CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)

Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question Asked in GTU

1. Discuss in brief role of a chemical engineer (May 2018 (New))[LJIET]

Role of a chemical engineer

 Chemical engineering design of new chemical plants and the expansion or
revision of existing ones require the use of engineering principles and theories
combined with a practical realization of the limits imposed by industrial
conditions.
 Term plant design includes all engineering aspects involved in the development
of either a new, modified, or expanded industrial plant. In this development, the
chemical engineer will be making economic evaluations of new processes,
designing individual pieces of equipment for the proposed new venture, or
developing a plant layout for coordination of the overall operation.
 Because of these many design duties, the chemical engineer is many times
referred to here as a design engineer. On the other hand, a chemical engineer
specializing in the economic aspects of the design is often referred to as a cost
engineer. In many instances, the term process engineering is used in connection
with economic evaluation and general economic analyses of industrial processes,
while process design refers to the actual design of the equipment and facilities
necessary for carrying out the process. Similarly, the meaning of plant design is
limited by some engineers to items related directly to the complete plant, such as
plant layout, general service facilities, and plant location.
 The chemical engineer understands the physical problems which are involved
in the final operation and maintenance of the designed equipment. In developing
the plant layout, crucial control valves must be placed where they are easily
accessible to the operators. Sufficient space must be available for maintenance
personnel to check, take apart, and repair equipment. The engineer should realize
that cleaning operations are simplified if a scale-forming fluid is passed through
the inside of the tubes rather than on the shell side of a tube-and-shell heat
exchanger.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

 The chemical engineer has many tools to choose from in the development of a
profitable plant design. None, when properly utilized, will probably contribute
as much to the optimization of the design as the use of high-speed computers.
Many problems encountered in the process development and design can be solved
rapidly with a higher degree of completeness with high-speed computers and at
less cost than with ordinary hand or desk calculators. Generally overdesign and
safety factors can be reduced with a substantial savings in capital investment.
 The engineer must consider costs and probable profits constantly throughout all
the work. It is almost always better to sell many units of a product at a low profit
per unit than a few units at a high profit per unit. Consequently, the engineer must
take into account the volume of production when determining costs and total
profits for various types of designs. This obviously leads to considerations of
customer needs and demands. These factors may appear to be distantly removed
from the development of a plant design, but they are extremely important in
determining its ultimate success.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question Asked in GTU

1. What are the basic considerations in chemical engineering plant design? (Nov 2017
New) [LJIET]

Basic Considerations in Chemical Engineering Plant Design (or general

overall design Considerations)
 The development of the overall design project involves many different design
considerations. Failure to include these considerations in the overall design project
may, in many instances, alter the entire economic situation so drastically as to make
the venture unprofitable. Some of the factors involved in the development of a
complete plant design include plant location, plant layout, materials of construction,
structural design, utilities, buildings, storage, materials handling, safety, waste
disposal, federal, state, and local laws or codes, and patents.
 Various types of computer programs and techniques are used to carry out the design
of individual pieces of equipment or to develop the strategy for a full plant design.
 Record keeping and accounting procedures are also important factors in general
design considerations, and it is necessary that the design engineer be familiar with the
general terminology and approach used by accountants for cost and asset accounting.
 Basic Considerations in Chemical Engineering Plant Design are :
a. cost estimation,
b. profitability of investments,
c. optimum design,
d. Optimum Economic Design,
e. Optimum Operation Design,
f. practical considerations in design and the design approach
(a) Cost Estimation
 As soon as the final process-design stage is completed, it becomes possible
to make accurate cost estimations because detailed equipment
specifications and definite plant-facility information are available. Direct
price quotations based on detailed specifications can then be obtained from
various manufacturers.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

 The chemical engineer (or cost engineer) must be certain to consider all
possible factors when making a cost analysis. Fixed costs, direct
production costs for raw materials, labour, maintenance, power, and
utilities must all be included along with costs for plant and administrative
overhead, distribution of the final products, and other miscellaneous items.
(b) Profitability of Investments
 A major function of the directors of a manufacturing firm is to maximize the
long-term profit to the owners or the stockholders. A decision to invest in
fixed facilities carries with it the burden of continuing interest, insurance,
taxes, depreciation, manufacturing costs, etc., and also reduces the fluidity of
the company’s future actions. Capital-investment decisions, therefore, must be
made with great care.
 Various types of taxes and insurance can materially affect the economic
situation for any industrial process. Because modern taxes may amount to a
major portion of a manufacturing firm’s net earnings, it is essential that the
chemical engineer be conversant with the fundamentals of taxation.
(c) Optimum design
 In almost every case encountered by a chemical engineer, there are several
alternative methods which can be used for any given process or operation.
 For example, formaldehyde can be produced by catalytic dehydrogenation of
methanol, by controlled oxidation of natural gas, or by direct reaction between
CO and H, under special conditions of catalyst, temperature, and pressure.
Each of these processes contains many possible alternatives involving
variables such as gas-mixture composition, temperature, pressure, and choice
of catalyst.
 It is the responsibility of the chemical engineer, in this case, to choose the best
process and to incorporate into the design the equipment and methods which
will give the best results. To meet this need, various aspects of chemical
engineering plant-design optimization
(d) Optimum Economic Design
 If there are two or more methods for obtaining exactly equivalent final results,
the preferred method would be the one involving the least total cost. This is

