iy) x  iy z

Example 1: Determine a, b, c, d such that (OU 2015)

f(z) = (x2 + axy + by2) + i(cx2 + dxy + y2) is analytic.
Solution: Here u = x2 + axy + by2, v = cx2 + dxy + y2, given f(z) is analytic.
Therefore C.R. equations must be satisfied.
u v
Now 
x y

 2x + ay = dx + 2y
 (2 – d)x + (a – 2)y = 0 ...(1)
u v
Again, 
y x
 ax + 2by = – 2cx – dy
 (a + 2c)x + (2b + d)y = 0 ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2) for a, b, c, d, we get
2 – d = 0, a – 2 = 0 | On equating the co-efficient of x, y in (1)
 d = 2, a = 2
Similarly from (2),
a + 2c = 0  c = – 1, 2b + d = 0  b = – 1.
1 px
Example 2: Determine p such that the function f(z) = log (x2 + y2) + i tan–1 y be
2
an analytic function.
Solution: Take x = r cos , y = r sin . Then
1
f(z) = log r2 + i tan–1 (p cot ) = u + iv, say,,
2
1
Here u= log r2 = log r and v = tan–1 (p cot ).
2
Now given f(z) is analytic therefore it must satisfy C.R. equations.
u 1 u
Here  , =0
r r 
14 MATHEMATICS III

v v 1
= 0,  (– p cosec2 )
r  1  p cot 2 
2

u 1 v
Now  | From C.R. equations
r r 

1 1 ( p cosec 2 )
   1 + p2 cot2  = – p cosec2 
r r 1  p2 cot 2 

 – 1 = p(p cot2  + cosec2 ). This equation is true if p = – 1.

Example 2: Find p such that the function f(z) expressed in polar coordinates as
f(z) = r2 cos 2 + ir2 sin p is analytic.
Solution: Let f(z) = u + iv, then u = r2 cos 2, v = r2 sin p
u v
= 2r cos 2, = 2r sin p
r r
u v
= – 2r2 sin 2, = pr2 cos p
 
u 1 v v 1 u
For f(z) to be analytic,  and 
r r  r r 
 2r cos 2 = pr cos p and 2r sin p = 2r sin 2
Both these equations are satisfied if p = 2.
Example 3: If n is real, show that rn (cos n + i sin n) is analytic except possibly when
r = 0 and that its derivative is
nrn–1 [cos (n – 1)  + i sin (n – 1) ].
Solution: Let w = f(z) = u + iv = rn (cos n + i sin n)
Here, u = rn cos n, v = rn sin n
u v
then, = nrn–1 cos n = nrn–1 sin n
r r
u v
= – nrn sin n = nrn cos n
 
u 1 v v 1 u
Thus, we see that,  and 
r r  r r 
 Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied. Also first order partial derivatives of u
and v are continuous everywhere.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 15

dw
Hence f (z) is analytic if f (z) or exists for all finite values of z.
dz
dw w
We have, = (cos  – i sin )
dz r
= (cos  – i sin ) . nrn–1 (cos n + i sin n)
= nrn–1 [cos (n – 1)  + i sin (n – 1) ]
This exists for all finite values of r including zero, except when r = 0 and n  1.
Example 4: Show that if f(z) is analytic and
(i) Re f(z) = constant

(ii) Im f(z) = constant then f(z) is a constant.

Solution: Since the function f(z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y) is analytic, it satisfies the Cauchy-
Riemann equations

u v u v
 and 
x y y x

(i) Re f(z) = constant, therefore u(x, y) = c1

u u
 =0= .
x y

Using C-R equations, v  0  v

x y

Hence v(x, y) = c2 = a real constant

Therefore f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = c1 + ic2 = a complex constant.
(ii) Im f(z) = constant. Therefore v(x, y) = c3

v v
 0
x y

u u
Using C-R equations, 0
y x

Hence u(x, y) = c4 = a real constant.

16 MATHEMATICS III

Therefore f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = c4 + ic3 = a complex constant.

Example 5. An analytic function with constant modulus is constant.
Solution: Let f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function with constant modulus. Then,
| f(z) | = | u + iv | = constant
 u 2  v2 = constant = c (say)
Squaring both sides, we get
u2 + v2 = c2 ...(1)
Differentiating eqn. (1) partially w.r.t. x, we get
u v
2u  2v =0
x x
u v
 u v =0 ...(2)
x x
Again, differentiating eqn. (1) partially w.r.t. y, we get
u v
2u  2v =0
y y
u v
 u v =0
y y

 v   u  u v v u
 u    v    0 ...(3)   and 
 x   x  y x y x
Squaring and adding eqns. (2) and (3), we get

2
 u  2  v  2 
2
(u  v )       0
 x   x  
2 2
 u   v 
     = 0 |  u2 + v2 = c2  0
 x   x 
u v
 | f (z) |2 = 0  f  ( z)  i
x x
 | f (z) | = 0
 f(z) is constant.

xy 2 (x  iy)
Example 6: Verify if f(z) = , z  0 ; f(0) = 0 is analytic or not?
x 2  y4
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 17

xy 2 ( x  iy)
Solution: u + iv = ;z0
x2  y4

x 2 y2 xy3
 u= 4 , v =
x2  y x 2  y4
u u( x, 0)  u(0, 0) 00
At the origin,  lim = lim =0
x x  0 x x 0 x
u u (0, y)  u (0, 0) 00
 lim = lim =0
y y 0 y y 0 y
v v( x, 0)  v(0, 0) 00
 lim = lim =0
x x 0 x x  0 x
v v(0, y)  v(0, 0) 00
 lim  lim =0
y y 0 y y 0 y

u v u v
Clearly,  and 
x y y x
Hence Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin.

f ( z )  f ( 0)  xy 2 ( x  iy )  1  xy 2 
But f ' (0)  lim  lim  2   lim  
z 0 z x0
y 0 
x  y 4  ( x  iy ) xy 0 x2  y 4
0  

Let z  0 along the real axis y = 0, then

f (0) = 0
Again let z  0 along the curve x = y2, then

x2 1
f (0) = lim 2 2

x 0 x x 2

which shows that f (0) does not exist. Hence f(z) is not analytic at origin although Cauchy-
Riemann equations are satisfied there.

Example 7: Show that the function defined by f(z) = | xy| is not regular at the origin,
although Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied.
Solution: Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = | xy| then u(x, y) = | xy|, v(x, y) = 0
At the origin (0, 0), we have
18 MATHEMATICS III

u u( x, 0)  u(0, 0) 00
 lim  lim =0
x x  0 x x  0 x
u u(0, y)  u(0, 0) 00
 lim  lim =0
y y  0 y y0 y
v v( x, 0)  v(0, 0) 00
 lim  lim =0
x x  0 x x0 x
v v(0, y)  v(0, 0) 00
 lim  lim =0
y y  0 y y0 y

u v u v
Clearly,  and 
x y y x
Hence Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z)  f (0) | xy|  0
Now f (0) = lim  lim
z0 z z0 x  iy
If z  0 along the line y = mx, we get

|mx 2 | |m|
f (0) = lim  lim
x0 x(1  im) x  0 1  im
Now this limit is not unique since it depends on m. Therefore, f (0) does not exist.
Hence the function f(z) is not regular at the origin.
Example 8: Prove that the function f(z) defined by
x 3 (1  i)  y 3 (1  i)
f(z) = , z  0 and f(0) = 0
x2  y2
is continuous and the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin, yet f (0) does
not exist.
( x 3  y3 )  i( x 3  y 3 )
Solution: Here, f(z) = ,z0
x2  y2

x 3  y3 x3  y3
Let f(z) = u + iv = i ,
x2  y2 x 2  y2

x 3  y3 x 3  y3
then u= ,v=
x 2  y2 x 2  y2
Since z  0  x  0, y  0
 u and v are rational functions of x and y with non-zero denominators. Thus, u, v
and hence f(z) are continuous functions when z  0. To test them for continuity at z = 0, on
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 19

changing u, v to polar co-ordinates by putting x = r cos , y = r sin , we get

u = r(cos3  – sin3 ) and v = r (cos3  + sin3 )
When z  0, r  0
 lim u  lim r (cos3  – sin3 ) = 0
z0 r0
Similarly, lim v=0
z0
   lim f(z) = 0 = f(0)
r0
 f(z) is continuous at z = 0.
Hence f(z) is continuous for all values of z.
At the origin (0, 0), we have
u u( x, 0)  u(0, 0) x0
 lim  lim =1
x x  0 x x  0 x
u u(0, y)  u(0, 0)  y0
 lim  lim =– 1
y y  0 y y0 y
v v( x, 0)  v(0, 0) x0
 lim  lim =1
x x  0 x x  0 x
v v(0, y)  v(0, 0) y0
 lim  lim =1
y y  0 y y0 y
u v u v
  and 
x y y x
Hence C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z)  f (0) ( x 3  y 3 )  i( x 3  y 3 )  0
Now f (0) = lim  lim
z0 z z0 ( x 2  y 2 )( x  iy)
Let z  0 along the line y = x, then
0  2ix 3 i i(1  i) 1  i
f (0) = lim 3
   ...(1)
x0 2 x (1  i) 1 i 2 2
Also, let z  0 along the x-axis (i.e., y = 0), then
x 3  ix 3
f (0) = lim =1+i ...(2)
x0 x3
Since the limits (1) and (2) are different, f (0) does not exist.
Example 9: (i) Examine the nature of the function
x 2 y 5 (x  iy)
f(z) = ; z  0 and f(0) = 0
x 4  y10
in the region including the origin.
x 3 y ( y  ix ) 
6 2
, z  0 f(z)  f(0)
(ii) If f ( z )  x  y  prove that  0 as z  0 along any
 z
0, z  0
radius vector but not as z  0 in any manner and also that f(z) is not analytic at z = 0.
20 MATHEMATICS III

x 2 y5 ( x  iy)
Solution: (i) Here, u + iv = ;z0
x 4  y10

x3 y5 x2 y6
 u= 10 , v =
x4  y x 4  y 10
u u( x, 0)  u(0, 0) 0 0
At the origin,  lim  lim =0
x x  0 x x0 x
u u(0, y)  u(0, 0) 0 0
 lim  lim =0
y y  0 y y0 y
v v
Similarly, =0=
x y
Hence Cauchy-Riemann eqns. are satisfied at the origin.
f ( z )  f ( 0)  x 2 y 5 ( x  iy )  1
But f (0)  lim  lim  4
x y 10
 0.
x 0 z x0
y 0   x  iy
x 2 y5
= xlim
0 x 4  y10
y0
Let z  0 along the radius vector y = mx, then
m5 x 7 m5 x 3
f (0) = xlim  lim =0
0 x 4  m 10 x 10 x0 1  m 10 x 6
Again let z  0 along the curve y5 = x2
x4 1
f (0) = xlim 4 4

2
0 x x
which shows that f (0) does not exist. Hence f(z) is not analytic at origin although Cauchy-
Riemann equations are satisfied there.
f ( z )  f (0)  x 3 y ( y  ix)  1
(ii)  6 2
 0.
z  x y  x  iy
 ix 3 y( x  iy) 1 x3 y
= . =–i
(x6  y2 ) x  iy x6  y2
Let z  0 along radius vector y = mx then,
f ( z)  f (0)  ix 3 (mx)  imx 2
lim  lim 6 = xlim =0
z0 z x  0 x  m2 x 2 0 x 4  m2
f ( z)  f (0)
Hence  0 as z  0 along any radius vector..
z
Now let z  0 along a curve y = x3 then,
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 21

f ( z)  f (0)  ix 3 . x 3  i
lim  lim 6 
z0 z x  0 x  x6 2
f ( z)  f (0)
Hence does not tend to zero as z  0 along the curve y = x3.
z
We observe that f (0) does not exist hence f(z) is not analytic at z = 0.

1.11. HARMONIC FUNCTION

A function of x, y which possesses continuous partial derivatives of the first and second
orders and satisfies Laplace’s equation is called a Harmonic function.
1.11.1. THEOREM
If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function then u and v are both harmonic functions.
Proof. Let f(z) = u + iv be analytic in some region of the z-plane, then u and v satisfy
C-R equations.
u v
  ...(1)
x y
u v
and  ...(2)
y x
Differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. x and (2) w.r.t. y, we get
 2u  2v
 ...(3)
x 2 xy
 2u  2v
and  ...(4)
y 2 yx

Assuming  2v  2 v and adding (3) and (4), we get


xy yx
 2u  2u
 =0 ...(5)
x 2 y 2

Now, differentiating (1) partially w.r.t. y and (2) w.r.t. x, we get

 2u  2v
 ...(6)
yx y 2
 2u  2v
and  2 ...(7)
xy x
 2u  2u
Assuming  and subtracting (7) from (6), we get
yx xy
 2 v  2v
 =0 ...(8)
x 2 y 2
Equations (5) and (8) show that the real and imaginary parts u and v of an analytic
function satisfy the Laplace’s equation.
22 MATHEMATICS III

Hence u and v are harmonic functions.

