CHAPTER SIX

1. ORAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA

6.1 Introduction
Oral communication is the process of expressing information or ideas by word of mouth. Oral
communication is the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from one individual
or group to another. In the other words, Oral communication can be either Formal or Informal.
Examples of informal oral communication include Face-to-face conversations, Telephone
conversations, Discussions that take place at business meetings, more formal types of oral
communication include: Presentations at business meetings, Classroom lectures, Commencement
speech given at a graduation ceremony 1With advances in technology, new forms of oral
communication continue to develop such as Video Phones and Video Conferences. Oral
communication is skill which include both speaking and listening skills. These skills need to be
development if you want to transfer massages clearly. In this chapter explains the oral
communication skills.

6.2. ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

To be successful in communication, students require more than the formal ability to present and
a range of formulaic expressions. Successful communication is context dependent and therefore
embedded in its particular discourse community. Oral communication reflects the persistent and
powerful role of language and communication in human society. Communication is more than
merely an exchange of words between parties; it is a “…sociological encounter” (and through
exchange of meanings in the communication process, social reality is “created, maintained and
modified”).

Such a capacity of language is also evident in Speech act theory, concerned with the
communicative effect, that is, the function and effect of utterances, dissects an utterance into
three components: the actual utterance (the locution); the act performed by the utterance (the
illocution); and the effect the act has on the hearer (the per locution). Communication is a
dynamic interactive process that involves the effective transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts,
feelings and values.

It is not passive and does not just happen; we actively and consciously engage in communication
in order to develop information and understanding required for effective group functioning. It is
dynamic because it involves a variety of forces and activities interacting over time. The word
1
process suggests that communication exists as a flow through a sequence or series of steps. The
interaction is far more complex than it seems. Oral communication is composed of multiple
elements which, when taken as a whole, result in the success or failure of the interaction. Not
everyone is an effective communicator. In order to function successfully academically and
professionally, one needs to learn effective oral communication skills. For many, conversational
speech comes naturally. However, in more formal speech, effective communication skills are
essential.

A poorly conducted interview, sales presentation, or legal argument could have ramifications that
affect many more people than the speaker. By becoming an effective communicator one will be
able to conduct himself in a variety of personal, professional, and academic environments with
confidence. Oral communication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill that requires
understanding what to say and how to say it. Unlike conversational speech, speech in more
formal environments does not come naturally. What should be learnt is how to critically think
about how to present oneself as a speaker in all occasions and then how to function in a variety
of speaking environments?

Oral communication can take many forms, ranging from informal conversation that occurs
spontaneously and, in most cases, for which the content cannot be planned, to participation in
meetings, which occurs in a structured environment, usually with a set agenda. As a speaker
there are several elements of oral communication of which one needs to be aware in order to
learn how to use them to his advantage. Apart from the language used for communication, there
are several skills which the speaker should learn to communicate effectively.

The Skills are eye contact, body language, style, understanding the audience, adapting to the
audience, active and reflexive listening, politeness, precision, conciseness, etc. At tertiary level it
is assumed that the learners know the basics of the language. At this level ,teaching speaking
skills is irrelevant.

6.2.1 Speech

6.2.1.1. Preparing Effective Oral Presentations

Perhaps you have admired the speaking skills of such well-known orators. Few of us will ever
talk to an audience of millions—whether face-to-face or aided by technology. We won’t be
introducing a spectacular new product or motivating millions. At some point, however, all
businesspeople have to inform others or sell an idea. Such information and persuasion are often
conveyed in person and involve audiences of various sizes. If you are like most people, you have
some apprehension when speaking in public. That’s normal. Good speakers are made, not born.
The good news is that you can conquer the fear of public speaking and hone your skills with
instruction and practice. Many future businesspeople fail to take advantage of opportunities in
college to develop speaking skills. However, such skills often play an important role in mastering
speaking skills.

A. Knowing Your Purpose

The basic question you should answer when you make presentation id what do you real want to
transfer? In other words, objectives you speech/presentation is the key for your effectiveness.
The most important part of your preparation is deciding what you want to accomplish.
 Do you want to sell a health care program to a prospective client?
 Do you want to persuade management to increase the marketing budget?
 Do you want to inform customer service reps of three important ways to prevent
miscommunication? Whether your goal is to persuade or to inform, you must have a clear
idea of where you are going. At the end of your presentation, what do you want your
listeners to remember or do?
 Knowing Your Audience
A second key element in preparation is analyzing your audience, anticipating its reactions, and
adjusting to its needs if necessary. Audiences may fall into four categories, as summarized in
table 6.1By anticipating your audience, you have a better idea of how to organize your
presentation. A friendly audience, for example, will respond to humor and personal experiences.
A neutral audience requires an even, controlled delivery style. You would want to fill the talk
with facts, statistics, and expert opinions. An uninterested audience that is forced to attend
requires a brief presentation. Such an audience might respond best to humor, cartoons, colorful
visuals, and startling statistics. A hostile audience demands a calm, controlled delivery style with
objective data and expert opinion. Whatever type of audience you will have, remember to plan
your presentation so that it focuses on audience benefits. The members of your audience will
want to know what’s in it for them Table 6.1: Four Audience Types
Succeeding With Four Audience Types

Audience Organizational Delivery Style Material

Members Pattern Supporting

Friendly Use any pattern. Be warm, Include humor,

pleasant, and personal
They like you Try something
open. Use lots of
and your topic. new. Involve the Examples, and
eye contact and
audience experiences
smiles.

Neutral Present both Be controlled. Use facts,

sides of the issue. Do nothing statistics, expert
They are calm,
Use pro/con or opinion, and
rational; their Showy. Use
problem/solution comparison and
minds are made confident, small
patterns. Save contrast. Avoid
up, but they think gestures
time for audience humor, personal
they are
questions stories, and
objective.
flashy visuals.

Uninterested Be brief—no Be dynamic and Use humor,

more than three entertaining. cartoons, colorful
They have short
points. Avoid Move around. visuals, powerful
attention spans; topical and Use large quotations, and
they pro/con patterns gestures. startling
that seem lengthy statistics.
Maybe there
to the audience.
against their will.
Avoid darkening the room, standing motionless, passing out handouts, using
boring visuals, or expecting the audience to participate.

Hostile Organize using a Be calm and Include objective

noncontroversial controlled. data and expert
They want to
pattern, such as a
take topical, Speak evenly and opinion. Avoid
chronological, or slowly
charge or to anecdotes and
geographical
ridicule the humor
strategy.
speaker; they
may be Avoid a question-and-answer period, if possible; otherwise, use a moderator
defensive, or accept only written questions.
emotional.

