First lecture

Micrometric 21\22

Klystron – Two-cavity Klystron Amplifier

Definition: Klystrons are a special type of vacuum tubes that find applications as
amplifiers and oscillators at microwave frequencies. Its principle of operation is
velocity modulation. Thus the device used for amplifying microwave signals is
known as Two-cavity Klystron.

In the year 1937, American engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian developed
klystrons. Basically, the operating principle of Klystron is such that the kinetic
energy of a moving electron beam is utilized for amplifying and generating
microwave signals. TWT i.e., Travelling Wave Tubes are also used for
amplification of RF signals and have similar applications as klystrons. But in
TWT, a continuous interaction is maintained between the field and electron beam.
While in klystrons interaction between the two is allowed to occur only at the
cavities of the structure.

Klystrons are majorly classified as:

 Two-cavity Klystron
 Reflex Klystron

Here in this lecture, we will discuss the construction and working of the two-cavity
klystron amplifier.

Contents: Two-cavity Klystron

1. Operating Principle
2. Construction
3. Working
4. Applications

Operating Principle of Two-cavity Klystron

As we have already discussed in the introduction that Klystron is based on the
principle of velocity modulation. Thus two-cavity klystron amplifier utilizes the
kinetic energy of moving electron beam for signal amplification.
The variation in the velocity of electrons while moving inside the tube is known as
velocity modulation. This velocity modulation permits bunching of electrons
while propagation. So, the combined energy of bunched electrons is transferred at
the output thereby providing an amplified signal.
Construction
The figure below represents the structure of a two-cavity klystron:

As we can see that the above figure consists of 2 cavities namely the buncher
cavity and catcher cavity. The RF signal to be amplified is provided at the buncher
cavity. The electron gun comprises cathode, heating element and anode. The
electron beam is produced by the cathode by making use of a heating element and
the high positive potential at the anode provides the required acceleration to the
electron beam initially. The region between two cavities is known as drift space.
To allow focused propagation of electron beam inside the tube an external
electromagnetic winding is used that generates a longitudinal magnetic field. This
is done in order to prevent the spreading of the beam inside the tube. The amplified
RF signal is achieved at the catcher cavity. Also, a collector is present near the
second cavity that collects the electron bunches.

Working of Two-cavity Klystron Amplifier

Consider the above-shown figure of two-cavity klystron amplifier.
Initially, electrons are emitted from the electron gun and the anode present in the
structure provides the desired acceleration to the beam.
 In the absence of any RF input, the electron will tend to move with their
respective uniform velocities to reach the catcher cavity and collected at the
collector.
 But when external RF signal is applied at the input of the buncher cavity
then this causes the generation of a local electric field inside the tube.
This electric field causes the bunching of electrons as the field applies acceleration
and deceleration to the moving electron, according to the polarity of the signal by
which the field is generated.
Basically, the reason for causing acceleration and deceleration is that when the
direction of movement of an electron is in the same direction of the field, then, in
this case, the electrons experience a decrease in their moving velocity. However, if
the generated electric field is opposite to the direction of movement of the electron
then, in this case, the electrons experience an increase in the velocity of their
movement

Let us now understand in detail how this decrease and increase in velocity causes
bunching of electrons;
1. When the negative half of the RF signal is provided as input to the buncher
cavity then the moving electrons experience a repulsive force due to the
presence of a negative charge at the entering plate of the buncher cavity.

2. Or we can say that due to the negative half of the input the generated electric
field will be in the same direction of the moving electrons. So, the velocity
of the moving electrons gets reduced.
3. Further when the positive half of the RF signal is provided then the positive
potential at the first plate of the cavity applies attractive force to the moving
electrons. More simply, for the positive half cycle of input, the generated
electric field will be opposite to the direction of electron movement. So, this
leads to an increase in the moving velocity of the electrons.
Thus, when we consider both the cases then the electrons that were emitted earlier
by the gun will be decelerated while the electrons emitted later will be accelerated.
Thus all the electrons while moving with different velocities get bunched in the
drift space. This change in the velocity of electrons while moving due to RF input is
known as velocity modulation. Once the electron bunching is done then the catcher
cavity present at another end of the tube absorbs the beam energy.