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

the basis of an optimum economic design. One typical example of an optimum

economic design is determining the pipe diameter to use when pumping a
given amount of fluid from one point to another. Here the same final result
(i.e., a set amount of fluid pumped between two given points) can be
accomplished by using an infinite number of different pipe diameters.
 However, an economic balance will show that one particular pipe diameter
gives the least total cost. The total cost includes the cost for pumping the
liquid and the cost (i.e., fixed charges) for the installed piping system.
 Various types of optimum economic requirements may be encountered in
design work. For example, it may be desirable to choose a design which gives
the maximum profit per unit of time or the minimum total cost per unit of
production.
(e) Optimum Operation Design
 An excellent example of an optimum operation design is the determination of
operating conditions for the catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide. Suppose that all the variables, such as converter size, gas rate,
catalyst activity, and entering-gas concentration, are tied and the only possible
variable is the temperature at which the oxidation occurs.
 If the temperature is too high, the yield of SO3, will be low because the
equilibrium between SO3, SO2, and O2, is shifted in the direction of SO2, and
O2. On the other hand, if the temperature is too low, the yield will be poor
because the reaction rate between SO2, and O2, will be low. Thus, there must
be one temperature where the amount of sulphur trioxide formed will be a
maximum. This particular temperature would give the optimum operation
design.
 Below Figure presents a graphical method for determining the optimum
operation temperature for the sulfur dioxide converter in this example. Line
AB represents the maximum yields obtainable when the reaction rate is
controlling, while line CD indicates the maximum yields on the basis of
equilibrium conditions controlling. Point O represents the optimum operation
temperature where the maximum yield is obtained.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

(f) Practical considerations in design and the design approach

 The chemical engineer must never lose sight of the practical limitations
involved in a design. It may be possible to determine an exact pipe diameter
for an optimum economic design, but this does not mean that this exact size
must be used in the final design. Suppose the optimum diameter were,3.43 in.
(8.71 cm).
 It would be impractical to have a special pipe fabricated with an inside
diameter of 3.43 in. Instead, the engineer would choose a standard pipe size
which could be purchased at regular market prices. In this case, the
recommended pipe size would probably be a standard 3.5 in.-diameter pipe
having an inside diameter of 3.55 in. (9.02 cm).
 If the engineer happened to be very conscientious about getting an adequate
return on all investments, he or she might say, “A standard 3-in. - diameter
pipe would require less investment and would probably only increase the total
cost slightly; therefore, I think we should compare the costs with a 3-in. pipe
to the costs with the 3.5-in. pipe before making a final decision.”

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Theoretically, the conscientious engineer is correct in this case. Suppose the

total cost of the installed 3.5in. pipe is $5000 and the total cost of the installed
3-in. pipe is $4500. If the total yearly savings on power and fixed charges,
using the 3.5-in. pipe instead of the 3-in. pipe, were $25, the yearly percent
return on the extra $500 investment would be only 5 percent. Since it should
be possible to invest the extra $500 elsewhere to give more than a 5 percent
return, it would appear that the 3-in.-diameter pipe would be preferred over the
3.5in.-diameter pipe.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Optimization
 Optimization is the use of specific methods to determine the most cost-effective
and efficient solution to a problem or design for a process. This technique is one
of the major quantitative tools in industrial decision making. A wide variety of
problems in the design, construction, operation, and analysis of chemical plants
(as well as many other industrial processes) can be resolved by optimization.
 If there are two or more methods for obtaining exactly equivalent final results, the
preferred method would be the one involving the least total cost. This is the basis
of an optimum economic design.
 The chemical engineer often selects a final design on the basis of conditions
giving the least total cost. In many cases, however, alternative designs do not give
final products or results that are exactly equivalent. It then becomes necessary to
consider the quality of the product or the operation as well as the total cost. When
the engineer speaks of an optimum economic design, it ordinarily means the
cheapest one selected from a number of equivalent designs.
 Various types of optimum economic requirements may be encountered in design
work. For example, it may be desirable to choose a design which gives the
maximum profit per unit of time or the minimum total cost per unit of production.
 Many processes require definite conditions of temperature, pressure, contact time,
or other variables if the best results are to be obtained. It is often possible to make
a partial separation of these optimum conditions from direct economic
considerations. In cases of this type, the best design is designated as the optimum
operation design. The chemical engineer should remember, however, that
economic considerations ultimately determine most quantitative decisions. Thus,
the optimum operation design is usually merely a tool or step in the development
of an optimum economic design.
 Optimization can be applied in numerous ways to chemical processes and plants.
Typical projects in which optimization has been used include
1. Determining the best sites for plant location.
2. Routing tankers for the distribution of crude and refined products.
3. Sizing and layout of a pipeline.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

4. Designing equipment and an entire plant.

5. Scheduling maintenance and equipment replacement.
6. Operating equipment, such as tubular reactors, columns, and absorbers.
7. Evaluating plant data to construct a model of a process.
8. Minimizing inventory charges.
9. Allocating resources or services among
 A best example of optimization in chemical industry is : A common problem
encountered in large chemical companies involves the distribution of a single
product (Y) manufactured at several plant locations. Generally, the product needs
to be delivered to several customers located at various distances from each plant.
It is, therefore, desirable to determine how much Y must be produced at each of m
plants (Y1, Y2 . . . , Ym,) and how, for example, Ym, should be allocated to each of
n demand points (Ym1, Ym2, . . . , Ymn,). The cost-minimizing solution to this
problem not only involves the transportation costs between each supply and
demand point but also the production cost versus capacity curves for each plant.
The individual plants probably vary with respect to their nominal production rate,
and some plants may be more efficient than others, having been constructed at a
later date. Both of these factors contribute to a unique functionality between
production cost and production rate. Because of the particular distribution of
transportation costs, it may be desirable to manufacture more product from an old,
inefficient plant (at higher cost) than from a new, efficient one because new
customers may be located very close to the old plant. On the other hand, if the old
plant is operated far above its design rate, costs could become exorbitant, forcing
a reallocation by other plants in spite of high transportation costs. In addition, no
doubt constraints exist on production levels from each plant that also affect the
product distribution plan.
 There are also other example of optimization in chemical industry is optimum
insulation thickness, optimum reflux ratio in distillation column, optimum
operational condition for boiler etc.....