Note. Here u and v are called conjugate harmonic functions.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: Show that the function ex (cos y + i sin y) is holomorphic and find its
derivative.
Solution: f(z) = ex cos y + i ex sin y = u + iv
Here, u = ex cos y, v = ex sin y
u v
= ex cos y = ex sin y
x x
u v
= – ex sin y = ex cos y
y y

u v u v
Since,  and 
x y y x
hence, C-R equations are satisfied. Also first order partial derivatives of u and v are continuous
everywhere. Therefore f(z) is analytic.
u v
Now, f (z) = i = ex cos y + i ex sin y
x x
= ex (cos y + i sin y) = ex . eiy = ex+iy = ez

 y 
Example 2: Given that u(x, y) = x2 – y2 and v(x, y) = –  2 
2  .
x y 
Prove that both u and v are harmonic functions but u + iv is not an analytic function of z.

Solution: u = x2 – y2
u  2u
= 2x  =2
x x 2
u  2u
= – 2y  =–2
y y 2
 2u  2u
Since + =0 Hence u(x, y) is harmonic.
x 2 y 2
y
Also, v=
x  y2
2

v 2 xy  2v 2 y3  6 x 2 y
=  =
x (x2  y2 )2 x 2 ( x 2  y2 ) 3
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 23

v y2  x2 2v 6 x2 y  2 y3
= 2  =
y (x  y2 )2 y 2
( x 2  y2 ) 3
 2v  2v
Since + = 0. Hence v(x, y) is also harmonic.
x 2 y 2
u v v u
But,  and –
x y x y
Therefore u + iv is not an analytic function of z.

Example 3: If  and  are functions of x and y satisfying Laplace’s equation, show

that s + it is analytic, where
   
s=  and t=  .
y x x y
Solution: Since  and  are functions of x and y satisfying Laplace’s equations,
2 2
  =0 ...(1)
x 2 y 2

2 2
and  = 0. ...(2)
x 2 y 2
For the function s + it to be analytic,
s t
 ...(3)
x y
s t
and  ...(4)
y x
must satisfy.
s       2  2
Now,      ...(5)
x x  y x  xy x 2

t       2  2
     ...(6)
y y  x y  yx y 2

s       2  2
     ...(7)
y y  y x  y 2 yx

t       2  2
and      2  . ...(8)
x x  x y  x xy
24 MATHEMATICS III

From (3), (5) and (6), we have

 2 2   2 2 2 2

 2     =0
xy x yx y 2 x 2 y 2

which is true by (2).

Again from (4), (7) and (8), we have,

 2 2 2 2 2 2

  2   2
 =0
y 2 yx x xy x y 2

which is also true by (1).

Hence the function s + it is analytic
1.12. DETERMINATION OF CONJUGATE FUNCTION
If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function where both u(x, y) and v(x, y) are conjugate functions,
then we determine the other function v when one of these say u is given as follows:
 v = v (x, y)
v v u u
 dv = dx  dy  dv = – dx  dy ...(1) | By C-R eqns.
x y y x

u u
M = – y , N=
x

M 2u N  2 u
  2 and 
y y x x 2

M N  2u  2u
Now,  gives – 2  2
y x y x

 2u  2u
or 2
 =0
x y 2
which is true as u being a harmonic function satisfies Laplace’s equation.
 dv is exact.  dv can be integrated to get v.
However, if we are to construct f(z) = u + iv when only u is given, we first of all find v
by above procedure and then write f(z) = u + iv.
v v
Similarly, if we are to determine u and only v is given then we use du = dx  dy
y x
and integrate it to find u. Consequently f(z) = u + iv can also be determined.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 25

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: Show that the following functions are harmonic and find their harmonic
conjugate functions.
1
(i) u = log(x2 + y2) (ii) v = sinh x cos y.
2
(iii) u = ex cos y.
1
Solution: (i) u= log (x2 + y2) ...(1)
2
u 1 1 x
 . . 2x  2
x 2 x 2  y 2 x  y2
 2u ( x 2  y2 ) . 1  x . 2 x y2  x2
  ...(2)
x 2 (x2  y2 )2 ( x2  y2 ) 2
u 1 1 y
Also,  . . 2y  2
y 2 x 2  y 2 x  y2

 2u (x2  y2 ) . 1  y . 2 y x2  y2
2
 2 2 2
 ...(3)
y (x  y ) ( x 2  y2 ) 2
 2u  2u
and hence  = 0. [From (2) and (3)]
x 2 y 2
Since u satisfies Laplace’s equation hence u is a harmonic function.
v v
Let dv = dx  dy
x y
 u   u 
    dx    dy [Using C-R equations]
 y   x 
 y   x 
  2  dx   2
2 
 dy
2 
x y  x y 
xdy  ydx   y 
 2 2
 d  tan 1  
(x  y )   x 
 y
Integration yields, v = tan–1   + c | c is a constant
x
which is the required harmonic conjugate function of u.
(ii) v = sinh x cos y ...(1)
2
v  v
= cosh x cos y  = sinh x cos y ...(2)
x x 2
26 MATHEMATICS III

v 2v
= – sinh x sin y  = – sinh x cos y ...(3)
y y 2
2v  2v
Since,  =0
x 2 y 2
Hence v is harmonic.
u u v v
Now, du = x dx  y dy = y dx  x dy

= – sinh x sin y dx – cosh x cos y dy

= – [sinh x sin y dx + cosh x cos y dy]
= – d (cosh x sin y).
Integration yields, u = – cosh x sin y + c | c is a constant
which is the required harmonic conjugate function of v.
(iii) u = ex cos y
u
 e x cos y
x

 2u
  e x cos y
x 2
u  2u
  e x sin y    e x cos y
y y 2

 2u  2u
Since  0  u is harmonic.
x 2 y 2
Let v = v(x, y)
v v
dv = x dx  y dy

 u   u 
    dx    dy
 y   x 
= ex sin y dx + ex cos y dy
= d(ex sin y)
Integration yields, v = ex sin y + c.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 27

y
Example 2: (i) In a two-dimensional fluid flow, the stream function is  = – ,
x 2  y2
find the velocity potential .
(ii) An electrostatic field in the xy-plane is given by the potential function
 = 3x2y – y3, find the stream function.
y
Solution: (i)  = – ...(1)
x 2  y2

 2 xy  y2 – x 2
= 2 ,  2
x (x  y2 )2 y ( x  y 2 ) 2

   
We know that, d = dx  dy = dx – dy
x y y x

( y2  x 2 ) 2 xy
= dx  dy
(x2  y2 )2 (x 2  y2 )2

( x 2  y 2 ) dx  2 x 2 dx  2 xy dy
=
( x2  y2 )2

( x 2  y 2 ) d( x)  x(2 x dx  2 y dy)
=
( x 2  y2 ) 2

( x 2  y 2 ) d( x)  xd ( x 2  y2 )  x 
= = d  2 
2 .
(x2  y2 )2 x y 
x
Integration yields, = + c where c is a constant.
x  y2
2

(ii) Let  (x, y) be a stream function.

       
d = dx  dy =    dx    dy
x y  y   x 
= {– (3x2 – 3y2)} dx + 6xy dy
= – 3x2 dx + (3y2 dx + 6xy dy)
= – d (x3) + 3d (xy2)
Integrating, we get
 = – x3 + 3xy2 + c |c is a constant
28 MATHEMATICS III

1.13. MILNE’S THOMSON METHOD

With the help of this method, we can directly construct f(z) in terms of z without first finding
out v when u is given or u when v is given.
z = x + iy
z = x – iy
1 1
 x= (z + z ) and y = (z – z )
2 2i
 f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
z  z z  z z  z z  z
 u ,   iv  ,  ...(1)
 2 2i   2 2i 
Relation (1) is an identity in z and z . Putting z = z, we get
f(z) = u(z, 0) + iv(z, 0) ...(2)
Now, f(z) = u + iv
u v u u
 f (z) = i  i | By C-R eqns.
x x x y
= 1(x, y) – i 2(x, y)
u u
where  1 ( x, y)  and  2 ( x, y) 
x y
Now, f (z) = 1 (z, 0) – i 2(z, 0) | Replacing x by z and y by 0

Integrating, we get f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c | c is an arbitrary constant.

Hence the function is constructed directly in terms of z.

Similarly if v(x, y) is given, then
v v
f ( z )    1 ( z ,0)  i 2 ( z ,0)dz  c  1 ( x, y)  and  2 ( x, y) 
y x

Milne’s Thomson method can easily be grasped by going through the steps involved in
following various cases.
Case I. When only real part u(x, y) is given.
To construct analytic function f(z) directly in terms of z when only real part u is given,
we use following steps:
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 29

u
1. Find
x
2. Write it as equal to 1(x, y)
u
3. Find
y

4. Write it as equal to 2(x, y)

5. Find 1(z, 0) by replacing x by z and y by 0 in 1(x, y).
6. Find 2(z, 0) by replacing x by z and y by 0 in 2(x, y).
7. f(z) is obtained by the formula
f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c
directly in terms of z.
Case II. When only imaginary part v(x, y) is given.
To construct analytic function f(z) directly in terms of z when only imaginary part v is
given, we use following steps:
v
1. Find
y
2. Write it as equal to 1(x, y)
v
3. Find
x
4. Write it as equal to 2(x, y)
5. Find 1(z, 0) by replacing x by z and y by 0 in 1(x, y)
6. Find 2(z, 0) by replacing x by z and y by 0 in 2(x, y)
7. f(z) is obtained by the formula

f ( z )    1 ( z ,0)  i 2 ( z ,0)dz  c
directly in terms of z.
Case III. When u – v is given.
To construct analytic function f(z) directly in terms of z when u – v is given, we follow
the following steps:
1. f(z) = u + iv ...(1)

2. i f(z) = iu – v ...(2)

3. Add (1) and (2) to get

(1 + i) f(z) = (u – v) + i(u + v)
30 MATHEMATICS III

or, F(z) = U + iV
where F(z) = (1 + i) f(z), U = u – v, V = u + v
4. Since u – v is given hence U(x, y) is given
U
5. Find
x
6. Write it as equal to 1(x, y)
U
7. Find
y
8. Write it as equal to 2(x, y)
9. Find 1(z, 0)
10. Find 2(z, 0)
11. F(z) is obtained by the formula

f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c

F( z)
12. f(z) is determined by f(z) = directly in terms of z.
1 i
Case IV. When u + v is given.
To construct analytic function f(z) directly in terms of z when u + v is given, we follow
the following steps:
1. f(z) = u + iv ...(1)
2. i f(z) = iu – v ...(2)
3. Add (1) and (2) to get
(1 + i) f(z) = (u – v) + i(u + v)
 F(z) = U + iV
where, F(z) = (1 + i) f(z), U = u – v, V = u + v
4. Since u + v is given hence V(x, y) is given
V
5. Find
y
6. Write it as equal to 1(x, y)
V
7. Find
x
8. Write it as equal to 2(x, y)
9. Find 1(z, 0)
10. Find 2(z, 0)
11. F(z) is obtained by the formula
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 31

f ( z )    1 ( z ,0)  i 2 ( z ,0)dz  c
F( z)
12. f(z) is determined by f(z) = directly in terms of z.
1 i

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Example 1: Determine the analytic function w = u + iv if

x
(i) u = x3 – 3xy2 + 3x2 – 3y2 + 1. (ii) u =
x  y2
2

Sol. (i) u = x3 – 3xy2 + 3x2 – 3y2 + 1 ...(1)

u
= 3x2 – 3y2 + 6x = 1 (x, y) |say
x
1 (z, 0) = 3z2 + 6z. ...(2)
u
Again, y
= – 6xy – 6y = 2 (x, y) |say

  2 (z, 0) = 0
By Milne’s Thomson method,

f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c

  (3 z 2  6 z ) dz  c  z 3  3 z 2  c . | c is a constant

Hence, w = z3 + 3z2 + c
x
(ii) u = x 2  y2

u ( x 2  y 2 ) . 1  x . 2 x y2  x 2
    1 ( x, y) | say
x (x 2  y2 )2 (x2  y2 )2
1
 1(z, 0) = –
z2
u  2 xy
Again,    2 ( x, y) | say
y ( x 2  y 2 ) 2
32 MATHEMATICS III