It is to be noted that to find the position of the catcher cavity transit time of
bunches must be considered. This is so because the catcher cavity must be present
at a sufficient distance from the buncher cavity so that bunching can be attained in
the drift space. Further, once the energy is transferred to the catcher cavity then
electrons gets collected at the collector.
Applegate Diagram
The figure below shows the Applegate diagram that represents the bunching of
electrons moving with different velocities:
The electron travelling inside the tube under the absence of external fields acts as
the bunching center. Also, the electrons moving due to the influence of the positive
half cycle of the signal reaches faster while the movement due to the negative half
cycle is retarded. Thus the figure represents the bunching process at a certain point
and at a specific distance inside the tube.

Applications
The two-cavity Klystron finds application in satellite communication, UHF TV
transmitters as well as radar systems, wideband high power communication and
troposphere scatter transmitters etc.

Limitations and losses of conventional Tubes at Microwave Frequencies

Conventional vacuum triodes, tetrodes and pentodes are less useful signal sources
at frequencies above 1 G Hz because of
 lead inductance
 Inter-electrode capacitance effects,
 Transit angle effects
 Gain bandwidth product limitations.
 Power losses

Lead inductance and inter-electrode capacitance effects

At frequencies above 1 GHz conventional vacuum tubes are impaired by parasitic
circuit reactance because the circuit capacitances between tube electrodes and the
circuit inductance of the lead wire are too large for a microwave resonant circuit.
Further as the frequency increases the real part of the input admittance may be
large enough to cause a serious over load of the input circuit and thereby reduce
the operating efficiency of the tube.

Transit angle effects

Another limitation in the application of conventional tubes at microwave
frequencies is the electron transit angle between electrodes. The electron transit
angle is defines as

Where:
is the transit time across the gap
D = is the width of the gap of the buncher cavity.
= Velocity of the electron 0.593 * √
= DC voltage.

When frequencies are below microwave range, the transit angle is negligible. At
microwave frequencies, however the transit time is large compared to the period of
the microwave signal, and the potential between the cathode and the grid may
alternate from 10 to 100 times during the electron transit. The grid potential during
the negative half cycle thus removes energy that was given to the electron during
the positive half cycle. Consequently, the electrons may oscillate back and forth in
the cathode-grid space or return to the cathode. The overall result of transit angle
effects is to reduce the operating efficiency of the vacuum tube. The degenerate
effect becomes more serious when frequencies are well above 1 GHz.

Gain bandwidth product limitations

The gain-bandwidth product is independent of frequency. For a given tube, a
higher gain can be achieved only at the expense of a narrower bandwidth. This
restriction is applicable to a resonant circuit only. In microwave devices either
reentrant cavities or slow-wave structures are used to obtain a possible overall high
gain over a bandwidth.

Power losses
The use of conventional tubes at higher frequencies also increases in power losses
resulting from skin effect, losses resulting from capacitance charging currents,
losses due to radiation from the circuit and dielectric losses.
Second Lecture
2021 – 2022
Klystron design

Abbreviations, Transit angle, Beam coupling coefficient, ,

= DC voltage between cathode and anode.

= Amplitude of input RF signal.

Average voltage in the gap during time “ ”

= Time at which electrons enter the buncher cavity.

= Time at which electrons leave the buncher cavity.
Time at which electrons enter the catcher cavity
Time at which electrons leave the catcher cavity
= Transit time of electrons in the buncher cavity = .

Cavity gap width

Spacing between buncher and catcher cavities, it is the design parameter for
optimum performance of the klystron amplifier.

= Uniform velocity of electrons between cathode and buncher cavity.

= Velocity of electrons at t= t1 at the output of buncher cavity, this is a time
varying quantity

ω = 2πf = Input signal angular frequency. It is also equal to resonant frequency of

both the cavities.
Angle /Phase variation of input signal during the transit time
= Beam Coupling Coefficient of the buncher / Catcher Cavity.

==============

The electron transit angle is defines as;

===============
Average voltage in the gap during time “ ”

[cos ωt]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]
Beam coupling coefficient of input (buncher) cavity

Ex: The parameters of a two cavity Klystron are:

Find out Beam coupling coefficient.