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question Asked in GTU from topic of Feasibility of Plant Design

1. Discuss objective and contents of techno-economic feasibility survey. (Dec. 2013)
[LJIET]
2. Discuss the contents of a techno-economic feasibility report (May 2017-OLD)
[LJIET]
3. How is preliminary and techno-economic feasibility of any project carried out? (Jan.
2013) [LJIET]
4. State and explain various factors for techno-economic feasibility survey of a
Chemical process plant. (Dec. 2014) [LJIET]

Feasibility of Plant Design

 Before any detailed work is done on the design, the technical and economic
factors of the proposed process should be examined. The various reactions and
physical processes involved must be considered, along with the existing and
potential market conditions for the particular product. A preliminary survey of this
type gives an indication of the probable success of the project and also shows
what additional information is necessary to make a complete evaluation.
 Following is a list of technical factor that should be considered in feasibility
survey:
1. Raw materials (availability, quantity, quality, cost)
2. Thermodynamics and kinetics of chemical reactions involved
(equilibrium, yields, rates, optimum conditions)
3. Facilities and equipment available at present
4. Facilities and equipment which must be purchased
5. Estimation of production costs and total investment
6. Profits (probable and optimum, per pound of product and per year,
return on investment)
7. Materials of construction
8. Safety considerations
9. Markets (present and future supply and demand, present uses, new uses,
present buying habits, price range for products and by-products, character,
location, and number of possible customers)

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

10. Competition (overall production statistics, comparison of various

manufacturing processes, product specifications of competitors)
11. Properties of products (chemical and physical properties,
specifications, impurities, effects of storage)
12. Sales and sales service (method of selling and distributing, advertising
required, technical services required)
13. Shipping restrictions and containers
14. Plant location
15. Patent situation and legal restrictions
 When detailed data on the process and firm product specifications are available, a
complete market analysis combined with a consideration of all sales factors
should be made. This analysis can be based on a breakdown of items 9 through 15
as indicated in the preceding list.
 If sufficient information is available, a preliminary design may be developed in
conjunction with the preliminary feasibility survey. In developing the preliminary
design the chemical engineer must first establish a workable manufacturing
process for producing the desired product. Quite often a number of alternative
processes or methods may be available to manufacture the same product. Except
for those processes obviously undesirable, each method should be given
consideration.
 The preliminary design and the process-development work give the results

necessary for a detailed-estimate design. The following factors should be

established within narrow limits before a detailed-estimate design is developed:

1. Manufacturing process
2. Material and energy balances
3. Temperature and pressure ranges
4. Raw-material and product specifications
5. Yields, reaction rates, and time cycles
6. Materials of construction
7. Utilities requirements
8. Plant site
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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

 When the preceding information is included in the design, the result permits
accurate estimation of required capital investment, manufacturing costs, and
potential profits. Consideration should be given to the types of buildings, heating,
ventilating, lighting, power, drainage, waste disposal, safety facilities,
instrumentation, etc.
 Before a manufacturer is contacted, the engineer should evaluate the design needs
and prepare a preliminary specification sheet for the equipment. This preliminary
specification sheet can be used by the engineer as a basis for the preparation of the
final specifications, or it can be sent to a manufacturer with a request for
suggestions and fabrication information.
 The effects of corrosion and erosion must be considered in the design of chemical
plants and equipment. Chemical resistance and physical properties of
constructional materials, therefore, are important factors in the choice and design
of equipment. The materials of construction may be resistant to the corrosive
action of any chemicals that may contact the exposed surfaces.
 If there is any doubt concerning suitable materials for construction of equipment,
reference should be made to the literature or laboratory tests should be carried out
under conditions similar to the final operating conditions. The results from the
laboratory tests indicate the corrosion resistance of the material and also the
effects on the product caused by contact with the particular material. Further tests
on a pilot-plant scale may be desirable in order to determine the amount of erosion
resistance or the effects of other operational factors.
 In general design work, the magnitudes of safety factors are dictated by economic
or market considerations, the accuracy of the design data and calculations,
potential changes in the operating performance, background information available
on the overall process, and the amount of conservatism used in developing the
individual components of the design. Each safety factor must be chosen on basis
of the existing conditions, and the chemical engineer should not hesitate to use a
safety factor of zero if the situation warrants it.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

 Following is a list of Economical factor that should be considered in feasibility

survey:

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question Asked in GTU from topic of Batch Versus Continuous Operation