 2 (z, 0) = 0
By Milne-Thomson method,
1
f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c = c where c is a constant.
z
Example 2: (i) Determine the analytic function whose real part is
e2x (x cos 2y – y sin 2y).
(ii) Find an analytic function whose imaginary part is e–x(x cos y + y sin y).
Solution: (i) Let f(z) = u + iv be the required analytic function.
Here, u = e2x (x cos 2y – y sin 2y)
u
 = e2x (2x cos 2y – 2y sin 2y + cos 2y) = 1 (x, y) | say
x
u
and y
= – e2x (2x sin 2y + sin 2y + 2y cos 2y) = 2 (x, y) | say

Now, 1 (z, 0) = e2z (2z + 1)

2 (z, 0) = – e2z (0) = 0
By Milne’s Thomson method,

f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c =  e 2 z ( 2 z  1) dz  c

e2z e2z
 (2 z  1)   2. dz  c
2 2
e 2z 1
= (2z + 1)  e2z + c
2 2
= ze2z + c
where c is an arbitrary constant.
(ii) Let f(z) = u + iv be the required analytic function.
Here v = e–x(x cos y + y sin y)
v
= e–x (– x sin y + y cos y + sin y) = 1(x, y) | say
y

v
= e–x cos y – e–x (x cos y + y sin y) = 2 (x, y) | say
x
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 33

 1 (z, 0) = 0
2(z, 0) = e–z – e–z (z) = (1 – z) e–z
By Milne’s Thomson method,

f ( z )    1 ( z ,0)  i 2 ( z ,0)dz  c

 i  (1  z )e  z dz  c

 
 i (1  z )(  e  z )   ( 1)( e  z ) dz  c
= i [(z – 1) e–z + e–z] + c
 f(z) = ize–z + c
Example 3: Show that the function u = e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) is harmonic. Find the conjugate
function v and express u + iv as an analytic function of z.
Solution: Here, u = e–2xy sin (x2 – y2)
u
 = – 2y e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) + 2xe–2xy cos (x2 – y2)
x

 2u
  = 4y2 e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) – 4xy e–2xy cos (x2 – y2) + 2e–2xy cos (x2 – y2)
x 2
– 4xy e–2xy cos (x2 – y2) – 4x2 e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) ...(1)
u
= – 2x e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) – 2y e–2xy cos (x2 – y2)
y

 2u
= 4x2 e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) + 4xy e–2xy cos (x2 – y2) – 2e–2xy cos (x2 – y2)
y 2
+ 4xy e–2xy cos (x2 – y2) – 4y2 e–2xy sin (x2 – y2) ...(2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get

 2u  2u
 =0 which proves that u is harmonic.
x 2 y 2

Now, 1(z, 0) = 2z cos z2, 2(z, 0) = – 2z sin z2

34 MATHEMATICS III

By Milne’s Thomson method,

f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c
 2  ( z cos z 2  iz sin z 2 ) dz  c
2
 2 zeiz dz  c Put iz2 = t
1 t iz 2 dt
 e dt  c  ie c
i
 2z dz =
i
2 2
Since, u + iv = – i e iz + c = – i e i( x  iy) + c
2 2 2 2
= – i e i( x  y  2ixy) + c = – ie–2xy . e i( x  y ) + c
= – ie–2xy [cos (x2 – y2) + i sin (x2 – y2)] + c
= e– 2xy sin (x2 – y2) + i[– e– 2xy cos (x2 – y2)] + c
 v = – e–2xy cos (x2 – y2) + b |if c = a + ib is complex constant

Example 4: Construct the analytic function f ( z )  u  iv if u ( x, y )  y 3  3 x 2 y

Solution: Given u  y 3  3x 2 y
u u
 6 xy ,  3 y 2  3x 2
x x
Now 1 (z, 0) = 0 and 2 (z, 0) =3z2
By Milne’s Thomson method,

f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c

  0  i (  3z 2 ) dz  c

3z 3
i c
3
f (z)  z3 i
f ( z )  u  iv  i ( x  iy )3
 i( x 3  iy 3  3x 2 yi  3x 2 y 2 )
 ( y 3  3 x 2 y )  i ( x 3  3x 2 y )
 v( x, y )  x 3  3x 2 y
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 35

Example 5: If u – v = (x – y) (x2 + 4xy + y2) and f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function

of z = x + iy, find f(z) in terms of z.
Solution: Here, f(z) = u + iv
 if(z) = iu – v
Adding, (1 + i) f(z) = (u – v) + i(u + v)
 F(z) = U + iV
where, F(z) = (1 + i) f(z), U = u – v and V = u + v.
Now, U = u – v = (x – y) (x2 + 4xy + y2)
U
 = x2 + 4xy + y2 + (x – y)(2x + 4y) = 3x2 + 6xy – 3y2 = 1(x, y)
x
| say
U
and = – (x2 + 4xy + y2) + (x – y)(4x + 2y) = 3x2 – 6xy – 3y2 = 2(x, y)
y
| say
2
Now, 1(z, 0) = 3z
2(z, 0) = 3z2
By Milne’s Thomson method,
 
f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c   3 z 2  i(3 z 2 ) dz  c
F(z) = (1 – i) z3 + c
 (1 + i) f(z) = (1 – i) z3 + c

1 i  3 c   2i  3  c 
or f (z)   z    z  c1  where c1  
1 i  1 i  2   1 i 
or f(z) = – iz3 + c1.
2 sin 2x
Example 6: If u + v = 2y
and f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of
e  e 2y  2 cos 2x
z = x + iy, find f(z) in terms of z.
Solution: Let f(z) = u + iv ...(1)
Multiplying both sides by i
i f(z) = iu – v ...(2)
Adding (1) and (2), we get
(1 + i) f(z) = (u – v) + i(u + v) ...(3)
 F(z) = U + iV ...(4)
where F(z) = (1 + i) f(z) ...(5)
36 MATHEMATICS III

U = u – v and V=u+v ...(6)

It means that we have been given
2 sin 2 x
V= ...(7)
e 2 y  e 2 y  2 cos 2 x

sin 2 x
or V=  e 2 y  e 2 y  2 cosh 2 y
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
V  2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
Now,  = 1(x, y) | say
y (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2

V 2 cos 2 x (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x)  2 sin 2 2 x

and 
x (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2

2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y  2
= = 2(x, y) | say
(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
 1(z, 0) = 0

2(cos 2 z  1) 2 2
2(z, 0) = 2
 = = – cosec2 z
(1  cos 2 z) 1  cos 2 z 1  1  2 sin 2 z

By Milne’s Thomson method, we have

F(z) =  {1(z, 0) + i 2(z, 0)} dz + c

=  – i cosec2 z dz + c = i cot z + c

Replacing F(z) by (1 + i) f(z), from eqn. (5), we get

(1 + i) f(z) = i cot z + c
i c
 f (z) = cot z 
1 i 1 i

1 c
 f (z) = 2
(1 + i) cot z + c1 where c1 = .
1 i

cos x  sin x  e  y
Example 7: If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z and u – v = ,
2 cos x  2 cosh y
1 z  
prove that f ( z )  1  cot  when f    0 .
2 2 2
Solution:. Let f(z) = u + iv ...(1)
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 37

 i f (z) = iu – v

Add, (1 + i) f (z) = (u – v) + i(u + v) ...(2)

 F(z) = U + iV ...(3)
where u – v = U, u + v = V and (1 + i) f(z) = F(z).
cos x  sin x  e  y
We have, u–v=
2 cos x  2 cosh y
cos x  sin x  cosh y  sinh y
or U= [ e–y = cosh y – sinh y]
2 cos x  2 cosh y
1 sin x  sinh y
=  ...(4)
2 2(cos x  cosh y)
Diff. (4) w.r.t. x partially, we get
U 1  (cos x  cosh y ) cos x  (sin x  sinh y )( sinh y ) 

x 2  (cos x  cosh y ) 2 


1 1  cosh y cos x  sinh y sin x 

 1 ( x, y )   
2 (cos x  cosh y ) 2 

1  1  cos z  1
 1 ( z ,0)   2
 . ...(5)
2  (cos z  1)  2(1  cos z )
Diff. (4) partially w.r.t. y, we get

U 1  (cos x  cosh y ). cosh y  (sin x  sinh y )( sinh y ) 


x 2  (cos x  cosh y ) 2 


1  cos x cosh y  sin x sinh y  1 

2 ( x, y ) 
 2  (cos x  cosh y ) 2 


1  cos z  1  1   1 
 2 ( z ,0)   . . ...(6)
2  (cos z  1) 2  2  1  cos z 
By Milne’s Thomson Method,
f ( z )   1 ( z ,0)  i2 ( z ,0)dz  c
1 1 i 1 
 .  .  dz  c
 2 (1  cos z ) 2 (1  cos z ) 
38 MATHEMATICS III

1 i 1 1 i
  2
dz  c   cos ec 2 ( z / 2) dz  c
2 2 sin z / 2 4
 1 i  z
   cot  c
 2  2
 1 i  z
or (1 + i) f(z) = –    cot  c
 2  2
 f(z) = – 1 cot z  c ...(7)
2 2 1 i
  1  c
f     cot  [From (7)]
2 2 4 1 i
1 c c 1
0=–    ...(8)
2 1 i 1 i 2

1 1
z 1 z
 From (7), f(z) = – = 1  cot  .
cot  [Using (8)]
2 2
2 2 2
Example 8: (i) If f(z) is a regular function of z, prove that
 2 2 
 2  2  | f ( z ) |2  4 | f ( z ) |2 . (OU, Dec 2017)
 x y 

(ii) If f(z) is a harmonic function of z, show that

2 2
    2
 | f ( z ) |   | f ( z ) | | f ( z ) | .
 x   y 
Solution: (i) Let f(z) = u + iv so that |f(z)| = u 2  v2
or |f(z)|2 = u2 + v2 = (x, y) (say)
 u v
  2u  2v
x x x

 2   2u  u  2 2
 2 v  v  
 2 u 2     v 2    
x 2  x  x  x  x  

 2   2u  u  2 2
 2 v  v  
Similarly,  2 u 2     v 2    
y 2  y  y  y  y  
Adding, we get
 2  2    2u  2u   u  2  u  2   2v  2 v   v  2  v  2 
  2 u 2  2         v 2  2         ...(1)
x 2 y 2   x y   x   y   x y   x   y  
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 39

Since f(z) = u + iv is a regular function of z, u and v satisfy C-R equations and Laplace’s
equation.
u v u v  2u  2u  2v  2v
  ,  and 2
 2
0 2

x y y x x y x y 2
 From (1), we get

 2  2   u  2  v  2 2 2
 v   u  
  2 0 
       0  
    
x 2 y 2   x   x   x   x  

 u  2  v  2 
 4      ...(2)
 x   x  
Now, f(z) = u + iv
2 2
u v  u   v 
 f (z) = i and |f (z)| =     
2
x x  x   x 
From (2), we get
 2 2   2 2 
 2  2   = 4 |f (z)|2 or  2  2  |f(z) |2 = 4 |f (z)|2.
 x y   x y 
(ii) We have, f(z) = u + iv ...(1)
 |f(z)| = u 2  v2 ...(2)
Partially differentiating eqn. (2) w.r.t. x and y, we get
u v
1 2 2 1 / 2  u v  u  v x

|f ( z)|  (u  v )  2u  2v  = x ...(3)
x 2  x x  |f ( z)|
u v
u v
 y y
Similarly, |f ( z)| = ...(4)
y |f ( z)|
Squaring and adding (3) and (4), we get
2 2
 u v   u v 
2 2 u  v    u  v 
     x x   y y 
 | f ( z ) |   | f ( z ) | 
 x   y  | f ( z ) |2
2 2
 u v   v u 
u  v    u  v 
x x   x x 
 2
| Using C-R eqns.
| f ( z) |
40 MATHEMATICS III

 u  2  v  2 
(u 2  v 2 )      
 x   x  

| f ( z ) |2
2 2
 u   v 
=     ||f(z)|2 = u2 + v2
 x   x 
u v
= |f (z)|2  f  ( z)  i
x x

Example 9: If f(z) is analytic function of z, prove that

 2 2 
(i)  2  
 x y 2  log | f (z) | = 0

 2 2 

(ii)  2   2 2
 x y 2  | Re . f(z) | = 2 | f (z) | .
 2 w  2w  2w
Solution: (i) We know 4   2
zz x 2 y
1
Take w = log | f (z) | = log | f (z) |2
2

1 1
= log f ' ( z ) f ' ( z ) = [log f  ( z)  log f  ( z)] zz |z |2
2 2

 2 2  2  1 1 
  
Therefore  x 2 y 2  log | f (z) | = 4  log f ( z )  log f ( z ) 
  zz  2 2 
  f ( z ) 
2    0. | f  ( z ) = f  ( z)
z  f ( z ) 
(ii) Let f(z) = u + iv  Re f(z) = u
 2 2  2 2 2 2 2
  