Solution:

√ =

=================
‫√‬

‫وديث أن السرعت ال تظل منتظمت ولكنها تتغير بتغير جهد اإلشارة الداخلت‬
‫إذن يصبخ الجهد المؤثر علً السرعت هى‪:‬‬

‫(‬ ‫)‬

‫√‬ ‫√‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬

‫√‬ ‫(‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬ ‫)‬

‫√‬ ‫(‬ ‫(‬ ‫)‬ ‫)‬

‫√‬

‫*‬ ‫(‬ ‫‪)+‬‬

‫[‬ ‫]‬
‫[‬ ‫]‬

‫===============‬

‫‪⁄‬‬

‫‪⁄‬‬ ‫ربع الزمه الدوري‬

‫‪⁄‬‬
[ ]

[ ]

‫بالتعىيض فً المعادلتيه السابقتيه‬

* + ⁄

⁄ ⁄

* + ⁄

⁄ ⁄

‫بطرح المعادلتيه السابقتيه‬

The above equation is only an approximation, because mutual repulsive force

between the electrons in the highly densed beam are not taken into consideration.
Optimum spacing between the two cavities where maximum degree of bunching
occurs is given by:
===============
Third Lecture

2021-2022

Micrometric Electronics

Klystron mathematical relationships;

[ ]

[ ]
⁄

( )
( )

Problems:

1. Determine maximum theoretical efficiency of a klystron:

Maximum theoretical efficiency of klystron is achieved when;

2. The parameters of a two cavity Klystron are:

Find out Beam coupling coefficient.

√ =
3. The parameters of a two cavity Klystron are:
Input power =10 mW
Voltage gain = 20 db

Load resistance =
Calculate (a) input voltage (b) output voltage (c) power output

From input AC equivalent circuit

√ √ volt

Output power =

4. A 2-cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameters:

Calculate (a) Input voltage for maximum output (b) voltage gain (c)
Klystron efficiency

√ = √

5. A 2-cavity klystron amplifier is tuned at 3 GHz. The drift space length is 2 cms
and beam current is 25 mA. The catcher voltage is 0.3 times the beam voltage and
Calculate:
(a) Power output and efficiency for N=5.25
(b) Beam voltage, input voltage, and output current for N=5.25

* + volts

volts
From the equation;

( ) =0.11

=41.46 volts

Or 17.4%
6. A 2-cavity klystron operates at 5 GHz with a DC voltage of 10 kv and a 2
mm cavity gap. For a given RF voltage the magnitude of gap voltage is 100
volts. Calculate;
(a) Transit angle (b) Velocity of electrons leaving the gap.

√
=o.954

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Third Lecture
2021-2022
Micrometric Electronics
Reflex Klystron as oscillators
Definition: A Reflex Klystron is a specialized low-power vacuum tube used to
produce oscillations at microwave frequency. Its principle of operation is velocity
and current modulation.
Klystrons are basically specialized tubes used as amplifiers and oscillators at the
microwave frequency range.
Contents:
1. Need
2. Operating Principle
3. Construction
4. Working
5. Specifications
6. Applications

Need of Reflex Klystron

We have already discussed Two-cavity Klystron and Travelling Wave Tube in our
previous lecture. We know that a two-cavity klystron acts as an amplifier to
provide amplification of RF signals.

So, can that same structure be utilized for generating oscillations?

Basically, a two-cavity klystron can be converted into an oscillator, but some
disadvantages are associated with it. As we know to design an oscillator, positive
feedback must be provided to the input in a way to have a magnitude of loop gain
as unity.
So, if we design a klystron oscillator using a two-cavity klystron then to have a
change in oscillating frequency, the resonant frequency of the two-cavities is also
required to be changed, thereby leading to cause difficulty in generating
oscillations. Thus to overcome the disadvantage, a reflex klystron having a single
cavity was invented to have sustained oscillations at microwave frequency.

Operating Principle:
Like a two-cavity klystron, a reflex klystron utilizes the phenomenon of velocity
and current modulation to produce oscillations. However, there exist variation in
constructional structure and the respective applications of the two. A reflex
klystron consists of a single cavity that performs the action of both buncher and
catcher cavity. As to have oscillations, feedback is needed to be applied at the
input which is provided by the oscillator.
While moving electrons undergoes velocity modulation and the repeller applies
repulsive forces on them. This leads to the formation of a bunch of electrons.
Further, this bunching will lead to cause, current modulation.
We will discuss the working of a reflex klystron in detail but before that let us see
how it is constructed.