Other elements, such as age, gender, education, experience, and the size of the audience will
affect your style and message. Analyze the following questions to determine your organizational
pattern, delivery style, and supporting material.
 How will this topic appeal to this audience?
 How can I relate this information to my listeners’ needs?
 How can I earn respect so that they accept my message?
 What would be most effective in making my point? Facts? Statistics? Personal
experiences? Expert opinion? Humor? Cartoons? Graphic illustrations?
Demonstrations? Case histories? Analogies?
 What measures must I take to ensure that this audience remembers my main points?
If you have agreed to speak to an audience with which you are unfamiliar, ask for the names of a
half dozen people who will be in the audience. Contact them and learn about their backgrounds
and expectations for the presentation. This information can help you answer questions about
what they want to hear and how deeply you should explore the subject.
You will want to thank these people when you start your speech. Doing this kind of homework
will impress the audience.
B. Organizing the Content for a Powerful Impact
Once you have determined your purpose and analyzed the audience, you are ready to collect
information and organize it logically. Good organization and conscious repetition are the two
most powerful keys to audience comprehension and retention. In fact, many speech experts
recommend the following deliberately repetitious, but effective, plan:
Step 1: Tell them what you are going to tell them.
Step 2: Tell them.
Step 3: Tell them what you have just told them.

In other words, repeat your main points in the introduction, body, and conclusion of your
presentation. Although it is redundant, this strategy works well because most people retain
information best when they hear it repeatedly. Let’s examine how to construct the three parts of
an effective presentation: introduction, body, and conclusion.
C. Capturing Attention in the Introduction
How many times have you heard a speaker begin with, it’s a pleasure to be here. Or, I’m
honored to be asked to speak. Boring openings such as these get speakers off to a dull start.
Avoid such banalities by striving to accomplish three goals in the introduction to your
presentation:
o Capture listeners’ attention and get them involved.
o Identify yourself and establish your credibility.
o Preview your main points.
If you are able to appeal to listeners and involve them in your presentation right from the start,
you are more likely to hold their attention until the finish. Consider some of the same techniques
that you used to open sales letters: a question, a startling fact, a joke, a story, or a quotation.
Some speakers achieve involvement by opening with a question or command that requires
audience members to raise their hands or stand up. To establish your credibility, you need to
describe your position, knowledge, or experience—whatever qualifies you to speak. Try also to
connect with your audience. Listeners respond particularly well to speakers who reveal
something of themselves and identify with them.
Use humor if you can pull it off (not everyone can); self-effacing humor may work best for you.
However, a joke at one’s own expense can also backfire and defeat its purpose, which is to allow
the audience to identify with the speaker who thus demonstrates that he or she is not pompous or
arrogant.
After capturing attention and establishing yourself, you will want to preview the main points of
your topic, perhaps with a visual aid.
You may wish to put off actually writing your introduction, however, until after you have
organized the rest of the presentation and crystallized your principal ideas. Ten techniques to
gain and keep audience attention are presented below:
Gaining and Keeping Audience Attention Audience and how to maintain that attention during a
presentation, you can spruce up your presentations by trying these ten proven techniques.
1) A promise: Begin with a realistic promise that keeps the audience expectant (for
example, By the end of this presentation, you will know how you can increase your sales
by 50 percent!).
2) Drama: Open by telling an emotionally moving story or by describing a serious problem
that involves the audience. Throughout your talk include other dramatic elements, such as
a long pause after a key statement. Change your vocal tone or pitch. Professionals use
high-intensity emotions such as anger, joy, sadness, and excitement.
3) Eye contact: As you begin, command attention by surveying the entire audience to take
in all listeners. Give yourself two to five seconds to linger on individuals to avoid
fleeting, unconvincing eye contact. Don’t just sweep the room and the crowd.
4) Movement: Leave the lectern area whenever possible. Walk around the conference table
or down the aisles of your audience. Try to move toward your audience, especially at the
beginning and end of your talk.
5) Questions: Keep listeners active and involved with rhetorical questions. Ask for a show
of hands to get each listener thinking. The response will also give you a quick gauge of
audience attention.
6) Demonstrations: Include a member of the audience in a demonstration (for example, I’m
going to show you exactly how to implement our four-step customer courtesy process, but
I need a volunteer from the audience to help me).
7) Samples/props: If you are promoting a product, consider using items to toss out to the
audience or to award as prizes to volunteer participants. You can also pass around
product samples or promotional literature. Be careful, though, to maintain control.
8) Visuals: Give your audience something to look at besides yourself. Use a variety of
visual aids in a single session. Also consider writing the concerns expressed by your
audience on a flipchart or on the board as you go along.
9) Dress. Enhance your credibility with your audience by dressing professionally for your
presentation. Professional attire will help you look more competent and qualified, which
will make your audience more likely to listen to you and take you seriously.
10) Self-interest: Review your entire presentation to ensure that it meets the critical What’s-
in-it-for-me audience test. Remember that people are most interested in things that benefit
them.
D. Organizing the Body
The biggest problem with most oral presentations is a failure to focus on a few principal ideas.
This is why the body of your short presentation (20 or fewer minutes) should include a limited
number of main points, say, two to four. Develop each main point with adequate, but not
excessive, explanation and details. Too many details can obscure the main message, so keep your
presentation simple and logical. Remember, listeners have no pages to leaf back through should
they become confused. How to organize and sequence main ideas may not be immediately
obvious when you begin working on a presentation.
The following patterns provide many possible strategies and examples to help you organize a
presentation:
1. Chronology: Example: A presentation describing the history of a problem, organized
from the first sign of trouble to the present.
2. Geography/space: Example: A presentation about the changing diversity of the
workforce, organized by regions in the country (East Coast, West Coast, and so forth).
3. Topic/function/conventional grouping: Example: A presentation discussing mishandled
airline baggage, organized by names of airlines.
4. Comparison/contrast (pro/con): Example: A presentation comparing organic farming
methods with those of modern industrial farming.
5. Journalistic pattern (the six Ws): Example: A presentation describing how identity
thieves can steal your money and ruin your good name. Organized by who, what, when,
where, why, and how.
6. Value/size: Example: A presentation describing fluctuations in housing costs, organized
by prices of homes.
7. Importance: Example: A presentation describing five reasons a company should move
its headquarters to a specific city, organized from the most important reason to the least
important.
8. Problem/solution: Example: A company faces a problem such as declining sales. A
presentation offers a solution such as reducing staff.
9. Simple/complex: Example: A presentation explaining genetic modification of plants
such as corn, organized from simple seed production to complex gene introduction.
10. Best case/worst case: Example: A presentation analyzing whether two companies
should merge, organized by the best-case results (improved market share, profitability,
employee morale) as opposed to the worst-case results (devalued stock, lost market share,
employee malaise).
E. Summarizing in the Conclusion
Nervous speakers often rush to wrap up their presentations because they can’t wait to flee the
stage. However, listeners will remember the conclusion more than any other part of a speech.
That’s why you should spend some time to make it most effective. Strive to achieve three goals:
 Summarize the main themes of the presentation.
 Leave the audience with a specific and memorable take-away.
 Include a statement that allows you to exit the podium gracefully.
Some speakers end limply with comments such as I guess that’s about all I have to say or that’s
it. Such lame statements show little enthusiasm and are notthe culmination of the talk that
listeners expect. Skilled speakers alert the audiencethat they are finishing.
They use phrases such as, In conclusion, as I end this presentation, or, it’s time for me to sum up.
Then they proceed immediately to theconclusion. Audiences become justly irritated with a
speaker who announces theconclusion but then talks on for ten more minutes.A straightforward
summary should review major points and focus on whatyou want the listeners to do, think, or
remember. You might say, in bringing my presentation to a close, I will restate my major
purpose . . . , or, in summary, my major purpose has been to . . . . In support of my purpose, I
have presented three major points. They are (1) . . . , (2) . . . , and (3) . . . .
A conclusion is like a punch line and must be memorable. Think of it as the high point of your
presentation, a valuable kernel of information to take away.
The valuable kernel of information, or take-away, should tie in with the opening and present a
forward-looking idea. Avoid merely rehashing, in the same words, what you said before. Instead,
ensure that the audience will take away very specific information or benefits and a positive
impression of you and your company. The take-away is the value of the presentation to the
audience and the benefit audience members believe to have received. The tension that you built
in the early parts of the talk now culminates in the close.
6.2.1.2. Building Audience Rapport like a Pro
Good speakers are adept at building audience rapport. They form a bond with the audience; they
entertain as well as inform. How do they do it? Based on observations of successful and
unsuccessful speakers, we learn that the good ones use a number of verbal and nonverbal
techniques to connect with the audience. Their helpful techniques include providing effective
imagery, supplying verbal cues, and using body language strategically.