Now  x 2 y 2  u  2
(u )  2
(u ) ...(1)
  x y
2

u  2 2   u    2u  u  
Now 2 ,
(u ) = 2u x x 2 ( u )   2 u   2 u    ...(2)
x x  x   x 2  x  
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 41

2 2   2 u  u  2 
Similarly (u )  2 u 2     ...(3)
y 2  y  y  
 
Putting (2) and (3) in (1), we get
 2 2  2    2u  2u   u  2  u  2 
 2  2  (u )  2u  2  2        
 x y    x y   x   y  

 u  2  u  2   As u is harmonic.
 2       2 u  2u
 x   y     0
x 2 y 2
u v u u
= 2 |f (z) |2, f (z) = i = i .
x x x y

Example 10: (i) Show that a harmonic function satisfies the formal differential equation
 2u
0
zz
(ii) If w = f(z) is a regular function of z, prove that
 2 2 
 2  2  log |f (z)| = 0.
 x y 
Further, if | f (z) | is the product of a function of x and function of y, show that
f (z) = exp.(z2 + z + ) where  is a real and  are complex constants.
Solution: (i) We have x + iy = z and x – iy = z
1 i
so that x= (z  z) , y= ( z – z)
2 2
x 1 y i
  , 
z 2 z 2
x 1 y i
 , 
z 2 z 2
  x  y 1    
Now,  .  .    i 
z x z y z 2  x y 
  x  y 1    
and  .  .    i 
z x z y z 2  x y 
2 1  2 2 
Hence,   2  2 
zz 4  x y 
42 MATHEMATICS III

2 2 2
or, 2
 2
4
x y zz
A harmonic function u satisfies the eqn.
 2u  2u  2u  2u
 =0 which implies that 4 =0 or = 0.
x 2 y 2 zz zz
 2 2 
(ii)  2  2  log |f (z)|
 x y 
2 1 2 2
4  log | f ( z ) |  = 2 [log { f  ( z) f  ( z )}]
zz  2  zz
2
=2 [log f  ( z)  log f  ( z )]
zz
  f ( z ) 
=2 = 0. | Since f ( z ) and f ( z ) are independent of z
z  f ( z ) 
Further, let | f  (z) | =  (x)  (y)
where (x) is a function of x only and (y) is a function of y only. Here (x) and (y) are
either both positive or negative.
 2 2 
Now,  2  2  log | f  (z) | = 0
 x y 

 2 2 
  2  2  {log (x) + log (y)} = 0
 x y 
d2 d2
 {log (x)} + {log (y)} = 0
dx 2 dy 2
d2 d2
 {log  (x)} = – {log (y)} = c (a constant) | say
dx 2 dy 2
d2 d2
 {log (x)} = c and {log (y)} = – c
dx 2 dy2
1 1
 log (x) = cx2 + dx + e and log (y) = – cy2 + dy + e
2 2
1 2   1 2 
 (x) = exp.  cx  dx  e  and (y) = exp.   cy  d y  e 
2   2 
where d, e, d and e are real constants.
c 2 2 
 | f  (z) | = (x) (y) = exp .  ( x  y )  dx  d y  e  e ...(1)
2 
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 43

Similarly,
| exp . (z2 + z + ) | = | exp. (x + iy)2 + (a + ib) (x + iy) + (c + id) |
= exp. [ (x2 – y2) + ax – by + c]
...(2)  | e A  iB | e A

where   = a + ib,  = c + id

Expression (2) is of the same form as (1).
Hence we can write f (z) = exp. (z2 + z + ).

EXERCISE

1. (i) Determine a, b, c, d so that the function f(z) = (x2 + axy + by2) + i(cx2 +
dxy + y2) is analytic.
(ii) Find the constants a, b, c such that the function f(z) where
f(z) = – x2 + xy + y2 + i (ax2 + bxy + cy2) is analytic. Express f(z) in
terms of z.
(iii) Find the value of the constants a and b such that the following function
f(z) is analytic.
f(z) = cos x (cosh y + a sinh y) + i sin x (cosh y + b sinh y)
1 px
(iv) Determine p such that the function f(z) = log (x2 + y2) + i tan–1 is
2 y
an analytic function.
(v) For what values of a, b and c, the function f(z) = x – 2ay + i(bx – cy) is
analytic ?
2. Discuss the analyticity of the following functions:
1
(i) sin z (ii) cosh z (iii) z (iv) z3.
3. (i) If f(z) = (x – y)2 + 2i(x + y), show that C-R equations are satisfied along
the curve x – y = 1.
(ii) Show that the function f(z) = (x3 – 3xy2) + i(3x2y – y3) satisfies Cauchy-
Riemann equations.
(iii) Find the analytic region of f(z) = (x – y)2 + 2i (x + y).
(iv) Check whether w = z is analytic everywhere ?
(v) Determine whether the function 2xy + i(x2 – y2) is analytic or not ?

dw w w
(vi) If w = f(z) is analytic, prove that  i where z = x + iy and prove
dz x y

 2w
that  0.
z z
44 MATHEMATICS III

(vii) Find where the following function ceases to be analytic: z2  4 .

f ( z) 
z2  1

(viii) Verify if the function e–2x cos 2y can be the real/imaginary part of an
analytic function.
4. Show that the polar form of Cauchy-Riemann equations are
u 1 v v 1 u  2u 1 u 1 2 u
 ,  . Deduce that 2
  2 = 0.
r r  r r  r r r r  2
5. Show that if f(z) is differentiable at a point z, then
ux uy
|f (z)|2 = vx vy

6. (i) Show that an analytic function f(z), whose derivative is identically

zero, is constant.
(ii) It is given that a function f(z) and its conjugate f ( z) are both analytic.
Determine the function f(z).
x3 y5 ( x  iy)
7. (i) Show that the function f(z) defined by f(z) = , z  0, f(0) = 0, is
x6  y10
not analytic at the origin even though it satisfies Cauchy-Riemann
equations at the origin.
(ii) Show that for the function

 ( z )2
 , z0
f (z)   z
 0, z  0

the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin. Does f (0)
exist?
(iii) Show that for the function

 2 xy( x  iy)
 , z0
f ( z)   x 2  y 2
 0, z0

the C-R equations are satisfied at origin but derivative of f(z) does not
exist at origin.
8. (i) If u is a harmonic function then show that w = u2 is not a harmonic
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 45

function unless u is a constant.

(ii) If f(z) is an analytic function, show that |f (z)| is not a harmonic function.
(iii) Show that the function y + ex cos y is harmonic.
Also find the analytic function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) whose real part is
y + ex cos y.
(iv) Show that v = log (x2 + y2) is harmonic. Find a function u such that u +
iv is analytic.
(v) Show that the function u = 2x – x3 + 3xy2 is harmonic.
(vi) Show that u = 3x2y – y3 is a harmonic function.
9. (i) Show that the function u (x, y) = 2x + y3 – 3x2y is harmonic. Find its
conjugate harmonic function v(x, y) and the corresponding analytic
function f(z).
(ii) Show that the function u(x, y) = 3x2y + 2x2 – y3 – 2y2 is harmonic. Find
the conjugate harmonic function v and express u + iv as an analytic
function of z.
(iii) Show that the function v(x, y) = ex sin y is harmonic. Find its conjugate
harmonic function
u(x, y) and the corresponding analytic function f(z).
(iv) Show that v = x3y – xy3 + x + y is harmonic and also find the analytic
function w = u + iv interms of z.
10. (i) Show that the function u(r, ) = r2 cos 2 is harmonic. Find its conjugate
harmonic function and the corresponding analytic function f(z).
(ii) Determine constant ‘b’ such that u = ebx cos 5y is harmonic.
(iii) Prove that u = x2 – y2 – 2xy – 2x + 3y is harmonic. Find a function v such
that f(z) = u + iv is analytic. Also express f(z) in terms of z.
11. Determine the analytic function f(z) in terms of z whose real part is
1
(i) 2
log (x2 + y2) (ii) cos x cosh y
sin 2 x
(iii) ex cos y (iv) cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
sin 2 x
(v) (vi) e2x sin 2y.
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
12. Find the regular function f(z) in terms of z whose imaginary part is
x y
(i) (ii) cos x cosh y (iii) sinh x cos y
x  y2
2

x
(iv) 6xy – 5x + 3 (v) + cosh x cos y.
x  y2
2
46 MATHEMATICS III

13. (i) Show that v = e2x (y cos 2y + x sin 2y) is harmonic and find the corre-
sponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv.
(ii) Construct the analytic function f(z) = u + iv given that 2u + 3v = ex(cos
y – sin y).
(iii) Show that the function u = x3 + x2 – 3xy2 + 2xy – y2 is harmonic and find
the corresponding analytic function f(z) = u + iv.
14. (i) An electrostatic field in the xy-plane is given by the potential function
 = x2 – y2, find the stream function.
(ii) If the potential function is log (x2 + y2), find the flux function and the
complex potential function.
 y
15. (i) In a two dimensional fluid flow, the stream function is  = tan–1   ,
x
find the velocity potential .
(ii) If w =  + i represents the complex potential for an electric field and 
x
= x2 – y 2  , determine the function .
x  y2
2

16. If f(z) is an analytic function of z, prove that

 2 2 
 2  2  |R f(z)|2 = 2 |f (z)|2.
 x y 
17. Find an analytic function f(z) = u(r, ) + iv(r, ) such that v(r, ) = r2 cos 2
– r cos  + 2.
18. If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function, find f(z) in terms of z if
x
(i) u – v = ex (cos y – sin y) (ii) u + v = , when f(1) = 1
x  y2
2

e y  cos x  sin x   3i

(iii) u – v = when f   
cosh y  cos x 2 2
sin 2 x
(iv) u – v = .
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
19. (i) If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z = x + iy and u + v = (x + y) (2
– 4xy + x2 + y2) then construct f(z) interms of z.
(ii) If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function of z = x + iy and u – v = e –x [(x – y)
sin y – (x + y) cos y] then construct f(z) interms of z.
20. If f = u + iv is analytic show that g = – v + iu and h = v – iu are also
analytic. Also show that u and – v are conjugate harmonic.
21. Show that the function
z
(i) f (z) = is analytic at z = .(ii) f(z) = z is not analytic at z = 
z1
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 47

z z z z
22. If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv (x, y) where x = ,y= is continuous as a function
2 2i
f
of two variables z and z then show that = 0 is equivalent to the Cauchy-
z
Riemann equations.
 f  u x u y   v x v y 
 H int :      i  
 z  x z y z   x z y z 
23. If f(z) = u + iv is a regular function of z in a domain D. Prove that the
following relations hold in D:
(i) 2 [arg f(z)] = 0 i.e., arg f(z) is harmonic in D.
(ii) 2 |Im f(z) |2 = 2 |f (z) |2.
24. If f(z) = u + iv is a regular function of z in a domain D, show that the
following relation holds in D 2[f(z)]p = p2 |f(z)|p–2 | f (z)|2.
25. If f(z) = u + iv is a regular function of z in a domain D, prove that the
following relation holds in D.
2 log | f(z) | = 0 if f(z) f(z)  0 in D Or log |f(z) | is harmonic in D.

ANSWERS

1. (i) a = 2, b = – 1, c = – 1, d = 2
1 1 1
(ii)a = 
2
, b = – 2, c = 2
; f(z) = 
2
(2 + i) z2
(iii) a = – 1, b = – 1 (iv) p = –1
(v)2a = b, c = 1
3. (iii) x – y = 1 (iv) n o w h e r e
analytic (v) No
(vii) z = ± i (viii) yes
6. (ii) constant function
7.(ii) No.
x
8. (iii) ez – iz + c (iv) u = 2 tan–1    c
 y
9. (i) v = 2y – 3xy2 + x3 + c ; f(z) = 2z + iz3 + ic (ii) v = 3xy2 + 4xy – x3 +
c, f(z) = – iz3 + 2z2 + ic
48 MATHEMATICS III

z4
(iii) u = ex cos y + c ; f(z) = ez + c (iv) w =  (1  i )z  c
4
10. (i) v = r2 sin 2 + c ; f(z) = z2 + ic (ii) b = ± 5
(iii) v = x2 – y2 + 2xy – 2y – 3x, f(z) = (1 + i)z2 – (2 + 3i)z
11. (i) log z + c (ii) cos z + c (iii) ez + c
(iv) cot z + c (v) tan z + c (vi) – ie2z + c
1 i
12. (i) c (ii) i cos z + c (iii) i sinh z + c
z

i
(iv) 3z2 – 5iz + c (v) z
+ i cosh z

  1  5i  z c
13. (i) ze2z + c (ii)  e  (iii) z3 + z2(1 – i) + c
 13  2i  3
 y
14. (i) = 2xy + c (ii) 2 tan–1   , 2 log z + c
x
1 y
15. (i) log (x2 + y 2) (ii) – 2xy + c 17. i(z2 – z + 2) + c
2 x  y2
2

1 i  z 1
18. (i) ez + c (ii)   1 (iii) cot  (1 – i)
1 i  z  2 2

cot z
(iv) f(z) =  c1. 19. (i) 2z + iz3 + c (ii) ize–z + c
1 i

1.14. Complex integration

Let f(z) be a continuous function of the complex variable z = x + iy defined at all points
of a curve C having end points A and B. Divide the curve C into n parts at the points
A = P0(z0), P1(z1), ......, Pi(zi), ......, Pn(zn) = B.
n
Let zi = zi – zi–1 and i be any point on the arc Pi–1 Pi. Then the limit of the sum  f ( i ) zi
i1

as n   and each zi  0, if it exists, is called the line integral of f(z) along the curve C.
It is denoted by

 f ( z ) dz
C
In case the points P0 and Pn coincide so that C is a closed curve, then this integral is
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 49

called contour integral and is denoted by  f ( z ) dz .