Construction of Reflex Klystron

The basic schematic of a reflex klystron is shown below:

The structure consists of a cathode and focusing anode that combinedly acts as an
electron gun for the tube. The cathode emits the electron beam which is focused
inside the tube by the focusing anode. Also, a positive potential is provided as
input which sets up an electric field inside the cavity.
As it is a single cavity structure, thus single cavity act as buncher and catcher
cavity separately. At the time of forward movement of the electron beam, it acts as
a buncher cavity. While at the time of backward movement, it is a catcher cavity.
A repeller plate that causes backward movement of the electron beam is present at
the opposite end of the electron gun. The potential at the repeller is made
extremely negative in order to permit repulsion of like charges.
Repulsion is necessary in order to build electrical oscillations, as output power
must be fed to the input. So the velocity modulated electrons must have to travel a
backward path in order to provide feedback. Thus repeller is used in the structure
of the klystron.
Working of Reflex Klystron
As we have already discussed the fundamental principle of operation of a reflex
klystron is velocity and current modulation. So, consider the above figure.
 Initially when the electron beam is emitted by the electron gun, then the early
electrons, ee experience a very high potential. Due to this, a strong electric field
gets generated inside the cavity gap, leading to cause movement of electrons
towards the repeller with a very high velocity. Due to high velocity, the
electrons penetrate deeper into the region of the repeller and thus require greater
time to repel back towards the catcher cavity.

 But when the externally applied potential is almost 0, then the electron moves
with a uniform velocity with which it was emitted by the gun. These electrons
are generally known as reference electrons er.
So, in this case, er will not penetrate deeply into the repeller surface and gets
repelled by the repeller in a lesser time than the early electron.

 Further, the electron that is emitted by the gun after the reference electron
experiences a highly negative potential at the cavity. This electron is generally
known as late electron el and moves with a very low velocity inside the tube.
The penetration level of the late electron into the repeller space is least thus
takes a minimal amount of time to get repelled back.

It is to be noted that due to deep penetration in the repeller region, e e will take
more time than er while returning towards the catcher. This change in the velocity
of moving electrons is known as velocity modulation. And due to this velocity
modulation, all the electrons get bunched while returning towards the catcher
cavity.
So, in this way bunch of electrons reaches the catcher cavity. This bunching of
electrons leads to cause, current modulation inside the tube. Therefore, at the time
of returning, the bunched electrons transfer the maximal of their energy to the
catcher cavity, thereby leading to cause oscillations inside the tube.
 Transit Time: Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electrons to
return to the cavity gap after getting repelled by the repeller. For sustained
oscillations to take place, transit time is the most important factor. Basically, the
optimum time for leaving the gun is centered around the reference electron,
which is considered at a 180º phase difference from the sinusoidal applied
potential across the gap.
 Bunching Process: The figure below shows the process of bunching on the
return journey of all the 3 categories of electrons i.e., ee, er, and el:
As we have already discussed that bunching takes place at the time of the return
journey of electrons. Thus it is represented in the figure that though ee, er and el, are
approaching the repeller with different velocities, yet while returning all of them
are bunched at a respective time.

Specifications
1. The operating frequency range generally offered is 1 to 20 GHz.
2. It delivers output power in the range of 10mW to 2.5 W.
3. The tuning range of klystron lies between 5 GHz at 2W to 30 GHz at 10 mW.
4. Theoretically, the efficiency is considered 22.78% while practically the
achieved efficiency is only 10 to 20%.

Applications
As reflex klystrons are oscillators thus find applications in local oscillator
receivers, radar receivers, radio receivers, also utilized as signal sources in
microwave generators and pump oscillators of parametric amplifiers.
Fifth Lecture
1021-2022
Analysis of Reflex klystron

Reflex klystron is a single cavity law power microwave oscillator. The

characteristics of Reflex Klystron are:
Power output: 10- 500mw
Frequency range: 1 to 25 GHz
Efficiency: 10-20%

Applications:
1. Widely used in the as a source for microwave experiments
2. Local oscillator in microwave receivers

The theory of the 2-cavity klystron can be applied to the analysis of Reflex
klystron with slight modifications.

Schematic diagram of Reflex Klystron

Formation of electron beam with uniform velocity up to cavity resonator is
similar to that of 2-cavity klystron.
√

Due to dc voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated in the cavity. This
EM noise field in the cavity gets pronounced at cavity resonant frequency and acts
as a small signal microwave voltage source of . The electron beam with
uniform velocity when enters the cavity undergoes velocity modulation as in the
case of 2-cavity klystron.