1. Explain Continuous V/s Batch processing. (June 2012) (May 2015) (Nov. 2016-
NEW) [LJIET]

Batch versus Continuous Operation

 For a long time, the chemical industry has relied on a large-scale continuous process.
At the outset, the production facilities for new products used to be a batch process
produced on a larger scale because of reduced investment costs. As the economy of
scale has become a main factor, chemical process industries and process engineering,
in general, emphasized on developing and designing continuous processes for mass
production of goods.
However, specialty products and product diversification, with more emphasis on
customer requirements and their need for chemical security and high quality, as well
as trace ability requirements, mean that equal focus has shifted to batch processes.
 Industrial processes can actually be classified based on the process’ output as:
1. batch processes
2. continuous processes
So, what are these two and how are they different from one another?
 Batch Process Defined: Batch process refers to a process that consists of a sequence
of one or more steps that should be performed in a defined order. A finite quantity of
the product is produced at the end of the sequence, which is repeated in order to
produce another product batch. Generally, batch is a process that results in the
production of limited quantities of material through subjecting quantities of raw
materials to a set of processing activities over a significant period of time with the use
of one of more piece of equipment. Processing of successive batches must wait until
the completion of the current batch.
 Continuous Process Defined: A continuous process, on the other hand, refers to a
processing that involves moving a single work unit at a time between every step of the
process without any breaks in time, substance, sequence or extend. As the name
suggests, the flow of product or material is continuous. Every machine operates in a
steady state and performs a certain processing function. For majority of applications,

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

continuous flow saves costs, energy and time. When this process is properly
implemented, it can reduce waste, improve quality by making it easier to identify and
correct errors, increase productivity and adapt to the needs of customers more
efficiently than batch processing.
 When comparing different processes, consideration should always be given to the
advantages of continuous operation over batch operation. In many cases, costs can be
reduced by using continuous instead of batch processes. Less labour is required, and
control of the equipment and grade of final product is simplified. Whereas batch
operation was common in the early days of the chemical industry, most processes
have been switched completely or partially to continuous operation. The advent of
many new types of control instruments has made this transition possible, and the
design engineer should be aware of the advantages inherent in any type of continuous
operation.
 Evaluating the advantage and disadvantages of every type of process is important to
determine which one would work best for you.
 When it comes to the cost of equipment, continuous process is more expensive than
the low process. However, when comparing the production rate, continuous have
lower rate than the continuous one. The shut-down times in continuous process is
rare, whereas it happens quite more often in a batch process.
 If you don’t have enough manpower to perform the work, you can benefit more with a
continuous process, as it requires a fewer people than its counterpart. In terms of ease
of automation, batch process is relatively more difficult than the continuous process.
 Both continuous and batch processes are vital in the production of materials or
products. Having a deeper understanding of each of them can help you make an
informed decision in the end.
 Plants having a capacity greater than 5000 t/yr are usually continuous, whereas plants
having a capacity of less than 500 t/yr are normally batch; in some situations a
combined continuous/batch process is appropriate.
 batch plants are often preferred for products with a seasonal demand,
 the greater ability of batch plants makes them more suitable for products with a short
lifetime, some reactions are so slow that batch reactors are the only seasonable

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

alternative, batch operation turns out to be ideal for handling materials which foul
equipment very rapidly, because the equipment is periodically started, stopped and
cleaned
 It is very difficult to build a continuous process when a low capacity of slurries must
be handled.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question Asked in GTU from topic of Optimum Condition in Cyclic Operation

1. Discuss optimum production rate in plant operation and optimum condition in cyclic
operation. (June 2012) (May 2016) [LJIET]

Optimum Conditions in Cyclic Operations

 Many processes are carried out by the use of cyclic operations which involve periodic
shutdowns for discharging, cleanout, or reactivation. This type of operation occurs
when the product is produced by a batch process or when the rate of production
decreases with time, as in the operation of a plate-and-frame filtration unit. In a true
batch operation, no product is obtained until the unit is shut down for discharging. In
semi-continuous cyclic operations, product is delivered continuously while the unit is
in operation, but the rate of delivery decreases with time.
 Thus, in batch or semi-continuous cyclic operations, the variable of total time required
per cycle must be considered when determining optimum conditions. Analyses of
cyclic operations can be carried out conveniently by using the time for one cycle as a
basis. When this is done, relationships similar to the following can be develop to
express overall factors, such as total annual cost or annual rate of production:

 Semi-continuous cyclic operations are often encountered in the chemical industry, and
the design engineer should understand the methods for determining optimum cycle
times in this type of operation. Although product is delivered continuously, the rate of
delivery decreases with time owing to scaling, collection of side product, reduction in
conversion efficiency, or similar causes. It becomes necessary, therefore, to shut
down the operation periodically in order to restore the original conditions for high
production rates. The optimum cycle time can be determined for conditions such as
maximum amount of production per unit of time or minimum cost per unit of
production.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Selection of Process Factors Affecting Process Selection

 In a course of a design project it is necessary to determine the most suitable
process for obtaining a desired product. Several different manufacturing methods
may be available for making the same material, and various processes must be
compared in order to select the one best suited to the existing conditions.
 The comparison can be accomplished through the development of complete
designs. In many cases, however, all but one or two of the possible processes can
be eliminated by a weighted comparison of the essential variable items, and
detailed design calculations for each process may not be required.
 The following items should be considered in a comparison of this type:
1. Technical factors
a. Process flexibility
b. Continuous operation
c. Special controls involved
d. Commercial yields
e. Technical difficulties involved
f. Energy requirements
g. Special auxiliaries required
h. Possibility of future developments
i. Health and safety hazards involved
2. Raw materials
a. Present and future availability
b. Processing required
c. Storage requirements
d. Materials handling problems
3. Waste products and by-products
a. Amount produced
b. Value
c. Potential markets and uses
d. Manner of discard
e. Environmental aspects