C

If f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then since dz = dx + idy, we

have

 f ( z ) dz   (u  iv)(dx  idy)
C C

  (udx  vdy )   (vdx  dy )

C C
which shows that the evaluation of the line integral of a complex function can be reduced to
the evaluation of two line integrals of real functions.
Moreover, the value of the integral depends on the path of integration unless the integrand
is analytic. When the same path of integration is used in each integral, then
b a

 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz
a b
If c is a point on the arc joining a and b, then
b c b

 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( z) dz .
a a c

SOLVED PROBLEMS

3 i

Example 1: Evaluate z
2
dz , along (a) the line y = x (b) the real axis to 3 and then
0 3
vertically to 3 + i (c) the parabola x = 3y2.
3 i ( 3,1)
2 2
Solution: (a) z dz   (x  y 2  2 xyi)(dx  idy ) .
0 (0, 0)

x dx
Now y =  dy = . Also x varies from 0 to 3.
3 3
3 i 3
2  2 x 2 2 x 2i  i 
 0 z dz  0  x  9  3 1  3  dx
3 3
 ix x3 2x3  i
 1     i  1   [(9 – 1 + 6i) – (0)]
 3  3 27 3.3 0  3 

 i 8i 26
 1  (8  6i )  8  6i   2  6  i .
 3 3 3
50 MATHEMATICS III

3 i
2 2 2
(b)  z dz   z dz   z dz
0 OA AB
...(1)

Now along OA, x varies from 0 to 3 and

y=0  dy = 0.
Along AB, x = 3, y varies from 0 to 1 and dx = 0.
Hence from (1),
3 i 3 1
2 2
 z dz   ( x  0  0) dx   (9  y 2  6 yi) idy
0 0 0

1
y3  1  26
 9  i 9y   3 y 2i  9  i 9   3i   6  i .
3 0  3  3
(c) x = 3y2  dx = 6y dy and y varies from 0 to 1.
3i 1
2 4 2
  z dz   (9y  y  6y i)(6y i) dy
0 0

1
  (54 y 5  9 y 4  6 y 3  iy 2  36 y 4i  6 y 3 ) dy
0

1
y6 y5 y4 y3 y5 y4
= 54 6
 9i
5
–6
4
–i
3
 36i
5
–6
4 0

 i 3 i 1 3
  9  9    36   – (0)
 5 2 3 5 2

3 3  9 1 36 
 9    i   
2 2 5 3 5 
27 – 5  108 130 26
=6+i =6+ i =6+ i.
15 15 3
2 i

Example 2: Evaluate  (2 x  iy  1) dz , along (a) the straight line joining 1 – i to 2 + i

1 i

(b) The curve x = t + 1, y = 2t2 – 1.

FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 51

2 i ( 2 ,1)

Solution: (a)  (2 x  iy  1) dx   (2 x  iy  1) dx
1 i (1, 1)

Now along AB, x varies from 1 to 2 and y varies from -1 to 1

1 1
The equation of AB is y + 1 = (x – 1)
21
 y + 1 = 2(x – 1)  y = 2x – 3, dy = 2
dx
2
  2 x  1  i ( 2 x  3)( dx  2idx )
1

2
 (1  2i )  ( 2 x  2ix  3i  1) dx
1

 (1  2i )( x 2  ix 2  (1  3i ) x )12
= (1 + 2i) [(4 + 2i + 2(1 – 3i) – (1 + i + 1 – 3i)]
= (1 + 2i) [4 + 2i + 2 – 6i – 2 + 2i] = (1 + 2i) (4 – 2i)
= 4 – 2i + 8i + 4 = 8 + 6i.
(b) Given x = t + 1, y = 2t2 – 1  dx = dt, dy = 4t dt
As x varies from 1 to 2  t + 1 varies from 1 to 2  t varies from 0 to 1. Hence
2 i 1

  
(2 x  iy  1) dx   2(t  1)  i (2t 2  1)  1 (dt  4it dt )
1 i 0

1
  (2t  2  2it 2  i 1)(1  4it) dt
0

1
  (2t  3  2it 2  1)(1  4it ) dt
0

1
  (2t  8it 2  3  12it  2 it 2  8t 3  i  4t ) dt
0

1
  (6t  10it 2  12it  8t 3  3  i ) dt
0
52 MATHEMATICS III

1
6t 2 t3 t2 t4
=  10i  12i –8  3t  it
2 3 2 4
0

 i 
  3  10  6i  2  3  i  – (0)
 3 
 10  25
 4  i  6  1  4  i .
 3  3
2
Example 3: Evaluate  | z | dz , around the square with vertices
C
at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1).

Solution:  | z |2 dz  | z |2 dz   | z |2 dz   | z |2 dz   | z |2 dz   | z |2 dz (1)
C OABC
 OA AB BC CO

Now | z |2 = x2 + y2.
Along OA, x varies from 0 to 1, y = 0  dy = 0
1
2 2 1
  | z | dz   x dx  3 ...(2)
OA 0

Along AB, x = 1  dx = 0 and y varies from 0 to 1.

1
2 2  1 4
 AB| z | dz  0 (1  y )i dy  1  3  i  3 i ...(3)

Along BC, y = 1  dy = 0 and x varies from 1 to 0

0 0
2 2 x3 4
 BC| z | dz  1 ( x  1) dx  x  ...(4)
3 1
3
Along CO, x = 0  dx = 0 and y varies from 1 to 0
0
2 2 i
  | z | dz   ( y )i dy 
CO 1
3 ...(5)

Putting (2), (3), (4) and (5) in (1), we get

2 1 4 4 i
| z | dz   i    1  i .
C
3 3 3 3
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 53

Example. 4. Show that  ( z  1) dz  0 , where C is the

C

boundary of the square whose vertices are at the points z =

0, z = 1, z = 1 + i and z = i.

Solution.  ( z  1) dz   ( z  1)dz
C OABC

  ( z  1)dz   ( z  1)dz   ( z  1)dz   ( z  1)dz ...(1)

OA AB BC CO

Along OA, x varies from 0 to 1 and y = 0  dy = 0

1
1
  ( z  1) dz   ( x  1) dx 
OA 0
2
1  3 / 2 ...(2)

Along AB, x = 1, y varies from 0 to 1. Also dx = 0

1

  ( z  1) dz   (1  iy  1) i dy
AB 0

1 1 1
y2
=  (2  iy ) i dy   (2i  y )i dy = 2iy – 2
0 0 0

 1
=  2i   – 0 = 2i – 1/2 ...(3)
 2
Along BC, x varies from 1 to 0 and y = 1, dy = 0
0

  ( z  1) dz   ( x  i  1) dx
BC 1

0
x2 1 
= = 0 –   (1  i) 
 (i  1) x ...(4)
2 1
2 
Along CO, x = 0, dx = 0 and y varies from 1 to 0
0 0

  ( z  1) dz   (iy  1) i dy   ( y  i) dy
CO 1 1
54 MATHEMATICS III

0
  y2   1 
=   iy  = 0 –    i  = 1 – i ...(5)
 2 1  2  2
Using (2), (3), (4) and (5) in (1), we get
3 1 1 1
 ( z  1) dz  2  2i  2  2  1  i  2  i  0
C

2
Example 5: Evaluate  ( y  x  3 x i ) dz , where C is the straight line z = 0 to z = 1 + i.
C

Solution: Along the straight line z = 0 to z = 1 + i means along OP. Here x varies
from 0 to 1 and y = x.
1
2 2
  ( y  x  3x i) dz   ( x  x  3x i)(1  i) dx
C 0

 i (1  i )  i  1
2
Example 6: Evaluate  ( z ) dz where C is the straight line joining O(0, 0) to A(2, 1)
C

Solution: Given f ( z)  ( z )2
 ( x  iy ) 2  ( x 2  y 2 )  2ixy

Now along the straight line OA, The equation OA is

1 0
( y  0)  ( x  0)
20
x
y  x  2y
2
dx  2dy
 dz  ( dx  idy )  ( 2  i ) dy
 
  ( z ) 2 dz   ( x 2  y 2 )  2ixy (dx  idy )
C C

   (2 y ) 2  y 2  2i(2 y ) y  (2  i ) dy
0

  (4 y 2  y 2  4 y 2i ) (2  i) dy
0
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 55

  (3 y 2  4 y 2i) (2  i ) dy
0

  (3  4i ) (2  i) y 2 dy
0

1 1
 y3  10 5i
  (3  4i ) (2  i)   
0  3 0 3 3
2
Example 7:  ( z  z ) dz , where C is the upper half of the circle | z | = 1.
C
Solution: Given | z | = 1  z = ei, dz = iei d and  varies from 0 to .

2 i 2 i i
  ( z  z ) dz   (e  e ) ie d
C 0

 i  (e 2i  e 3i ) d
0


 e 2i e 3i 
 i  
 2i 3i  0
1 2i 1 3i
= e  e
2 3
1 1
= (cos 2  i sin 2)  (cos 3  i sin 3)
2 3
1 1 2
= (1  0i)  ( 1  0i)  | cos n = (– 1)n and sin n = 0, n  Z
2 3 3

EXERCISE

1 i
2
1. Evaluate  ( x  y  ix
0
) dz

(a) along the straight line from z = 0 to z = 1 + i

(b) along the real axis from z = 0 to z = 1 and then along a line parallel to
imaginary axis from
z = 1 to z = 1 + i.
(c) along the imaginary axis from z = 0 to z = i and then along a line parallel
56 MATHEMATICS III

to real axis from z = i to z = 1 + i.

1 i
2
2. Evaluate  (x  iy ) dz along the paths
0

(a) y = x (b) y = x2.

2 i
2
3. Evaluate  (z )
0
dz along

(a) the real axis to 2 and then vertically to 2 + i.

(b) along the line 2y = x.
4. Integrate f(z) = x2 + ixy from A(1, 1) to B(2, 4) along the curve x = t, y = t2.
5. Prove that
dz
(i)  za
C
= 2i

(ii)  ( z  a) n dz = 0 [n is an integer  – 1] where C is the circle | z – a | = r.

C

Answers

1 1 1 5 1 1
1. (a) –  i (b)   i
2 6
(c)  – i
3 3 2 6
5 1 5 1
2. (a) 
6 6
i (b) 
6 6
i.
14 11 10 5 151 45
3. (a) 3

3
i (b) 3
 i
3
4.   i
15 4
5. (i) 2i (ii) 0

1.15. DOMAIN
A set S of points in the argand plane is said to be connected set if any two of its points can be
joined by a continuous curve, all of whose points belong to S.
An open connected set is called an open domain. If the boundary points of S are also
added to an open domain, then it is called closed domain.
1.15.1. SIMPLY AND MULTIPLY CONNECTED DOMAINS
A domain in which every closed curve can be shrunk to a point without passing out of the
region is called a simply connected domain. If a domain is not simply connected, then it is
called multiply connected domain.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 57

1.15.2. SIMPLY AND MULTIPLY CONNECTED REGIONS

A curve is called simple closed curve if it does not cross itself (Fig. 1). A curve which crosses
itself is called a multiple curve (Fig. 2).
A region is called simply connected if every closed curve in the region encloses points
of the region only, i.e., every closed curve lying in it can be contracted indefinitely without
passing out of it. A region which is not simply connected is called a multiply connected
region. In plain terms, a simply connected region is one which has no holes. Figure 3 shows
a multiply connected region R enclosed between two separate curves C1 and C2. (There can
be more than two separate curves). We can convert a multiply connected region into a simply
connected one, by giving it one or more cuts (e.g. along the dotted line AB).