A. Effective Imagery
You will lose your audience quickly if you fill your talk with abstractions, generalities, and dry
facts. To enliven your presentation and enhance comprehension, try using some of the following
techniques. However, beware of exaggeration or distortion. Keep your imagery realistic and
credible:
Analogies: A comparison of similar traits between dissimilar things can be effective in
explaining and drawing connections. For example, Product development is similar to the
process of conceiving, carrying, and delivering a baby. Or, Downsizing or restructuring
is similar to an overweight person undergoing a regimen of dieting, habit changing, and
exercise.
exercise.
Metaphors: A comparison between otherwise dissimilar things without using the words
like or as results in a metaphor. For example, our competitor’s CEO is a snake when it
comes to negotiating, or my desk is a garbage dump.
Similes: A comparison that includes the words like or as is a simile. For example, our
critics used our background report like a drunken uses a lamppost—for support rather
than for illumination. Or: She’s as happy as someone who just won the lottery.
Personal anecdotes: Nothing connects you faster or better with your audience than a
good personal story. In a talk about e-mail techniques, you could reveal your own
blunders that became painful learning experiences. In a talk to potential investors, the
founder of a new ethnic magazine might tell a story about growing up without positive
ethnic role models.
Personalized statistics: Although often misused, statistics stay with people—
particularly when they relate directly to the audience. A speaker discussing job searching
might say, Look around the room.
Only one in four graduates will find a job immediately after graduation. If possible,
simplify and personalize facts. For example, The sales of Coca-Cola beverages around
the world totaled nearly 24 billion cases last year. That means that every man, woman,
and child on this planet consumed 3.5 cases of soda and other Coca-Cola products.
Worst- and best-case scenarios: Hearing the worst that could happen, can be effective
in driving home a point. For example, If we do nothing about our computer backup
system now, it’s just a matter of time before the entire system crashes and we lose all of
our customer contact information.
Can you imagine starting from scratch in building all of your customer files again?
However, if we fix the system now, we can expand our customer files and actually
increase sales at the same time.

B. Verbal Signposts
Speakers must remember that listeners, unlike readers of a report, cannot control the rate of
presentation or flip back through pages to review main points. As a result, listeners get lost
easily. Knowledgeable speakers help the audience recognize the organization and main points in
an oral message with verbal signposts. They keep listeners on track by including helpful
previews, summaries, and transitions, such as these:
 Previewing:
The next segment of my talk presents three reasons for . . . .
Let’s now consider two causes of . . . .
 Summarizing
Let me review with you the major problems I have just discussed.
You see, then, that the most significant factors are . . . .
 Switching directions
Thus far we have talked solely about . . . ; now let’s move to . . . .
I have argued that . . . and . . . , but an alternate view holds that . . . .
You can further improve any oral presentation by including appropriate transitional expressions
such as first, second, next, then, therefore, moreover, on theother hand, on the contrary, and in
conclusion. These transitional expressions build coherence, lend emphasis, and tell listeners
where you are headed.

C. Nonverbal Messages
Although what you say is most important, the nonverbal messages you send can also have a
powerful effect on how well your audience receives your message. How you look, how you
move, and how you speak can make or break your presentation. The following suggestions focus
on nonverbal tips to ensure that your verbal message resonates with your audience.
 Look terrific! Like it or not, you will be judged by your appearance. For everything but
small in-house presentations, be sure you dress professionally. The rule of thumb is that
you should dress at least as well as the best-dressed person in the audience. However,
even if you know that your audience will be dressed casually, showing up in
professional attire will help you build credibility. You will feel better about yourself too!
 Animate your body: Be enthusiastic and let your body show it. Stand with good
posture to show confidence. Emphasize ideas to enhance points about size, number, and
direction. Use a variety of gestures, but don’t consciously plan them in advance.
 Speak extemporaneously: Do not read from notes or a manuscript, but speak freely.
Use your presentation slides to guide your talk. You will come across as more
competent and enthusiastic if you are not glued to your notes or manuscript. Use note
cards or a paper outline only if presenting without an electronic slideshow.
 Punctuate your words: You can keep your audience interested by varying your tone,
volume, pitch, and pace. Use pauses before and after important points. Allow the
audience to take in your ideas.
 Use appropriate eye contact: Maintaining eye contact with your audience shows that
you are confident and prepared. In addition, looking at audience members, rather than
looking at your notes or your computer screen, helps them feel more involved.
 Get out from behind the podium: Avoid being planted behind the podium. Movement
makes you look natural and comfortable and helps you connect more with your
audience. You might pick a few places in the room to walk to. Even if you must stay
close to your visual aids, make a point of leaving them occasionally so that the audience
can see your whole body.
 Vary your facial expression: Begin with a smile, but change your expression to
correspond with the thoughts you are voicing. You can shake your head to show
disagreement, roll your eyes to show disdain, look heavenward for guidance, or wrinkle
your brow to show concern or dismay. To see how speakers convey meaning without
words, mute the sound on your TV or streaming video clips online and watch the facial
expressions of a talk show personality, newscaster, or politician. Whenever possible,
beginning presenters should have an experienced speaker watch them and give them tips
as they rehearse. Your instructor is an important coach who can provide you with
invaluable feedback. In the absence of helpers, record your talk and watch for your
nonverbal behavior on camera.