Let:
= time at which electron enters the cavity gap
= time at which electron leave the cavity gap
d = cavity gap width
Z = Axis as shown in schematic diagram
Z = 0 at the input gap of cavity
Z = d at the output of cavity gap
Z = L at the repeller

From the following equation of 2 cavity klystron

( ) [ ( )]
Some electrons are accelerated by the accelerating field (during + ve cycle of RF
field) and enter the repeller space with greater velocity compared to the electrons
with unchanged velocity, some electrons are decelerated by the decelerating field
(during –ve cycle of RF field) and enter repeller space with less velocity

All the electrons entering repeller space are retarded ‫تعوق‬ّ by the repeller which is at
a –ve potential of . All the electrons are turned back and again enter the cavity in
a bunched manner. The bunch re-enters the cavity and when the field in the cavity
is a retarding field bunches convey ‫ تنقل‬kinetic energy to the cavity. The cavity
converts this kinetic energy into electromagnetic energy at the resonant frequency
resulting in the sustained oscillations ‫ ذبذبات مستمرة‬and therefore the output of the
cavity is
Let “b” be the reference electron at t = t2 for our analysis. Electron “b” is passing
through the cavity gap while the field is zero (-ve shape) when the electrons
a,b,c… leave the cavity i.e. at z = d, the velocity is given by the equation;

( ) [ ( )]

These electrons are subjected to retarding field due to repeller voltage during the
drift space from z = d to z = L. the retarding field in the drift space is given by
The force equation for an electron in the repeller region is given by:

[ ]

Since; ,

( )

Integrating the above equation;

( ) ( )
∫ ( )

Where;
= integration constant
= Time at the electron enters the gap
= Time at the electron leave the gap
= Time at the electron re-enters the gap due to retarding field

at , ( ) ⁄

⁄ ( )

Integrating the above equation once again;

( )
∫( ) ∫ ( )

( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )( )

electrons return of cavity after retardation at above equation.

( )
( ) ( )( )

( )
( ) ( )( )

Let T be round trip transit time =

( )
( )[ ( ) ( )]

( )
( ) ( )

( )
( )

[ ]

( )

is the round trip transit time of electron ’b’ which is leaving the cavity at
velocity ( )
is a function of
( )

( )

Let
Where is the bunching parameter of Reflex Klystron

Power output and efficiency of Reflex Klystron

In case of 2-cavity klystron, we had seen that the maximum transfer of kinetic
energy to the cavity takes place when the electron bunch enters when the field is –
ve peak.
Similarly in the case of reflex Klystron, the bunch must enter cavity when the field
is +ve peak. (This is because the direction of electron bunch entering into the
cavity is 180 opposite to that of 2-cavity Klystron).

Electronic and mechanical tuning of Reflex Klystron

For using the device as varying frequency oscillator
Electronic tuning is possible by adjustment of repeller voltage .

The above eq. gives the relation between variation and the resulting variation in
the frequency.

Mechanical Tuning of Reflex Klystron

The resonant frequency of the cavity can be adjusted using following two methods
1. The frequency of resonance is mechanically adjusted by adjustable screws using
the method called post.
2. The walls of the cavity are moved slightly in and out by means of an adjustable
screw which in-turn tightens or loosens small bellows. This will result in variation
of dimensions of the cavity and then the resonant frequency.

Relationships used:

( )
( )
√

( )

( )

Where;
: Repeller voltage change
Resonant frequency change
L: Drift space between cavity grid and repeller.
n: Angular displacement during round trip transit time.
N: is the mode.
m: mass of an electron = KGm
e: charge of an electron= C
Vo: DC voltage used to accelerate electrons emitted from cathode.
: Current of electron beam emitted from cathode.
: Reflex Klystron output power.
: Reflex Klystron DC power.
: The fundamental component of bunching parameter of Reflex Klystron.
( ) Bessel Function of .
η: Efficiency of Reflex Klystron

Solved problems on Reflex Klystron

Problem 1:
The given parameters for a reflex Klystron are;

Find the variation in frequency for factor = 0.02 or 2%

Solution:
√

Problem 2:
A Reflex klystron operates at the peak mode of

Calculate:
A. Input power in watts
B. Output power in watts
C. Efficiency

Solution:
A.
( )
( )

( )

Problem 3:
Given parameters of a reflex klystron
Find:
A. Repeller Voltage
B. Max. efficiency

Solution:

( )

Max. efficiency occurs at where ( )

or 22.8%

Problem 4:

A reflex klystron operates under the following conditions:

The tube is oscillating at at the peak of n = 2, mode. Assume that the transit
time through the gap and beam loading can be neglected.
a. Find the value of the repeller voltage .
b. Find the direct current necessary to give a microwave gap voltage of 200 volt.
c. What is the electronic efficiency under this condition?
Solution:

( )

( )

( )

( )
η ⁄ ⁄
=0.1949 or 19.49%