Fig.1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Remark 1. Jordan arc is a continuous arc without multiple points.

Remark 2. Contour is a Jordan curve consisting of continuous chain of a finite number
of regular arcs.

1.16. CAUCHY'S INTEGRAL THEOREM

Statement. If f(z) is an analytic function and f (z) is continuous at each point within and on
a simple closed curve C, then
 f ( z ) dz  0 .
C
Proof. Let R be the region bounded by the curve C.
Let f(z) = u (x, y) + iv(x, y), then
 f ( z ) dz   (u  iv)(dx  idy)
C C

=  (u dx  v dy )i  (v dx  u dy ) ...(1)
C C

Since f (z) is continuous, the partial derivatives u , u , v , v are also continuous in R.

x y x y
58 MATHEMATICS III

Hence by Green’s Theorem, we have

 v v   u v 
 f ( z ) dz     x  x  dx dy    x  x  dx dy
C R R
...(2)

Now f (z) being analytic at each point of the region R, by Cauchy-Riemann equations,
we have
u v u v
 and 
x y y x

Thus, the two double integrals in (2) vanish.

Hence  f ( z ) dz
C
= 0.

However Cauchy with the help of Goursat developed the revised form of Cauchy’s
fundamental theorem which states that
“If f (z) is analytic and one valued within and on a simple closed contour C then

 f ( z) dz  0" .
C

Goursat showed that for the truth of the original theorem, the assumption of continuity
of f (z) is unnecessary and Cauchy’s theorem holds iff f(z) is analytic within and on C.
Corollary. If f(z) is analytic in a region R and P and Q are two points in R, then
 f ( z ) dz is independent of the path joining P and Q and lying entirely in R.
C

Let PAQ and PBQ be any two paths joining P and Q.

By Cauchy’s theorem,

 f ( z ) dz  0
PAQBP

  f ( z) dz   f ( z) dz  0
PAQ QBP

  f ( z) dz   f ( z) dz  0
PAQ PBQ

Hence  f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz .
PAQ PBQ
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 59

1.16.1. EXTENSION OF CAUCHY'S THEOREM TO MULTIPLY CONNECTED

REGION
If f(z) is analytic in the region R between two simple closed curves C1 and C2, then
 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz
C1 C2
when integral along each curve is taken in anti-clockwise direction.
Proof. We have  f ( z ) dz  0
where the path of integration is along AB and curve C2 in
clockwise direction and along BA and along C1 in anti-clockwise
direction.

 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz  0
AB C2 BA C1

or  f ( z ) dz   f ( z) dz  0
C2 C1

  f ( z ) dz    f ( z) dz
AB BA

Reversing the direction of the integral around C2, we get

 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz
C1 C2

However if a closed curve C contains non-intersecting closed curves C1, C2, ....., Cn,
then by introducing cross-cuts, it can be shown that

 f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz   f ( z ) dz  ...   f ( z ) dz .
C C1 C2 Cn
60 MATHEMATICS III

SOLVED PROBLEMS

2 2
Example 1: Evaluate  ( x  y  2ixy ) dz , where C is the contour | z | = 1.
C
f(z) = x2 – y2 + 2ixy = (x + iy)2 = z2 is analytic everywhere within and on | z | = 1.
Solution:
 By Cauchy’s integral theorem,  f ( z ) dz  0 .
C

2
Example 2: Evaluate  (3z  4 z  1) dz where C is the arc of the cycloid
C

x = a( – sin ), y = a(1 – cos ) between (0, 0) and (2a, 0).
Solution: Here, f(z) = 3z2 + 4z + 1 is analytic everywhere so that the integral is
independent of the path of integration and depends only on the end points z1 = 0 + i0 and z2
= 2a + i0.
2a


2
 (3z  4 z  1) dz   (3z
2
 2a
 4 z  1) dz  z 3  2 z 2  z 0 = 2a (42a2 + 4a + 1).
C 0

2z 2  5
Example 3: Evaluate:  ( z  2) 3 ( z 2  4) dz , where C is the square with vertices at
C

1 + i, 2 + i, 2 + 2i, 1 + 2i.
2 z2  5
Solution: Here, f(z) =
( z  2)3 ( z 2  4)

Singularities are given by (z + 2)3 (z2 + 4) = 0

z = – 2 (order 3), ± 2i (simple poles)
Since the singularities donot lie inside the contour C
hence by Cauchy’s integral theorem,
2z 2  5
C ( z  2)3 ( z 2  4) dz  0 .
2
Example 4: Evaluate z dz where c is the circle | z  2 |  1 .
C

Solution: Since the integrand f ( z )  z 2 is analytic for all z and f  ( z )  2 z is containing

inside C.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 61

2
Hence by Cauchy integral theorem z
C
dz .

4 3
Example 4: Evaluate  (5 z  z  2) dz around
C

(i) unit circle |z| = 1

(ii) square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 0)
(iii) curve consisting of the parabola y = x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1) and y2 = x from (1, 1) to
(0, 0).

Solution: Given f(z) = 5z4 – z3 + 2 is analytic everywhere.

So by Cauchy integral theorem,

 f ( z ) dz
C
=0

4
 (5 z  z 3  2) dz  0 .
 For all given curves,
C

Example 5: Verify Cauchy theorem by integrating eiz along the boundary of the triangle
with the vertices at the points 1 + i, – 1 + i and – 1 – i.
Solution: The boundary of triangle C consists of three lines C1, C2 and C3. So,

I   e iz dz
C

  e iz dz   e iz dz   eiz dz
C1 C2 C3

= I1 + I2 + I3 ...(1)
Along C1 : on AB line y = 1,
z = x + iy = x + i
 dz = dx
1
I1   e dz   ei ( x  i ) dx
iz

C1 1

1
  e (ix 1) dx
1
62 MATHEMATICS III

1
1  e ix  e i 1  e i 1
   
e  i 1 i
Along C2 : BE : x=–1
z = x + iy = – 1 + iy
 dz = i dy
1
I 2   e iz dz   ei ( 1iy )i dy
C2 1

1
 ie 1  e  y dy  ie 1 ( e  y )11
1

1 i 1 1i
= – i (e–i+1 – e–1–i)  (e  e )
i
Along C3 : EA : y=x
z = x + iy = (1 + i) x
 dz = (1 + i) dx
1
I 3   e iz dz   e i (1i ) x (1  i ) dx
C2 1

1
 e i (1 i ) x   ei 1  e i 1 
 (1  i)     
 i (1  i )  1  i 
1  i 1
From (1), I = I1 + I2 + I3 = e  e i  1  e  i  1  e 1 i  e i  1  e  i  1 =0
i
Hence Cauchy’s theorem is verified.
Example 6: Can the Cauchy-integral theorem be applied for evaluating the following
integrals ? Hence evaluate these integrals.
2
sin z ez
(i)  e dz ; C  |z| = 1 (ii)  tan z dz ; C  |z| = 1 (iii)
C
 z2  9
dz ; C  |z| = 2
C C

2
Solution: (i) Let I   esin z dz
C

sin z 2
The integrand f(z) = e is analytic for all z and f (z) is continuous inside C. Hence,
Cauchy integral theorem can be applied and hence I = 0
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 63

I   tan z dz
(ii) Let
C

sin z
The integrand f (z) = tan z = is analytic for all z except at the points
cos z
 3
z =  , , ....... All these points lie outside C.
2 2
Also f (z) is continuous inside C. Hence Cauchy integral theorem is applicable I = 0
ez
(iii) Let I  dz
C
z2  9
z
e
The integrand f(z) = is analytic everywhere except at the points z = ± 3i.
z2  9

These points lie outside C and f (z) is continuous inside C.

Hence Cauchy integral theorem is applicable and I = 0.

EXERCISE

1. Verify Cauchy’s integral theorem for f (z) = z2 taken over the boundary of a square
with vertices at ± 1 ± i in counter-clockwise direction.
2. Using Cauchy’s integral theorem, evaluate
 f ( z ) dz , where f(z) is
C

(i) ez (ii) sin z (iii) cos z

(iv) zn ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...... and C is any simple closed path.

z2  z 1 1
3. Evaluate: (i)  z  2 dz ; C º |z – 1| = 2
C

1
(ii) z
C
2
( z 2  9)
dz ; C º 1 < |z | < 2 2
(iii)  ( z  2 z ) dz ; C º |z | = 1
C

4. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for f (z) = z3 taken over the boundary of the rectangle with
vertices at
–1, 1, 1 + i, – 1 + i.
64 MATHEMATICS III

5. Evaluate:
e z 1
(i)  z  1 dz , where C is the circle |z| =
C 2

z2 1
(ii) Evaluate  z 2  1 dz , where C is |z – i| = 1
C

3z 2  7 z  1
(iii)  z 2  3z  2 dz , where C is the circle
C

1
(a) |z + i| = 1 (b) | z | =
2
6. Evaluate the following integrals :
z3  z 1
(i)  z 2  3z  2 dz , where C is the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 1
C

z4
(ii) z
C
2
dz
 2 z  5 , where C is the circle |z + 1| = 1

z2  z 1 1
(iii)  z  1 dz , where C is the circle |z| =
C 2

dz
(iv)  ( z  3)
C
2 , where C is |z| = 1

dz
7. (i) Evaluate I   z  2 around a triangle with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1).
C

dz
(ii) Evaluate 
C
z  4 where C is the circle | z | = 2.
8. State and prove Cauchy’s integral theorem.
dz
9. Evaluate z
C
2
 5 z  6 , where C is the circle |z – 1| = 1/2.

dz
10. Evaluate  ( z  1)( z  2) , where C is |z | = 21 .
C
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 65

ANSWERS

2. 0 in all cases 3. (i) 0 (ii) 0 (iii) 0

5. (i) 0 (ii) 0 (iii) 0
6. (i) 0 (ii) 0 (iii) 0 (iv) 0
7. (i) 0 (ii) 0 9. 0 10. 0.

1.17. CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA

Statement. If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve C and
a is any point within C, then
1 f ( z)
f ( a) 
2i C z  a .
dz

f ( z)
Proof. Consider the function , which is analytic at every
za
point within C except at z = a. Draw a circle C1 with a as centre
and radius  such that C1 lies entirely inside C.
f ( z)
Thus is analytic in the region between C and C1.
za
 By Cauchy’s theorem, we have
f ( z) f ( z)
 z  a dz   z  a dz
C C1
...(1)

Now, the equation of circle C1 is

| z – a | =  or z – a = ei
so that dz = ieid
2 2
f (z) f (a   e i )
 C z  a dz   i
.i ei d  i  f (a   e i ) d
1 0
e 0

2
f ( z)
Hence by (1), we have  z  a dz  i  f (a   e i ) d ...(2)
C 0

In the limiting form, as the circle C1 shrinks to the point a,

i.e.,  0, then from (2),
2 2
f ( z)
C z  a dz  i 0 f ( a ) d  if ( a ) 0 d  2i f (a)
66 MATHEMATICS III

1 f ( z)
f ( a) 
2i C z  a .
Hence dz

1.18. CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA FOR THE DERIVATIVE OF AN

ANALYTIC FUNCTION
If a function f(z) is analytic in a region D, then its derivative at any point z = a of D is also
analytic in D and is given by
1 f ( z)
f (a)   dz
2i C ( z  a ) 2
where C is any closed contour in D surrounding the point z = a.
Proof. Let a + h be a point in the neighbourhood of the point a. Then by Cauchy’s
Integral Formula
1 f ( z)
f(a)  2i  z  a dz
C

1 f ( z)
f ( a  h)   dz
2i C z  a  h

1  1 1 
 f (a  h)  f (a)      f ( z )dz
2i C  ( z  a  h) ( z  a ) 
h f ( z)dz
 
2i C ( z  a  h)( z  a )
f ( a  h)  f ( a ) 1 f ( z )dz
  
h 2i C ( z  a  h)( z  a)
Take limit as h  0
f (a  h)  f ( a) 1 f ( z ) dz
Lt  Lt 
h  0 2 i
h C ( z  a  h )( z  a )
h0

1 f ( z)
 f (a)   dz ...(1)
2i C ( z  a ) 2

Since a is any point of the region D, so by (1) it is clear that f (a) is analytic in D. Thus,
the derivative of an analytic function is also analytic.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 67

1.18. 1. THEOREM
If a function f(z) is analytic in a domain D, then at any point z = a of D, f(z) has derivatives
of all orders, all of which are again analytic functions in D, their values are given by
n! f ( z)
f n (a )   dz
2i ( z  a) n 1
where C is any closed contour in D surrounding the point z = a.
Proof. We shall prove this theorem by Mathematical Induction.
Let the theorem be true for n = m. Then
m! f ( z )dz
f m (a )  
2i C ( z  a ) m 1 is true.

f m (a  h)  f m (a ) m! 1  f ( z )dz f ( z )dz 
   m 1
 
h 2i h C ( z  a  h) C
( z  a) m 1 
 ( m 1)
m! 1 1  h  
 .  1    1  f ( z )dz
2i h C ( z  a ) m1  z  a  

m! 1 1  h (m  1)(m  2) h 2 
 . . m 1 
( m  1)  2
 ... f ( z)dz
2i h C ( z  a )  za 2! ( z  a) 
Take limit as h  0
limf m ( a  h)  f m ( a) ( m  1)! 1
 
h0 h 2i C ( z  a) m  2

(m  1)! 1
 f m 1 (a)  
2i C ( z  a ) m  2
Hence the theorem is true for n = m + 1 if the theorem is true for n = m. But we know
by Cauchy’s Integral formula for the derivative of a function that the theorem is true for n =
1. Hence the theorem must be true for n = 2, 3, 4, ...... and so on i.e., for all +ve integral
values of n. Thus,

n! f ( z)
f n ( a)   dz ...(1)
2i ( z  a) n1
Since a is any point of the region D, so by (1) it is clear that f n(a) is analytic in D. Thus
the derivatives of f(z) of all orders are analytic if f(z) is analytic.
68 MATHEMATICS III

Thus, if a function of a complex variable has a first derivative in a simply connected

region, all its higher derivatives exist in that region. This property is not exhibited by the
functions of real variables.