D. Planning Visual Aids and Multimedia Presentations

Before you make a business presentation, consider this wise proverb: “Tell me, I forget. Show
me, I remember. Involve me, I understand.” Your goals as a speaker are to make listeners
understand, remember, and act on your ideas. To get them interested and involved, include
effective visual aids. Some experts say that we acquire as much as 85 percent of all our
knowledge visually:
Good visual aids serve many purposes. They emphasize and clarify main points, thus improving
comprehension and retention. They increase audience interest, and they make the presenter
appear more professional, better prepared, and more persuasive. Well-designed visual aids
illustrate and emphasize your message more effectively than words alone; therefore, they may
help shorten a meeting or achieve your goal faster. Visual aids are particularly helpful for
inexperienced speakers because the audience concentrates on the aid rather than on the speaker.
However, experienced speakers work hard at not allowing their slideshows to eclipse them.
Good visuals also serve to jog the memory of a speaker, thus improving self-confidence, poise,
and delivery.
i. Types of Visual Aids
Today, speakers have many forms of visual media at their fingertips if they wish to enhance a
presentation. Following table 6.2:describes the pros and cons of several visual aids and can guide
you in selecting the best one for any speaking occasion. Three of the most popular visuals are
multimedia slides, overhead transparencies, and handouts.
Table 6.2:the pros and cons of several visual aids
Pros and Cons of Visual Aid Options

Medium Pros Cons

Multimedia Create professional appearance Present potential

slides with many color, art, graphic, incompatibility issues.
. and font options. Require projection equipment
Easy to use and transport via and practice for smooth
removable storage media, Web delivery.
download, or e-mail attachment. Tempt user to include razzle-
Inexpensive to update. dazzle features that may fail to
add value
Transparencies Give professional appearance Appear to some as an outdated
with little practice. presentation method.
Easy to (a) prepare, (b) update Hold speaker captive to the
and maintain, (c) locate reliable machine.
equipment, and (d) Limit Provide poor reproduction of
information shown at one time. photos and some graphics.
Handouts Encourage audience Increase risk of unauthorized
. participation duplication of speaker’s
Easy to maintain and update. material.
Enhance recall because Can be difficult to transport.
audience keeps reference May cause speaker to lose
material. audience’s attention

Flipcharts or Provide inexpensive option Require graphics talent.

whiteboards available at most sites. Difficult for larger audiences to
Easy to (a) create, (b) modify or see.
customize on the spot, (c)
record comments from the Prepared flip charts are
audience, and (d) combine with cumbersome to transport and
more high-tech visuals in the easily worn with use.
same presentation
Video Gives an accurate Creates potential for
representation of the content compatibility issues related to
and a strong indication of computer video formats.
forethought and preparation. Expensive to create and update.

Props Offer a realistic reinforcement Lead to extra work and expense

of message content. in transporting and replacing
Increase audience participation worn objects.
with close observation. Limited use with larger
audiences.
ii. Preparing a Visually Appealing PowerPoint Presentation
 Analyzing the Situation and Purpose.
 Anticipating Your Audience
 Adapting Text and Color Selections
 Organizing Your Slides
 Working With Templates
 Composing Your Slideshow
 Designing for Optimal Effect
 Revising, Proofreading, and Evaluating Your Slideshow
iii. Eight Steps to Making a Powerful Multimedia Presentation
1. Start with the text
2. Select background and fonts
3. Choose images that help communicate your message
4. Create graphics
5. Add special effects
6. Create hyperlinks to approximate the Web browsing experience
7. Engage your audience by asking for interaction
8. Move your presentation to the Internet

6.2.1.3. Cautions for Presentation

A. Before Your Presentation
Speaking in front of a group will become less daunting if you prepare adequately and practice
sufficiently. Interacting with the audience and limiting surprises such as malfunctioning
equipment will also add to your peace of mind. Review the following tips for a smooth start:

 Prepare thoroughly
 Rehearse repeatedly
Conquer Stage Fright with These Techniques

Ever get nervous before giving a speech? Everyone does! And it’s not all in your head, either.
When you face something threatening or challenging, your body reacts in what psychologists call
the fight-or-flight response. This physical reflex provides your body with increased energy to
deal with threatening situations. It also creates those sensations—dry mouth, sweaty hands,
increased heartbeat, and stomach butterflies— that we associate with stage fright. The fight-or-
flight response arouses your body for action—in this case, making a presentation. Because
everyone feels some form of apprehension before speaking, it is impossible to eliminate the
physiological symptoms altogether. However, you can reduce their effects with the following
techniques:
 Breathe deeply
 Convert your fear
 Know your topic and come prepared
 Use positive self-talk
 Take a sip of water
 Don’t admit you are nervous.
 Feel proud when you finish.
 Time yourself.
 Dress professionally
 Request a lectern
 Check the room
 Greet members of the audience.
 Practice stress reduction
B. During Your Presentation:
To stay in control during your talk, to build credibility, and to engage your audience, follow
these time-tested guidelines for effective speaking:
Begin with a pause
Present your first sentence from memory
Maintain eye contact
Control your voice and vocabulary
Skip the apologies: Don’t begin with a weak opening, such as I will not take much
time. I know youare busy. Or: I know you have heard this before, butwe need to
review it anyway. Or: I had trouble withmy computer and the slides, so bear with
me. Dynamic speakers never say they are sorry.
Put the brakes on
Incorporate pauses when appropriate.
Move naturally.
Use visual aids effectively
Avoid digression
Summarize your main points and arrive at the high point of your talk
Show enthusiasm

C. After Your Presentation

As you are concluding you presentation, handle questions and answers competently and provide
handouts, if appropriate. Try the following techniques:
Distribute handouts
Encourage questions
Repeat questions
Reinforce your main points
Keep control. . .
End with a summary and appreciation.
In general, everyone feels some apprehension about speaking in public. Here are some of the
most powerful tips to help you manage your speech:
 Don’t procrastinate
 Know your audience
 Be well-prepared
 Visualize your success
 Use breathing techniques to help you relax
 Look for and respond to positive listener support

6.2.2. Listening
Listening is one of the most important skills managers should have. It enables them to gain and
understand information, ideas, and suggestions of others during oral communication.