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

4. Equipment
a. Availability
b. Materials of construction
c. Initial costs
d. Maintenance and installation costs
e. Replacement requirements
f. Special designs
5. Plant location
a. Amount of land required
b. Transportation facilities
c. Proximity to markets and raw-material sources
d. Availability of service and power facilities
e. Availability of labor
f. Climate
g. Legal restrictions and taxes
6. Costs
a. Raw materials
b. Energy
c. Depreciation
d. Other fixed charges
e. Processing and overhead
f. Special labor requirements
g. Real estate
h. Patent rights
i. Environmental controls
7. Time factor
a. Project completion deadline
b. Process development required
c. Market timeliness
d. Value of money
8. Process considerations
a. Technology availability

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

b. Raw materials common with other processes

c. Consistency of product within company
d. General company objectives

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
Semester – V(CHEM)
CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question asked in GTU

1. What are the various stages of process development of a chemical plant? (May 2016)
[LJIET]

Types of project design (development of a chemical plant)

 The development of a design project always starts with an initial idea or plan. This
initial idea must be stated as clearly and concisely as possible in order to define the
scope of the project. General specifications and pertinent laboratory or chemical
engineering data should be presented along with the initial idea.
 The methods for carrying out a design project may be divided into the following
classifications, depending on the accuracy and detail required:
1. Preliminary or quick-estimate designs
2. Detailed-estimate designs
3. Final process designs or detailed designs
 Preliminary designs are ordinarily used as a basis for determining whether further
work should be done on the proposed process. The design is based on approximate
process methods, and rough cost estimates are prepared. Few details are included, and
the time spent on calculations is kept at a minimum.
 If the results of the preliminary design show that further work is justified, a detailed-
estimate design may be developed. In this type of design, the cost and- profit potential
of an established process is determined by detailed analyses and calculations.
However, exact specifications are not given for the equipment, and drafting-room
work is minimized.
 When the detailed-estimate design indicates that the proposed project should be a
commercial success, the final step before developing construction plans for the plant
is the preparation of a final process design. Complete specifications are presented for
all components of the plant, and accurate costs based on quoted prices are obtained.
The final process design includes blueprints and sufficient information to permit
immediate development of the final plans for constructing the plant.
 In many cases, the preliminary feasibility survey indicates that additional research,
laboratory, or pilot-plant data are necessary, and a program to obtain this information

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may be initiated. Process development, on, a pilot-plant or semi works scale is usually
desirable in order to -obtain accurate design data.
 Valuable information on material and energy balances can be obtained, and process
conditions can be examined to supply data on temperature and pressure variation,
yields, rates, grades of raw materials and products, batch versus continuous operation,
material of construction, operating characteristics, and other pertinent design
variables.
 The first step in preparing the preliminary design is to establish the bases for design.
In addition to the known specifications for the product and availability of raw
materials, the design can be controlled by such items as the expected annual operating
factor (fraction of the year that the plant will be in operation), temperature of the
cooling water, available steam pressures, fuel used, value of by-products, etc. The
next step consists of preparing a simplified flow diagram showing the processes that
are involved and deciding upon the unit operations which will be required. A
preliminary material balance at this point may very quickly eliminate some the
alternative cases. Flow rates and stream conditions for the remaining cases are now
evaluated by complete material balances, energy balances, and a knowledge of raw-
material and product specifications, yields, reaction rates, and time cycles. The
temperature, pressure, and composition of every process stream is determined. Stream
enthalpies, percent vapor, liquid, and solid, heat duties, etc., are included where
pertinent to the process.
 The preliminary design and the process-development work give the results necessary
for a detailed-estimate design. The following factors should be:
1. Manufacturing process
2. Material and energy balances
3. Temperature and pressure ranges
4. Raw-material and product specifications
5. Yields, reaction rates, and time cycles
6. Materials of construction
7. Utilities requirements
8. Plant site

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 Final process designs (or detailed designs) can be prepared for purchasing and
construction from a detailed-estimate design. Detailed drawings are made for the
fabrication of special equipment, and specifications are prepared for purchasing
standard types of equipment and materials. A complete plant layout is prepared, and
blueprints and instructions for construction are developed. Piping diagrams and other
construction details are included. Specifications are given for warehouses,
laboratories, guard-houses, fencing, change houses, transportation facilities, and
similar items. The final final process design must be developed with the assistance of
persons skilled in various engineering fields, such as architectural, ventilating,
electrical, and civil. Safety conditions and environmental-impact factors must also
always be taken into account.

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Question asked in GTU

1. Discuss design information from literature. (May 2013)(Nov 2017 Old) [LJIET]

Design Information from the Literature

 A survey of the literature will often reveal general information and specific data
pertinent to the development of a design project. One good method for starting a
literature survey is to obtain a recent publication dealing with the subject under
investigation. This publication will give additional references, and each of these
references will, in turn, indicate other sources of information. This approach permits a
rapid survey of the important literature.
 Chemical Abstracts, published semimonthly by the American Chemical Society, can
be used for comprehensive literature surveys on chemical processes and operations.
This publication presents a brief outline and the original reference of the published
articles dealing with chemistry and related fields. Yearly and decennial indexes of
subjects and authors permit location of articles concerning specific topics.
 A primary source of information on all aspects of chemical engineering principles,
design, costs, and applications is “The Chemical Engineers’ Handbook” published by
McGraw-Hill Book Company with R. H. Perry and D. W. Green as editors for the 6th
edition as published in 1984. This reference should be in the personal library of all
chemical engineers involved in the field.
 Regular features on design-related aspects of equipment, costs, materials of
construction, and unit processes are published in Chemical Engineering. In addition to
this publication, there are many other periodicals that publish articles of direct interest
to the design engineer.
 New information is constantly becoming available through publication in periodicals,
books, trade bulletins, government reports, university bulletins, and many other
sources. Many of the publications are devoted to shortcut methods for estimating
physical properties or making design calculations, while others present compilations
of essential data in the form of nomographs or tables.
 The effective design engineer must make every attempt to keep an up-to-date
knowledge of the advances in the field. Personal experience and contacts, attendance
at meetings of technical societies and industrial expositions, and reference to the
published literature are very helpful in giving the engineer the background
information necessary for a successful design.