SOLVED EXAMPLES

e z
Example 1: Evaluate  z  1 dz , where C is the circle | z | = 2
C

Solution: f(z) = e–z is an analytic function.

The point a = – 1 lies inside the circle | z | = 2.
 By Cauchy’s integral formula,
e z
C z  1 dz = 2i(e–z)z=–1 = 2ie.
1
Example 2: Evaluate the following integral:  cos z dz
C
z
where C is the ellipse 9x2 + 4y2 = 1.
Solution: Pole is given by z = 0
The given ellipse encloses the simple pole.
 By Cauchy’s integral formula,
cos z

C
z
dz = 2i (cos z) = 2i.
z=0

sin z 2  cos z 2
Example 3: (i) Use Cauchy Integral formula to evaluate  ( z  1)( z  2) dz
C

where C is the circle | z | = 3.

cosz  sinz
(ii) Evaluate: 
C
z 1
dz , by using cauchy’s integral formula where C is the

circle | z | = 3/2.
Solution: (i) The integrand has singularities given by
(z – 1) (z – 2) = 0
 z = 1, 2
The given circle | z | = 3 with centre at z = 0 and radius 3 encloses both the singularities.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 69

 sin z 2  cos z 2   sin z 2  cos z 2 


 
  
 sin z 2  cos z 2  z2   z 1  dz
C ( z  1)( z  2) dz  C z 1
dz  
C2
z2
1

 sin z 2  cos z 2   sin z 2  cos z 2 

 2i    2i  
 z2  z 1  z 1  z 2
 0 1  0 1
 2i   2i   2i  2i  4i .
 1   1 
(ii) Singularity is given by
z–1=0
 z=1 (simple pole)
3
The given circle | z | = with centre at origin and radius
2
3
encloses the singularity..
2
By Cauchy’s integral formula,
cos z  sin z

C
z 1
dz = 2i (cos z + sin z) = – 2i.
z=1

Example 4: (i) Evaluate the following integral using Cauchy Integral formula
4  3z
 z ( z  1)( z  2) dz where C is the circle | z | = 3/2.
C

(ii) Use Cauchy-integral formula to evaluate

z
z 2
dz
 3z  2 , where C is the circle z  2  1 .
C 2

Solution: (i) Poles of the integrand are z = 0, 1, 2. These are simple poles.
3 3
Given circle | z | = with centre at z = 0 and radius encloses two poles z = 0 and z = 1.
2 2
 4  3z   4  3z 
   
4  3z  ( z  1)( z  2)   z ( z  2) 
 C z ( z  1)( z  2) dz  C z
dz  
C
( z  1)
dz
1 2
70 MATHEMATICS III

 4  3z   4  3z 
 2i    2i    2i .
 ( z  1)( z  2)  z 0  z ( z  2)  z 1
(ii) Poles of the integrand are given by
z2 – 3z + 2 = 0  z = 1, 2
Both are simple poles.
1 1
The given circle | z – 2 | = with centre at z = 2 and radius encloses only one of the
2 2
poles at z = 2.
 By Cauchy’s integral formula

 z 
   z  2
z  z 1   2i   2i   4i
dz 
C z 2  3z  2 C z  2 dz 
 z  1 z  2 1
1

Example 5: (i) Use Cauchy’s integral formula to calculate

2z 1 1
z
C
2
z where C is | z | =
2
.

dz
(ii) Evaluate by Cauchy’s integral formula  z ( z  i)
C
, where C is | z + 3i | = 1

Solution: (i) Poles are given by

z2 + z = 0
 z(z + 1) = 0  z = 0, – 1 (simple poles)
1 1
| z | = is a circle with centre at origin and radius . Therefore it encloses only one pole
2 2
z = 0.
 2z  1 
 
2z  1  z  1  dz  2i 2 z  1   2i .
 dz 
C z 2  z C z  
1
 z  1  z 0
(ii) Poles of the integrand are
z = 0, – i (simple poles)
The given curve C is a circle with centre at z = – 3i, i.e., at (0, – 3) and radius 1.
Clearly, only the pole z = – i lies inside the circle.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 71

1
 
dz z
 
C z ( z  i) C z  i dz
1

1
 2i  | By Cauchy’s Integral formula
 z  z  i
2i
= =–2
 i

z2 1
Example 6: Evaluate  z 2  1 dz where C is circle,
C

(i) | z | = 3/2 (ii) | z – 1 | = 1 (iii) | z | = 1/2.

Solution: The integrand has singularities given by
z2 – 1 = 0
 z = ± 1 (Simple poles)
(i) The given curve C is a circle with centre at ori-
gin (0, 0) and radius 3/2.
Both the singularities z = 1 and z = – 1 lie inside the
circle | z | = 3/2.

 z 2 1   z 2 1

 z 1    
z 2
 1    z 1 
   2 dz   dz   dz
C
z 1 C1
z 1 C2
z 1

 z 2 1   z 2 1 
 2i   2i  | By Cauchy’s Integral formula
 z  1  z 1  z 1  z 1
= 2i (1) + 2i (– 1) = 0
(ii) The given curve C is a circle with centre at
(1, 0) and radius 1.
Only the singularity z = 1 lie inside the given
circle | z – 1 | = 1.
72 MATHEMATICS III

 z2 1
 
z2 1  z  1 

C z 2  1 dz  C z  1 dz
 z2 1
 2i 
 z  1  z 1
| By Cauchy’s Integral formula
= 2i
(iii) The given curve C is a circle with centre at
1
origin (0, 0) and radius . Clearly both the singularities
2
1
z = 1 and z = – 1 lie outside the given circle | z | = .
2
Hence, by Cauchy’s Integral theorem
z2 1
C z 2  1 dz  0 .
3z 2  z
Example 7: (i) Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate  z 2  1 dz , where C is the
C

circle | z | = 2.
(ii) Evaluate the following complex integration using Cauchy’s integral formula

3z 2  z  1
C ( z 2  1)( z  3) dz
where C is the circle | z | = 2

Solution: (i) Singularities are given by

z2 – 1 = 0
 z = ± 1. (simple poles)
The circle |z| = 2 has centre at z = 0 and radius 2. It also includes the point
z = 1 and – 1.
3z 2  z 3z 2  z
Now, C z 2  1 dz  C ( z  1)( z  1) dz
 3z 2  z   3z 2  z 
   
 z 1   z  1 
 dz   dz
C1
z 1 C2
z 1
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 73

 3z 2  z   3z 2  z 
 2i   2i 
 z  1  at z 1  z  1  at z 1
Using Cauchy’s Integral Formula
 2  4
 2i   2i 
2 2
= – 2i + 4i = 2i.
(ii)Poles of the integrand are given by
(z2 – 1) (z + 3) = 0
 z = 1, – 1, – 3 (simple poles)
The circle | z | = 2 has centre at z = 0 and radius 2. clearly the poles z = 1 and z = – 1 lies
inside the given circle while the pole z = – 3 lies outside it.

 3z 2  z  1   3z 2  z  1 
   
3z 2  z  1  ( z  1)( z  3)   ( z  1)( z  3) 
 C ( z 2  1)( z  3) dz  C z  1
dz  
C
z  1
dz
1 2

 3z 2  z  1   3z 2  z  1 
 2i   2i 
 ( z  1)( z  3)  z 1  ( z  1)( z  3)  z  1
| Using Cauchy’s Integral formula
5  3  1  i
 2i   2i    2i    .
8  4  8  4
P( z ) P( z ) P( z )
Example 8: Let P(z) = a + bz + cz2 and  dz   2 dz   3 dz = 2i
C
z C
z C
z
where C is the circle | z | = 1. Evaluate P(z).

P( z )
Solution: (i)  dz  2i ...(1)
C
z
z = 0 is a simple pole which lies inside the circle | z | = 1
From (1), 2i [P(z)]z = 0 = 2i | By Cauchy’s Integral formula
 2i(a + bz + cz2)z = 0 = 2i
 2i(a) = 2i
74 MATHEMATICS III

 a=1
P( z )
(ii)  dz  2i ...(2)
C
z2
z = 0 is a double pole which lies inside the circle | z | = 1
2i  d 
From (2),  P ( z )  2i
1!  dz  z 0
d 
 2i  (a  bz  cz 2   2i
 dz  z 0
 2i(b + 2cz)z = 0 = 2i
 2i(b) = 2i
 b=1
P( z )
(iii) 
C
z3
dz = 2i ...(3)

z = 0 is a pole of order three which lies inside the circle | z | = 1

2i  d 2 
From (3),  2 P( z )  2i
2!  dz z 0

 d2 
 2i  2 (a  bz  cz 2   2i
 dz  z 0
2i
 (2c)z = 0 = 2i
2
 2i(c) = 2i
 c=1
Hence, P(z) = 1 + z + z2.
Example 9: Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate
e2z
C ( z  1) 4 dz where C is the circle | z | = 3.
Solution: The integrand has a singularity at z = – 1 which lies within the circle | z | = 3.

e2 z 2i  d 3 2 z 
C ( z  1) 4 dz   (e ) 
3!  dz 3  z 1
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 75

| By Cauchy’s Integral formula for nth derivative

i 8i
= (8e2z)z = –1 = .
3 3e 2
z
Example 10: Evaluate z
C
2
dz
1 wheree
1
(i) C  z  =2 (ii) C  | z + i | = 1.
z
Solution: Poles of the integrand are given by
z2 + 1 = 0
 z=±i
Integrand has two simple poles z = i and z = – i
(i) The given curve is

1
z =2
z
1
 x  iy  =2
x  iy

x 2 – y2  2ixy  1
 =2
x  iy

 (x2 – y2 + 1)2 + 4x2y2 = 4x2 + 4y2

 x4 + y4 – 2x2y2 + 1 + 2x2 – 2y2 + 4x2y2
= 4x2 + 4y2
 (x2 + y2)2 – 2(x2 + y2) + 1 = 4y2
 x2 + y2 – 1 = ± 2y
 x2 + ( y ± 1)2 = 2
Above equation represents two circles with centres (0, 1), (0, –1) and radius 2 .
z z z
z 2
dz   2 dz   2 dz
C
1 C1
z 1 C2
z 1

 z   z 
   
 zi  zi
 dz   dz
C1
z i C2
z i
76 MATHEMATICS III

 z   z 
 2i   2i 
 z  i  z i  z  i  z  i
1 1
 2i   2i   2i .
 2 2
(ii)The given curve | z + i | = 1 is a circle with centre at z = – i and radius 1. Clearly only
thepole z = – i lies inside the circle | z + i | = 1

 z 
 
z  z  i  dz
C z 2 1 C z  i
dz 

 z 
 2i 
 z  i  z  i
 i | By Cauchy Integral formula

3z 2  7 z  1
Example 11: If f() =  dz , where C is the circle x2 + y2 = 4, find the
C
z  
values of f(3) , f (1 – i) and f (1 – i).

Solution: The given circle C is x2 + y2 = 4 or | z | = 2.

The point z = 3 lies outside the circle | z | = 2 while z = 1 – i and z = 1 + i lie inside the
circle.
3z 2  7 z  1 2
(i) f(3) =  dz and 3 z  7 z  1 is analytic within and on C.
C
z 3 z3

 By Cauchy’s integral theorem, we have

3z 2  7 z  1
C z  3 dz = 0  f(3) = 0.