Active listening helps:

 People to help themselves make better choice and better informed decisions.
 People admit to themselves things they usually avoid.
 People to take power over their own lives.
 The manager to know more and to understand better.

Active listening is the most effective way of gathering information in:

 Appraisal Interviews
 Selection Interviews
 Disciplinary Interviews
 Counseling Interviews
 Grievance Interviews

However, it may have some of the following common problems:

 Prejudice against the speaker.

 External distractions such as horning cars, shouting people, etc.
 Losing attention – shifting attention from the words of the speaker. This
involves missing some important words.
 Premature evaluation.
 Delivery problems; for instance, a monotone can put listeners to sleep or
cause them to lose interest and attention.

Then, to solve the above problems and achieve good listening objectives the listener needs to use
active listening to:

Show that you are interested and care by sitting openly

Be reassuring- you’re there for them
Show you are listening with nods, ‘ahas’, etc
Use questions- but don’t overuse them
But do question to the depth you need to understand the issues
important to the interviewee.
Paraphrase what they say regularly

Moreover, the following points are important to remember in using active listening

 Please remember that it is in the listener’s interest that the speaker feels able to be frank.
 You need their information, even in a disciplinary interview.
 Don’t try to interpret- ASK What they mean
 Don’t make assumptions – ASK what they mean
 Don’t jump to conclusions –ASK what they mean
 Don’t impose your views – LISTEN to theirs
 ASK for their solution

Results of good listening

Positive and purposive listening results the following benefits:

 Leads to helpful and positive attitudes. This is to say that because of the understanding
the hindrances that lie in the way of good listening are eliminated.
 Permits the speaker and listeners to improve communication because each side is more
aware of a receptive to the other’s viewpoint.
 Indicates the speaker that listeners are interested in listening and should try to give his/her
best presentation.
 Helps listeners to obtain useful information on which they can make accurate decisions.
 Creates better understanding of others and thus, help listeners work with others.
 Assists the speaker (especially in interview) in finding out a problem.

Good listening is demanding, requiring omission of personal biases as well as external

distractions, with a positive attitude and active involvement through personal summaries and
evaluation, you can have fruitful listening experiences.

6..3. The Telephone

Business couldn’t run without the telephone. Telephone enables businesspersons to communicate
quickly and personally with people all over the world to exchange information. Telephone
communication is characterized by the following.

 It is brief or short
 K2Speakers may be in different environments making it susceptible to
disruptions.
 Deprived of nonverbal communication.

Thus, to ensure good use of the telephone practice the following guidelines are important for
consideration.

Planning telephone discussion

 Have positive attitude towards the receiver

 Ensure telephone is the best means
 Determine appropriate time for calling
 Outline the important points for discussion
 Make sure you have the right number before you dial

Conversing in telephone

 when the receiver responds identify yourself immediately

 Ask whether it is convenient to talk
 Be attentive and active in listening
 Close your call courteously (say thanks)

Receiving calls

 Be prepared to receive calls psychologically and get writing materials

 Answer the call immediately when it rings
 Identify yourself or your organization
 Make every effort go get the message correctly
 Explain any delays (if any)

6.4. Interviews
The term interview refers to all types of planned, face-to-face encounters in which at least one of
the participants has a specific objective in mind. Interviewing includes gathering or giving
information.

6.4.1. Types of interviews

Job applicants generally face two kinds of interviews: screening interviews and hiring/
placement interviews. Yk2ou must succeed in the first to proceed to the second. Once you make
it to the hiring/placement interview, you will find a variety of interview styles, including one-on-
one, panel, group, sequential, and stress interviews. You will be better prepared if you know
what to expect in these types of interviews.
A. Screening Interviews
Screening interviewshelps to eliminate those who fail to meet minimum requirements.
Companies use screening interviews to save time and money by weeding out lesser-qualified
candidates before scheduling face-to-face interviews. Although some screening interviews are
conducted during job fairs or on college campuses, most take place on the telephone. Some
companies computerize their screening interviews.
Increasingly, employers use videoconferencing to interview candidates. This allows multiple
hiring managers in distant locations to participate in the interview. Workplace experts predict
that in the future job seekers will need video capability on their computers for interviewing.
During a screening interview you will likely be asked to provide details about the education and
experience listed on your résumé, so you must be prepared to sell your qualifications. Remember
that the person conducting the screening interview is trying to determine whether you should
move on to the next step in the interview process.
A screening interview may be as short as five minutes. Even though it may be short, don’t treat it
casually. If you don’t perform well during the screening interview, it may be your last interview
with that organization. You can use the tips that follow in this chapter to succeed during the
screening process.
B. Hiring/Placement Interviews
The most promising candidates selected from screening interviews will be invited to
hiring/placement interviews. Hiring managers want to learn whether candidates are motivated,
qualified, and a good fit for the position. Their goal is to learn how the candidate would fit into
their organization. Conducted in depth, hiring/placement interviews may take many forms. The
following are some common types of interviews that may show the characteristics of other forms
of interviews.
- Employee appraisal interview

In employee appraisal interview, both the employer and the employee are expected to evaluate
the employee’s performance and set future goals. This helps to recognize and reward employee
contributions and motivate employees. The interviewer summarizes employee’s performance
ratings, establish clear goals for the next appraisal period and maintain positive tone. On the
other hand, the interviewee has to listen and discuss any problems and understand goals for next
appraisal period.

- Grievance interview

Grievance interview is a type of one-to-one encounters involving conflict and its resolution. For
example, employer-employee disputes over working hours. This interview is unique in that
emotions often run at a much higher level than in most other types of interviews. The interviewer
in the grievance interview must be both a good listener and a problem solver.

- Exit interview

An interviewer conducts exit interview to find out why an employee is leaving a job and to
obtain the employee’s assessment of the job and organization.