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Question asked in GTU

1. Define ‘Pilot plant’. Explain the importance of laboratory development of ‘Pilot
plant’. (Nov. 2011) (Dec. 2014) (Nov 2017 New) [LJIET]
2. What is a pilot plant? Explain semi-commercial and commercial evolutionary stages
in a pilot plant. (May 2013) (Nov 2017 Old) [LJIET]
3. Discuss checklist to be considered in pilot plant investigation. (May 2013) [LJIET]
4. Briefly explain pilot plant and its importance. (June 2014) [LJIET]
5. Write short note on pilot plants and also discuss its importance in industry. (May
2015) [LJIET]
6. Write short note on “Scale up and pilot plant studies in chemical industries” (May
2016) [LJIET]
7. How does a pilot plant help in gathering information for full scale operation? Is it
advisable to dismantle the pilot plant once the full scale operation gets started? (May
2017-NEW) [LJIET]

Importance of Laboratory development pilot plant

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Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

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CHAPTER: 1
Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

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CHEMICAL PROCESS PLANT DESIGN & ECONOMICS (3150506)
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Chapter Name: Introduction and Process design aspects

Question asked in GTU

Discuss about Economic and safety aspects to be considered in a chemical plant project.
(May 2015) [LJIET]

Safety Factors & safety consideration

 The factors represent the amount of overdesign that would be used to account for the
changes in the operating performance with time. The indiscriminate application of
safety factors can be very detrimental to a design. Each piece of equipment should be
designed to carry out its necessary function. Then, if uncertainties are involved, a
reasonable safety factor can be applied. The role of the particular piece of equipment
in the overall operation must be considered along with the consequences of under
design. Fouling, which may occur during operation, should never be overlooked when
a design safety factor is determined. Potential increases in capacity requirements are
sometimes used as an excuse for applying large safety factors. This practice, however,
can result in so much overdesign that the process or equipment never has an
opportunity to prove its economic value.
 In general design work, the magnitudes of safety factors are dictated by economic or
market considerations, the accuracy of the design data and calculations, potential
changes in the operating performance, background information available on the
overall process, and the amount of conservatism used in developing the individual
components of the design. Each safety factor must be chosen on basis of the existing
conditions, and the chemical engineer should not hesitate to use a safety factor of zero
if the situation warrants it.
 Before proceeding any further with the development of a process design and its
associated economics, it will be desirable to consider an overall view of the various
functions involved in a complete plant design. Particular emphasis in this discussion
will be placed on important health, safety, loss prevention, and environmental
considerations.

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Different point to be consider in safety consideration are :

 Health and Safety Hazards
 Sources of Exposure
 Exposure Evaluation
 Exposure-Hazard Control
 Fire and Explosion Hazards
 Personnel Safety
 Safety Regulations
 HAZOPS Study
 Fault-tree Analysis
 Safety Indexes
 Safety Audits

Health and Safety Hazards

o The potential health hazard to an individual by a material used in any chemical
process is a function of the inherent toxicity of the material and the frequency and
duration of exposure.
o It is common practice to distinguish between the short-term and long-term effects
of a material. A highly toxic material that’ causes immediate injury is classified as
a safety hazard.
o While a material whose effect is only apparent after long exposure at low
concentrations is considered as an industrial health and hygiene hazard.
o The permissible limits and the precautions to be taken to ensure that such limits
will not be exceeded are quite different for these two classes of toxic materials.
o The inherent toxicity of a material is measured by tests on animals. The short-term
effect is expressed as LD50, the lethal dose at which 50 percent
o On the other hand, the permissible limits of concentration for the long-term
exposure of humans to toxic materials are set by the threshold limit value (TLV).

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Sources of Exposure
o The main objective of health-hazard control is to limit the chemical dosage of a
chemical by minimizing or preventing exposure. It is not practical to measure or
control the chemical dosage directly; rather, exposure is measured and limits are
set for the control of such exposure.
o Understanding of the sources of contaminants to which workers are exposed is
important for the recognition, evaluation, and control of occupational health
hazards. For example, mechanical abrasions of solid materials by cutting,
grinding, or drilling can produce small particles which can form an airborne dust
cloud or solid aerosol. Liquid aerosols, on the other hand, may be produced by
any process that supplies sufficient energy to overcome the surface tension of the
liquid. This process occurs intentionally in spray coating and unintentionally when
oil mist is generated from lubricants or coolants used on high-speed machinery.
Liquid aerosols can also be produced by condensation.
o In the same vein, certain waste-handling procedures, even those performed
intermittently, can result in very serious contaminant exposure without proper
precautions. Workers need to be instructed in the proper procedures for cleaning
up spills and accumulated debris. Spilled materials can become airborne and pose
an inhalation hazard. Spills and chemical process wastes may end up in the waste-
water treatment facilities where they again can be volatilized into the air and result
in unexpected worker exposure.
Exposure Evaluation
o An estimate of the toxicity or intrinsic hazard is needed for each material
identified in the inventory. Such information for many chemicals in the form of a
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is required by the OSHA Hazard
Communication Standard. (Other countries have similar requirements.) Standard
hazard-data sources may need to be consulted for those chemical compounds for
which no MSDSs are presently available. Adequate hazard data may be lacking
for various mixtures that are unique to the plant. For such mixtures, it may be
necessary to analyze the contents and then estimate the overall hazard based on
the individual components.