(ii) When  is a point within C.

By Cauchy’s Integral formula
3z 2  7 z  1
C z   dz = 2i(3z2 + 7z + 1)z =
 f() = 2i(32 + 7 + 1) ...(1)
 f () = 2i(6 + 7) ...(2)
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 77

Hence f (1 – i) = 2i{6(1 – i) + 7}

= 2i(13 – 6i) = 2(6 + 13i).
(iii) Also, f () = 2i(6) = 12i | From (2)
 f (1 – i) = 12i.

Example 12: Evaluate by using Cauchy Integral formula

z 1
 ( z  1)
C
2
dz
( z  2) , where C is |z – i| = 2.

Solution: Poles of the integrand are given by

(z + 1)2 (z – 2) = 0
 z = –1, 2
z = –1 is a double pole while z = 2 is a simple pole.
The given curve C is a circle with centre at (0, 1) and radius 2.
Clearly, the pole z = –1 lies inside the given circle while the pole z = 2 lies

3 z 3  7 z  17
(ii)If F() = C dz where C is the circle | z – 2 | = 7 find the value of F(5i – 6) and
( z   )2

dF
.
dz z 3

 z 1 
 
z 1  z  2  dz
C ( z  1) 2 ( z  2) C ( z  1) 2
dz 

2i  d  z  1 
   
1!  dz  z  2  z 1
| By Cauchy’s Integral formula for derivation

 1  2i
 2i  2

 ( z  2 )  z  1 9
78 MATHEMATICS III

Example 13: Integrate (z3 – 1) –2 the counter-clockwise sense around the circle
|z–1|=1
Solution: Singularities of integrand are given by
(z3 – 1)2 = 0
 (z – 1)2 (z2 + z + 1)2 = 0

 z = 1,  1  i 3
2
Singularities are of second order.
The circle | z – 1 | = 1 has centre at z = 1 and
radius 1. clearly, only z = 1 lies inside the
circle| z – 1 | = 1

 1 
 2 2
Now, dz  ( z  z  1) 
C ( z 3  1) 2  C ( z  1) 2 dz

2i  d  1  Using Cauchy's Integral

   2 2 
1!  dz  ( z  z  1)  z 1 formula for derivatives

  2(2 z  1) 2 
 2i  2 3
 ( z  z  1)  z 1

 3  4i
 4i    .
 27  9

ez
Example 14: Evaluate:  ( z 2   2 ) 2 dz , where C is | z | = 4.
C

Solution: Singularities of the integrand are given by

(z2 + 2)2 = 0
 z = i (order 2)
The given curve C is a circle with centre at origin and radius 4. The circle encloses both
the singularities.

 ez   ez 
   
ez  ( z  i ) 2   ( z  i ) 2 
 C ( z 2   2 ) 2 dz  C ( z  i) 2 dz  C ( z  i) 2 dz
1 1
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 79

 d  e z   d  e z 
 2i   2 
 2i   2 
 dz  ( z  i )  z i  dz  ( z  i )  z i
| By C–I formula for derivatives
 e z ( z  i  2)   e z ( z  i  2) 
 2i  3   2i  ( z  i )3 
 ( z  i )  z i   z  i

 i  1   i  1  i
 2 
 2 
 .
 2   2  
z dz
Example 15: Evaluate  ( z  1) ( z  1)
C
2 where C is | z | = 2.

Solution: Singularities are given by

(z – 1)2 (z + 1) = 0
z = 1, –1
z = 1 is a pole of order 2 while z = –1 is a simple pole. The given curve C is a circle with
centre at origin and radius 2. It is clear that the circle encloses both the poles.

 z   z 
 2  
z  ( z  1)   z  1
 C ( z  1) 2 ( z  1) dz  C z  1 dz  C ( z  1) 2 dz
1 2

 z   d  z 
 2i  2
 2i   
 ( z  1)  z 1  dz  z  1   z 1

 1   1  i i
 2i   2i  2
    0.
 4   ( z  1)  z 1 2 2

EXERCISE

z2  5
1. (i) Evaluate  dz , where C is the circle | z | = 4.
C
z3
z
(ii)Evaluate  z  2 dz
C
where C is the circle |z – 2| = 3/2.
80 MATHEMATICS III

2
(iii) Evaluate  ( z  1)( z  3) dz
C
where C is |z – 1| = 2.

ez
2. (i) Evaluate  z 2 1 dz over the circular path | z | = 2.
C

ez
(ii) Evaluate  z 1 dz where C is the circle z 1 = 1.
C 2

3z 2  7 z  1
3. (i) Evaluate  dz , where C is the circle | z | = 1.5.
C
z 1
dz
(ii) Evaluate z
C
2
 7 z  12 where C is the circle |z| = 3.5.
cos z
4. (i) Evaluate  z   dz , where C is the circle | z – 1 | = 3.
C

cos z
(ii) Evaluate 
C
z 1
dz if C is |z| = 2

5. Evaluate the complex integration

 cos z 2  sin z 2 
(i)    dz where C is the circle | z | = 3.
C
( z  1)( z  2) 

cos z 2
(ii)  ( z  1)( z  2) where C is the circle |z| = 3/2.
C

z dz
6. (i) Evaluate  ( z  1)( z  3)
C
, where C is the circle

(a) | z | = 3 (b) | z | = 3/2.

ez
(ii) Evaluate  ( z  1)( z  4) dz , where C is the circle | z | = 2.
C

(iii) Evaluate using Cauchy’s integral formula:

e2 z
C ( z  1)( z  2)dz where C is the circle |z|=3.
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 81

ez 1
7.(i) Evaluate  z ( z  1) dz , where C is the circle | z | = 4
.
C

(ii) Using Cauchy Integral formula, evaluate

dz

C
z  1 where C  | z | = 2.
2

z2
(iii) Evaluate  z ( z  1) dz
C
where C is the circle |z| = 3.

dz
(iv) Evaluate z
C
2
 1 where C is the circle with centre at z = 1 and radius
1.
cos  z
8. Evaluate 
C
z 2
1
dz around a rectangle with vertices

(a) 2 ± i, – 2 ± i (b) – i, 2 – i, 2 + i, i.
sin 2 z
9. (i) Evaluate C    dz , where C is the circle | z | = 1.
z 
 6
z
(ii) Evaluate  ( z  1)
C
3
dz where C is |z| = 2 using Cauchy’s integral

formula.
e  2 z dz
10. (i) Evaluate  ( z  1) 3 , where C is the circle| z | = 2.
C

e5z
(ii) Using Cauchy’s integral formula, evaluate  ( z  i ) 4 dz where c is |z| = 3.
C

sin  z 2  cos  z 2
(iii) Evaluate  ( z  1) 2 ( z  2) dz around |z| = 3.
C

dz
11. Evaluate z
C
2
 9 , where C is
(i) | z – 3i | = 4 (ii) | z + 3i | = 2 (iii) | z | = 5
82 MATHEMATICS III

12. Evaluate: (

z 4
(i) z
C
2
dz
 2z  5 ; C  | z + 1 + i | = 2

z3  6
(ii)  dz ; C|z|=1
C
2z  i
tan z
(iii) z
C
2
i
dz ; C  | z | = 3/2

z4
(iv) z
C
2
dz
 2z  5 ; C  | z + 1 – i | = 2.

z2 1
13. Evaluate by Cauchy-Integral formula:  z 2  1 dz
C

where C is (i) | z + 1 | = 4
(ii) | z + 1 | = 1
(iii) | z – i | = 1.
14. Evaluate the following integrals:
cos 2 z z 4  3z 2  6
(i)  (2 z  1)( z  3) dz ; C  | z | = 1(ii) C ( z  i)3 dz ; C|z|=2
C

cosh z cos  z 2
(iii)  z 4 dz ; C  | z | = 1/2 (iv)  ( z  1)( z  2 ) ; C|z
C C
| = 3/2.
ez
15. Integrate around the contour C, where C is
z2  1
(i) | z – i | = 1 (ii) | z + i | = 1
sin z
16. Evaluate z
C
2
dz
 iz  2 , where C is
(i) | z + 2 | = 2
(ii) A rectangle with vertices at (1, 0), (1, 3), (– 1, 3) and (– 1, 0)
(iii) A rectangle with vertices at (2, 0), (2, 3), (– 2, 3) and (– 2, – 3).
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 83

e3z
17. Evaluate:  (z  log2)4 dz, where C is the square with vertices at  1  i.
C

ez
18. Evaluate  dz
C
z (1  z ) 3 , where C is
1 1
(i) | z | = (ii) | z – 1 | = (iii) | z | = 2
2 2
sin 2 z
19. (i) Integrate around the contour C, where C is a rectangle with
( z  3) ( z  1) 2
vertices at 3  i,
– 2  i.
zdz
(ii) Evaluate  ( z  1)( z  2)
C
2 where C is the circle |z – 2| = 1
2
using Cauchy’s

integral formula.

dz
(iii) Evaluate  ( z  1)
C
2
( z  2) where C is the circle |z| =
3
2
.

z3  z
20. Evaluate:  ( z  2) 3 dz where C is
C

(i) | z | = 3 (ii) | z – 2 | = 1 (iii) | z | = 1

21. Using Cauchy-integral formula, Evaluate :

cos z
(i)  ( z  i)
C
2
dz ; C|z|=5

ez
(ii)  z 3 dz ; C|z|=1
C

ez 1
(iii)  ( z  1) 2 ( z 2  4) dz ;C  | z – 1 | =
C 2

e zt
(iv)  ( z 2  1) 2 dz ; C  | z | = 3, t > 0.
C
84 MATHEMATICS III

ez
22. Show that  z dz  2i , C  | z | = 1. Hence show that
C

2 2
cos  cos 
 e cos(sin  ) d  2 and e sin(sin  ) d  0
0 0

23. Evaluate the integrals

e z  sin z
(i)  ( z  1)( z  3) 3 ( z  4) dz , where C is | z | = 2
C

z 1
(ii)  z 2  9 dz ; C|z+3|=1
C

dz 
24. Show that (i)  (z 
C
2
 4) 16 ; C  | z – i | = 2
2

ez  11 
(ii)  z 2 ( z  1) 3 dz   e  4 i ;C  | z | = 2
C  

dz
(iii)  (z 2
0 ; C  | z – 1 | = 4
C
 4)3

z
25. Evaluate  (z
C
2
 6 z  25) 2
dz by Cauchy integral formula, where C is | z –

3 – 4i | = 4.

3z 2  7 z  1
26 . (i) If f (a) =  dz where C is |z| = 2 find f (4), f (1) and f (1).
C
za

3 z 3  7 z  17
(ii)If F() = C dz where C is the circle | z – 2 | = 7 find the
( z   )2

dF
value of F(5i – 6) and .
dz z 3

z 1
27.By Cauchy integral formula, evaluate z
C
4
 4z3  4z2
dz where C is |z – 2 –

i| = 2
FUNCTION OF COMPLEX VARIABLES 85

ANSWERS

1. (i) 28i (ii) 4i (iii) i

2i
2. (i) 2i sin 1 (ii) . 3. (i) – 6i (ii) – 2i
e

4. (i) – 2i (ii) – 2i 5. (i) – 4i (ii) 2i

2
6. (i) (a) 2i (b) – i(ii) – ie (iii) 2i (e4 – e2)
3
7. (i) 2i (ii) 0 (iii) 2i (iv) i.
8 (a) 0 (b) – i 9. (i)i (ii) 0
125
10. (i) 4ie2 (ii) ie 5i (iii) 4( + 1)i
3
 
11. (i) (ii) – (iii) 0
3 3
  
12. (i) – (3 – 2i)(ii) – 6i (iii) 2i tan 1 (iv) 2
(3  2i)
2 8
13. (i) 0 (ii) – 2i (iii) 0
2i
14. (i) (ii) – 18i (iii) 0 (iv) 2i
5
15. (i) (cos 1 + i sin 1) (ii) – (cos 1 – i sin 1)
2i 2i
16. (i) 0 (ii) sinh 2 (iii) (sinh 2 + sinh 1)
3 3
17. 72i 18. (i) 2i (ii) – ie (iii) i (2 – e)
i 2i
19. (i) (4 cos 2 + sin 2) (ii) – 2i (iii) 
2 9
20. (i) 12i (ii) 12i (iii) 0
6 e
21. (i) 2 sinh  (ii) i (iii) (iv)i (sin t – t cos t)
25

ie 2i 3
23. (i) (ii) 25.
10 3 128
26. (i) 0, 26i, 12i(ii) 0, 108i 27. – i.