An exit interview can be conducted by auditors, evaluators and supervisors. This helps the
interviewer to identify an organization's potential problems and take corrective actions. The exit
interview is also helpful to create goodwill for the organization because the employee explains
reasons for leaving.

- Disciplinary interview

Disciplinary interview is conducted to understand employee problems when they violate rules
and regulations or when they engage in an act of misconduct and identify their causes, explain
disciplinary action and try to improve employee’s attitudes.

- Persuasive interview

This interview is conducted to influence a person. Many employee customer situations are
persuasive (example sales) interviews. It influences the choices the customer makes, but not
through coercion or trickery. A successful persuasive interviewer must appeal to the values and
needs of the interviewee very much like persuasive speaker.

- Counseling interview:

It is conducted to identify problems and suggest solutions.

- Sequential Interviews
Sequential interviews allow a candidate to meet individually with two or more interviewers over
the course of several hours or days. For example, job candidates seeking tenure-track academic
positions undergo sequential interviewing. You must listen carefully and respond positively to all
interviewers. Sell your qualifications to each one; don’t assume that any interviewer knows what
was said in a previous interview. Keep your responses fresh, even when repeating yourself many
times over.
- Stress Interviews
Stress interviews are meant to test your reactions during nerve-wracking situations. You may be
forced to wait a long time before being greeted by the interviewer, you may be given a test with
an impossible time limit, or you may be treated rudely by one or more of the interviewers.
Another stress interview technique is to have interviewers ask questions at a rapid rate. If asked
rapid-fire questions from many directions, take the time to slow things down. For example, you
might say, I would be happy to answer your question, Ms. X, but firstI must finish responding to
Mr. Z. If greeted with silence, another stress technique, you might say, Would you like me to
begin the interview? Let me tell you aboutmyself. Or ask a question such as Can you give me
more information about the position? The best way to handle stress questions is to remain calm
and give thoughtful answers. However, you might also reconsider whether you would want to
work for this kind of organization. No matter what interview structure you encounter, you will
feel more comfortable and better prepared if you know what to do before, during, and after the
interview.
- Panel Interviews
Panel interviews are typically conducted by people who will be your supervisors and colleagues.
Usually seated around a table, interviewers may take turns asking questions. Panel interviews are
advantageous because they save time and show you how the staff works together.
For these interviews, you can prepare basic biographical information about each panel member.
In answering questions, keep eye contact with the questioner as well as with the other team
members. Try to take notes during the interview so that you can remember each person’s
questions and what was important to that individual.
- Group Interviews
Group interviews occur when a company interviews several candidates for the same position at
the same time. Some employers use this technique to measure leadership skills and
communication styles. During a group interview, stay focused on the interviewer, and treats the
other candidates with respect.
- Using Professional Phone Techniques
Even with the popularity of e-mail, most employers contact job applicants by phone to set up
interviews. Employers can get a better sense of how applicants communicate by hearing their
voices over the phone. Therefore, once you are actively looking for a job, anytime the phone
rings, it could be a potential employer. Don’t make the mistake of letting an unprofessional voice
mail message or a lazy roommate ruin your chances. Here’s how you can avoid such problems:
a). Invest in a good answering machine or voice mail service. Make sure that your outgoing
message is concise and professional, with no distracting background sounds. It should be
in your own voice and include your full name for clarity.
b) Tell those who might answer your phone at home about your job search. Explain to them
the importance of acting professionally and taking complete messages. Family members
or roommates can affect the first impression an employer has of you.
c) If you have children, prevent them from answering the phone during your job search.
Children of all ages are not known for taking good messages!
d) If you have put your cell phone number on your résumé, don’t answer your cell phone
unless you are in a good location to carry on a conversation with an employer. It is hard
to pay close attention when you are driving down the highway or eating in a noisy
restaurant!
e) Use voice mail to screen calls. By screening incoming calls, you can be totally in control
when you return a prospective employer’s call. Organize your materials and ready
yourself psychologically for the conversation.
Making the First Conversation Impressive
Whether you answer the phone directly or return an employer’s call, make sure you are prepared
for the conversation. Remember that this is the first time the employer has heard your voice.
How you conduct yourself on the phone will create a lasting impression. Here are tips to make
that first impression a positive one:
 Keep a list near the telephone of positions for which you have applied.
 Treat any call from an employer just like an interview. Use a professional tone and
businesslike language. Be polite and enthusiastic, and sell your qualifications.
 If caught off guard by the call, ask whether you can call back in a few minutes.
Organize your materials and yourself.
 Have a copy of your résumé available so that you can answer any questions that come
up. Also have your list of references, a calendar, and a notepad handy.
 Be prepared for a screening interview. As discussed earlier, this might occur during
the first phone call.
 Take good notes during the phone conversation. Obtain accurate directions, and
verify the spelling of your interviewer’s name. If you will be interviewed by more
than one person, get all of their names.
 Before you hang up, reconfirm the date and time of your interview. You could say
something like I look forward to meeting with you next Wednesday at 2 p.m.
6.4.2. Planning interviews

Most interviews are planned before hand and evaluated afterwards. When planning an interview
exercise the following:

i) Determine goals for the interview: An interview has clear goals; such as, to select job
candidates, to appraise employee's performance or to resolve conflicts, etc. Besides it has to
consider the approaches or strategies that will best achieve your goals. This involves evaluating
the needs, goals and interests of both the interviewer and the interviewee.

ii) Choose appropriate question

There are four common types of interview questions. These are described below.

Open-ended questions – They are broad general questions that allow the respondent maximum
freedom in deciding how much and what kind of information to give. Open-ended questions also
enable the interviewer to freely talk. They can help the interviewer discover unexpected
information. However, they have the following disadvantages:

 The interviewee’s vague or irrelevant responses may waste time.

 The interviewer may have a problem to sort out the key points of the interviewee’s
responses.
 Interviewer may lose control of the interview.
 Some interviewees may become nervous because they don’t know where to begin.
Examples of open-ended questions are:
 What skills would you bring to this job?
 Tell me about your complain?
 Why are you living our company?

Closed questions – These questions completely limit the respondent’s choice of answers by
requiring him to select one of the answers supplied in the question.

Example:

o Have you written the sales report?

o Do you smoke?
o Is your main goal to make money, or are you more interested in serving humanity?

Advantage

The interviewer can get maximum control over the questions and answers.
The answers are easy to interpret and more questions can be asked in less time

Disadvantage

They do not allow for any detailed explanations

They do not allow respondent to impart real feelings when the choices given do not
include his/her preferred choice.

iii) Conducting the interview:

Conducting the interview involves the following three phases:

Opening phase

In addition to establishing rapport in the opening of an interview, the interviewer should give
clear orientation. The orientation should include the following information.