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o To perform a risk assessment and then prioritize the exposure measurement effort
requires an approximate initial exposure potential assessment. For each chemical
present and for each source of exposure for that chemical, an estimate of exposure
can be made. These exposure estimates combined with a toxicity estimate from
the hazard data can then be combined to yield a risk estimate which can be used as
a basis for prioritization of the measurement and monitoring effort.
Exposure-Hazard Control
o When it is concluded that an exposure problem exists, decisions need to be made
regarding the implementation of hazard-control measures for the purpose of
reducing exposure and correspondingly reducing the risks. However, a given set
of exposure conditions does not lead to a fixed set of control strategies.
o There are many options. Since zero risk is not attainable, a decision must be made
relative to the degree of risk reduction that is to be attained. Then a series of
choices must be made from a wide range of options available to achieve the
desired risk reduction. This choice of options is a judgmental decision since the
precise degree of risk assessment achievable by a specific strategy is usually not
known in advance. Furthermore, the strategy selected must meet company safety
standards, comply with regulatory requirements, and receive worker acceptability,
and not adversely impact production and operability.
o An engineering system or work procedure that is utilized to eliminate a health
effect should be evaluated to determine the degree to which it reduces the
occurrence of the health effect. Measurements of exposure, for use in comparison
with occupational-exposure limits, need to be made over the averaging time
appropriate to the standard.
Fire and Explosion Hazards
o Besides toxic emissions, fire and explosion are the two most dangerous events
likely to occur in a chemical plant. Considerable resources are expended to
prevent both of these hazards or control them when they do occur because of an
accident. These two hazards account for the major loss of life and property in the
chemical and petroleum industry.

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o Passive fire protection is insulating material (called fireproofing) that is applied to

steel structural members and equipment supports in the plant. The time required
for unprotected steel supports to fail during a fire is rather short. Fireproofing can
significantly extend the failure time and provide additional time for fire fighters to
reach the scene, apply cooling water to the supports, and bring the fire under
control.
o Possible sources of fire are reduced by eliminating all unnecessary ignition
sources, such as flames, sparks, or heated materials. Matches, smoking, welding
and cutting, static electricity, spontaneous combustion, and non-explosion-proof
electrical equipment are all potential ignition sources. The installation of sufficient
fire alarms, temperature alarms, fire-fighting equipment, and sprinkler systems
must be specified in the design.
o An explosion is a sudden and generally catastrophic release of energy, causing a
pressure wave. An explosion can occur without a fire, such as the failure through
overpressure of a steam boiler. It is necessary to distinguish between detonation
and deflagration when describing the explosion of a flammable mixture.
o It becomes clear that the chances a single fire or explosion will spread to adjoining
units can be reduced by careful plant layout and judicious choice of construction
materials. Hazardous operations should be isolated by location in separate
buildings or by the use of brick fire walls. Brick or reinforced concrete walls can
serve to limit the effects of an explosion, particularly if the roof is designed to lift
easily under an explosive force.
Personnel Safety
o Every attempt should be made to incorporate facilities for health and safety
protection of plant personnel in the original design. This includes, but is not
limited to, protected walkways, platforms, stairs, and work areas. Physical
hazards, if unavoidable, must be clearly defined. In such areas, means for egress
must be unmistakable. All machinery must be guarded with protective devices In
all cases, medical services and first-aid must be readily available for all workers.

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Loss Prevention
o Loss prevention in process design can be summarized under the following broad
headings:
1. Identification and assessment of the major hazards.
2. Control of the hazards by the most appropriate means; for example,
containment, substitution, improved maintenance, etc.
3. Control of the process, i.e., prevention of hazardous conditions in
process operating variables by utilizing automatic control and relief
systems, interlocks, alarms, etc.
4. Limitation of the loss when an incident occurs.
Safety Index
o The safety and loss prevention guide developed by the Dow Chemical Company
provides a method for evaluating the potential hazards of a process and assessing
the safety and loss-prevention measures needed. In this procedure, a numerical
“Fire and Explosion Index” is calculated, based on the nature of the process and
the properties of the materials. The index can be used two different ways.
o The Dow index applies only to main process units and does not cover process
auxiliaries. Also, only fire and explosion hazards are considered. Recently the
index has been expanded to include business-interruption losses.
Safety Audits
o The principal function of most safety audits in the past has been to verify the
adequacy of safety equipment and safety rules. The former includes equipment for
fire protection, personnel protection, and on-site emergency responses. In addition
to reviewing the general safety rules, the audit has provided explicit safety rules
for new process areas and associated emergency response procedures. However,
with the greatly increased concerns for environmental health, safety, community
relations, and loss prevention, safety audits have become significant, as well as
continuous activities for all chemical process companies.