 Verification of the interviewee’s name.

 The interviewer’s name and why he/she is conducting the interview.
 The purpose and/or desired outcome of the interview.
 What information is needed and how it will be used.
 Approximate length of the interview.

Establish a pleasant atmosphere unless you are conducting a stress interview, you can establish a
rapport with your interviewee by greeting the person pleasantly and briefly talking about matters
unrelated to the interview.

This warm-up period helps the parties to the interview to relax, but it should be short. In
addition, the interviewee can create good first impression by being on time (punctual) dressing
appropriately, being well-prepared and appearing confidant and relaxed.

Question - response phase

This phase is the heart of the interview. Both the interviewer and interviewee have the
opportunity to ask questions, respond to statements and provide feedback. The interviewer
should anticipate possible interview responses and be prepared to change the type of questions
and the organization of the questions if necessary. Similarly, the interviewee should anticipate
possible questions from the interviewer. Active listening is essential on the part of both parties.
The interviewer should be aware of the interviewee’s nonverbal and verbal communication.

During the Interview

During the interview you will be answering questions and asking your own questions. Your
demeanor, body language, and other nonverbal cues will also be on display. The interviewer will
be trying to learn more about you, and you should learn more about the job and the organization.
Although you may be asked some unique questions, many interviewers ask standard, time-
proven questions, which means that you can prepare your answers ahead of time.
-Sending Positive Nonverbal Messages and Acting Professionally
You have already sent nonverbal messages to your interviewer by arriving on time, being
courteous, dressing professionally, and greeting the receptionist confidently. You will continue
to send nonverbal messages throughout the interview.
Remember that what comes out of your mouth and what is written on your résumé are not the
only messages an interviewer receives from you. Nonverbal messages also create powerful
impressions. Here are suggestions that will help you send the right nonverbal messages during
interviews:
- Control your body movements
Keep your hands, arms, and elbows to yourself. Don’t lean on a desk. Keep your feet on the
floor. Don’t cross your arms in front of you. Keep your hands out of your pockets.
- Exhibit good posture
Sit erect, leaning forward slightly. Don’t slouch in your chair; at the same time, don’t look too
stiff and uncomfortable. Good posture demonstrates confidence and interest.
- Practice appropriate eye contact
A direct eye gaze, at least in North America, suggests interest and trustworthiness. If you are
being interviewed by a panel, remember to maintain eye contact with all interviewers.
- Use gestures effectively
Nod to show agreement and interest. Gestures should be used as needed, but don’t overdo it.
- Smile enough to convey a positive attitude
Have a friend give you honest feedback on whether you generally smile too much or not enough.
- Listen attentively
Show the interviewer you are interested and attentive by listening carefully to the questions
being asked. This will also help you answer questions appropriately.
vi).Evaluating Interview

When the interview is over, evaluate the result. The closing phase of any type of interview
should begin with a summary of the major points covered in the interview and of any
conclusions reached important topics have been discussed and that no informal errors have been
made. The interviewee should get a chance to ask questions. Finally, the interview should always
end with each participant’s thanking the other for the time given and the cooperation shown.

6.5. Meetings

As businesses become more team oriented and management becomes more participatory, people
are attending more meetings than ever. Despite heavy reliance on e-mail and the growing use of
wireless devices to stay connected, meetings are still the most comfortable way to exchange
information. However, many meetings are a waste of time. Regardless, meetings are here to stay.
Our task, then, is to make them efficient, satisfying, and productive.
Meetings consist of three or more individuals who gather to pool information, solicit feedback,
clarify policy, seek consensus, and solve problems. For you, however, meetings have another
important purpose. They represent opportunities. Because they are a prime tool for developing
staff, they are career-critical. The inability to run an effective meeting can sink a career.
At meetings, judgments are formed and careers are made. Therefore, instead of treating meetings
as thieves of your valuable time, try to see them as golden opportunities and respect its
privileged information.
They should not discuss with outsiders any sensitive issues without permission. In addition,
teams have a broader obligation to avoid advocating actions that would endanger members of
society at large. The skills that make you a valuable and ethical team player will serve you well
when you run or participate in professional meetings. So that you can make the most of these
opportunities, here are techniques for planning and conducting successful meetings. You will
also learn how to be a valuable meeting participant.
When to call meetings

First, you should call a meeting when:

a) You need to reach a group judgment as the basis for a decision.

b) You need to discover analyze or solve a problem.
c) You need to gain acceptance from the group for an idea, program, or decision.
d) You need to achieve a training objective.
e) You need to reconcile conflicting views.
f) You need provide essential information for work guidance or for the relief of insecurities
or tensions.
g) You need to assure equal understanding or company policy, methods, or decisions.
h) You need to obtain immediate reactions to a problem that requires a speedy response.

On the other hand you should not call meeting

a) When other communication, such as telephone telegram, letter, or memo, will produce
the desired result.
b) When there is not sufficient time for adequate preparation by participants or the meeting
leader.
c) When one or more key participants cannot be available.
d) When the meeting is not likely to produce satisfactory results because of personality
conflicts or conflicts with overall management strategy.
e) When expected results do not warrant spending the money it will cost to hold the
meeting.

6.5.1. Preparing Meeting

Benjamin Franklin once said, “By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.” If you are in
charge of a meeting, give yourself plenty of preparation time to guarantee the meeting’s success.
Before the meeting, determine your purpose, decide how and where to meet, organize an agenda,
decide who to invite, and prepare the meeting location and materials.
a) Determining Your Purpose. Before you do anything else, you must decide the purpose of
your meeting and whether a meeting is even necessary. No meeting should be called unless
the topic is important, can’t wait, and requires an exchange of ideas. If the flow of
information is strictly one way and no immediate feedback will result, then don’t schedule a
meeting. For example, if people are merely being advised or informed, send an e-mail,
memo, or letter.
Leave a telephone or voice mail message, but don’t call a costly meeting. Remember, the real
expense of a meeting is the lost productivity of all the people attending. To decide whether
the purpose of the meeting is valid, it is a good idea to consult the key people who will be
attending. Ask them what outcomes are desired and how to achieve them. This consultation
also sets a collaborative tone and encourages full participation.
b) Deciding How and Where to Meet: Once you have determined that a meeting is necessary,
you must decide whether to meet face-to-face or virtually. If you decide to meet face-to-face,
reserve a meeting room.
If you decide to meet virtually, make any necessary advance arrangements for your voice
conference, video conference, or Web conference.
c) Organizing an Agenda: Prepare an agenda of topics to be discussed during the meeting.
Also include any reports or materials that participants should read in advance. For
continuing groups, you might also include a copy of the minutes of the previous meeting. To
keep meetings productive, limit the number of agenda items. Remember, the narrower the
focus, the greater the chances for success. Consider putting items that will be completed
quickly near the beginning of the agenda to give the group a sense of accomplishment. Save
emotional topics for the end. You should distribute the agenda at least two days in advance of
the meeting. A good agenda covers the following information:
 Date and place of meeting
 Start time and end time
 Brief description of each topic, in order of priority, including names
of individuals who are responsible for performing some action
 Proposed allotment of time for each topic
 Any pre-meeting preparation expected of participants
Sample agenda