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Question asked in GTU

Explain fault tree analysis technique for hazard assessment. (Dec. 2013) (Nov. 2016-
NEW) [LJIET]

 Fault trees originated in the aerospace industry and have been used extensively by the
nuclear power industry to qualify and quantify the hazards and risks associated with
nuclear power plants. This approach is becoming more popular in the chemical
process industries, mostly as a result of the successful experiences demonstrated by
the nuclear industry.
 A fault tree for anything but the simplest of plants can be large, involving thousands
of process events. Fortunately, this approach lends itself to computerization, with a
variety of computer programs commercially available to draw fault trees based on an
interactive session. Fault trees are a deductive method for identifying ways in which
hazards can lead to accidents.
 The approach starts with a well-defined accident, or top event, and works backward
toward the various scenarios that can cause the accident.
 For instance, a flat tire on an automobile is caused by two possible events. In one case
the flat is due to driving over debris on the road, such as a nail. The other possible
cause is tire failure.
 The flat tire is identified as the top event. The two contributing causes are either basic
or intermediate events. The basic events are events that cannot be defined further, and
intermediate events are events that can. For this example, driving over the road debris
is a basic event because no further definition is possible. The tire failure is an
intermediate event because it results from either a defective tire or a worn tire. The
flat tire example is pictured using a fault tree logic diagram, shown in Figure C.
 The circles denote basic events and the rectangles denote intermediate events. The
fishlike symbol represents the OR logic function. It means that either of the input
events will cause the output state to occur. As shown in Figure C, the flat tire is
caused by either debris on the road or tire failure. Similarly, the tire failure is caused
by either a defective tire or a worn tire.
 Events in a fault tree are not restricted to hardware failures. They can also include
software, human, and environmental factors.
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 For reasonably complex chemical processes a number of additional logic functions

are needed to construct a fault tree. A detailed list is given in Figure E The AND logic
function is important for describing processes that interact in parallel.

FIGURE C
Before the actual fault tree is drawn, a number of preliminary steps must be taken:
1. Define precisely the top event. Events such as "high reactor temperature" or "liquid
level too high" are precise and appropriate. Events such as "explosion of reactor" or "fire
in process" are too vague, whereas an event such as "leak in valve7' is too specific.
2. Define the existing event. What conditions are sure to be present when the top event
occurs?
3. Define the unallowed events. These are events that are unlikely or are not under
consideration at the present. This could include wiring failures, lightning, tornadoes, and
hurricanes.
4. Define the physical bounds of the process. What components are to be considered in
the Fault tree?

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5. Define the equipment confiGration. What valves are open or closed? What are the
liquid levels? Is this a normal operation state?
6. Define the level of resolution. Will the analysis consider just a valve, or will it be
necessary to consider the valve components?

Figure

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Question asked in GTU

1. What are flow diagrams? Discuss different flow diagrams used in process
Development. (June 2012) [LJIET]
2. What is flow diagram? List various flow diagrams. (Nov 2017 New)[LJIET]
3. Write in brief on types of flow diagrams. (Jan. 2013) (May 2013) (June 2014) [LJIET]
4. List types of flow diagrams and explain each with a neat sketch. (May 2018-New)
[LJIET]
5. Write short note on types of flow diagram used in chemical industries. (May 2017-
OLD) [LJIET]
6. Discuss types of flow diagrams in detail. (Nov 2017 Old) [LJIET]
7. Discuss different types of flow diagrams used in chemical industry. (May 2015)
[LJIET]

The development of a process from a simple BFD through the PFD and finally to the
P&ID. Each step showed additional information. This can be seen by following the
progress of the distillation unit as it moves through the three diagrams described.

1. Block Flow Diagram (BFD) (see Figure 2.1): The column was shown as a part of
one of the three process blocks.

Figure 2.1: block diagram

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2. Process Flow Diagram (PFD) (see Figure 2.2): The column was shown as the
following set of individual equipment: a tower, condenser, reflux drum, reboiler,
reflux pumps, and associated process controls.

Figure 2.2: process flow diagram (PFD: combined both diagram)

3. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) (see Figure 2.3): The column was
shown as a comprehensive diagram that includes additional details such as pipe sizes,
utility streams, and sample taps, numerous indicators, and so on. It is the only unit
operation on the diagram. The value of these diagrams does not end with the start-up
of the plant. The design values on the diagram are changed to represent the actual
values determined under normal operating conditions. These conditions form a “base
case” and are used to compare operations throughout the life of the plant.

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Figure 2.3 : P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram)

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Process flow diagrams: The chemical engineer uses process flow diagrams to show the
sequence of equipment and unit operations in the overall process, to simplify
visualization of the manufacturing procedures, and to indicate the quantities of materials
and energy transfer. These diagrams may be divided into three general types:
(1) Qualitative,
(2) Quantitative, and
(3) combined-detail.
 A qualitative flow diagram indicates the flow of materials, unit operations involved,
equipment necessary, and special information on operating temperatures and
pressures. A quantitative flow diagram shows the quantities of materials required for
the process operation. An example of a qualitative flow diagram for the production of
nitric acid is shown in Fig. 2.4.

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Fig. 2.4
Figure 2.5 presents a quantitative flow diagram for the same process.

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Figure 2.5: a quantitative flow diagram

 Preliminary flow diagrams are made during the early stages of a design project.
As the design proceeds toward completion, detailed information on flow
quantities and equipment specifications becomes available, and combined detail
flow diagrams can be prepared.

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 This type of diagram shows the qualitative flow pattern and serves as a base
reference for giving equipment specifications, quantitative data, and sample
calculations. Tables presenting pertinent data on the process and the equipment
are cross-referenced to the drawing. In this way, qualitative information and
quantitative data are combined on the basis of one flow diagram. The drawing
does not lose its effectiveness by presenting too much information; yet the
necessary data are readily available by direct reference to the accompanying
tables.
 A typical combined-detail flow diagram shows the location of temperature and
pressure regulators and indicators, as well as the location of critical control valves
and special instruments. Each piece of equipment is shown and is designated by a
defined code number. For each piece of equipment, accompanying tables give
essential information, such as specifications for purchasing, specifications for
construction, type of fabrication, quantities and types of chemicals involved, and
sample calculations. combined-detail flow diagram shows in fig 2.2

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