b. Inviting Participants: The number of meeting participants is determined by the

purpose of the meeting, as shown in the following table6.4.
Table 6.4 Meeting, Meeting Purposes and Number of participants
Meeting, Meeting Purposes and Number of participants
Purpose of Meeting Number of participant
Intensive problem solving 5 or fewer

Problem identification 10 or fewer

Information reviews and presentations 30 or fewer
Motivational Unlimited

If the meeting purpose is motivational, such as an awards ceremony for sales representative then
the number of participants is unlimited. But to make decisions, the best number is five or fewer
participants. Ideally, those attending should be people who will make the decision and people
with information necessary to make the decision.
Also attending should be people who will be responsible for implementing the decision and
representatives of groups who will benefit from the decision. Let’s say, for example, that the
CEO of rugged sportswear manufacturer Timberland is strongly committed to community
service. He wants his company to participate more fully in community service. So he might meet
with managers, employee representatives, and community leaders to decide how his employees
could volunteer to refurbish a school, build affordable housing, or volunteer at a clinic.
f) Fixing the Place and Time

If you are meeting face-to-face, decide the layout of the room. To maximize collaboration and
participation, try to arrange tables and chairs in a circle or a square so that all participants can see
one another. Moreover, where you sit at the table or stand in the room signals whether you wish
to be in charge or are willing to share leadership. Set up any presentation equipment that will be
needed. Make copies of documents that will be handed out during the meeting. Arrange for
refreshments. The time and place of a meeting can affect the success of the meeting. Use neutral
conferenceroom and avoid the number of interruptions such as the telephone calls. Consider the
seatingarrangement such as, rows of chairs, conference tables, etc, room temperature,
lighting,ventilation, and refreshments. As far as the choice of the right time is concerned, it
dependson the common sense of the chairperson. Usually morning meetings are productive.

Moreover the following questions may be helpful in planning meetings

 How much time will the meeting probably take?

 What information, if any, do members need before the meeting?
 What follow-up, if any, do members need before the meeting?
 What agenda will the meeting follow?
 What physical arrangements need to be made for the meeting?

The facility in which the meeting is to be held should also be given careful consideration as a
part of the planning process. This may include equipment and several aspects of the
environment, temperature and ventilation.

g) Conducting and chairing the Meeting

When a meeting is conducted, as a participant, arrive on time and be well prepared. Be attentive
and give others their due. Don’t be calm or a shrinking violet. If you have something relevant
and worthwhile to say, say it. Don’t interrupt other speakers discourteously, but if you need to be
assertive to get past someone’s blocking action, do so with calm authority. When you are asked
direct questions, give direct answers.

During the meeting, the job of the chairperson is to control the discussion without dominating it.
Since the group is in his/her charge, he/she will need to assist the weak, draw out the silent, and
actively encourage the exchange of ideas. To do so, he/she has to be a good observant and a good
listener and steer a careful path.

When all viewpoints on a controversial issue have been heard, the chairperson has to call for a
consensus and summarize the accomplishments of the meeting at its close.

h) Preparing Minutes

Minutes are official records of discussions and decisions made at a meeting. A secretary of a
meeting usually writes them. Minutes objectively summarize the discussions made, the
conclusions reached, recommendations made and the tasks assigned to members and groups.
Minutes should be accurate and empirical. The emotions and feelings if any expressed by
members during the course of discussion are not recorded. However, the names of those who
contributed major points and ideas should be recorded. The writer of the minute has to take down
notes carefully at the meeting. Soon after it is over, he/she has to prepare the draft of the minutes.
Then let the chairperson check it to ensure accuracy. The minute are reflects the agenda of the
meeting and should include the following information.

 The name of the organizational unit/group e.g. Board of directors, promotion

committee, budgeting committee.
 The date, time and place of the meeting.
 The number of the meeting if it is in series e.g. Sixth Meeting of the Board of
directors.
 Name of the chairperson and name of persons attended (present).
 Names of persons unable to attend.
 Names of person who attended by special invitation.
 Any motions and the names of the people who made and seconded them.
 Summary of agenda items covered general responses to each item any
recommendations or decisions that were made and the names of people who made
significant contributions.
 Any items that will be covered in future meetings.
 Signature of the secretary and the chairperson.

The minute becomes final only when it has been read at the end of the meeting or next meeting,
approved by the members, signed by the members or chairperson. Often, it is circulated
beforehand, and then it is confirmed at the second meeting including amendments and
suggestions of members, if any.

i) Following up meetings

Minutes should be distributed to respective members and concerned individuals for

implementation and consistent follow up.

6.6. Written Communication

Dear student, in order to carry out the objectives of organization, the managers should know how
to communicate in written form over oral communication skills. In this section you will be
introduced to some of the more important skills for business writing and the preparation of
business reports. The chapter focuses primarily on Principles of Effective use and interpretation
of verbal messages. We examine the general rules and styles used for business documents and
stress the benefits of clear and effective writing. We examine the customary format of business
reports and the tone, content, and purpose of their component parts. Samples of various business
documents are provided to give you the opportunity to develop and sharpen your written
communication skills.
Leaders must know how to write in an effective manner. Poor writing skills among business
leaders were putting companies at risk. Executives have identified a lack of writing skills among
job candidates interviewing for jobs.
Developing Business Writing Skills
Certain business writing skills apply to a number of different types of business documents.
Writers must be able to organize and develop paragraphs. They must be able to write in a style
that reflects appropriate tone and use vocabulary that is adapted to the organization. They must
be able to write clearly using appropriate terminology while being concise. Finally, writers must
be sure to use correct spelling and grammar. All these skills require planning and preparation
before the writing process begins.
Organizing and Developing Paragraphs: Maintaining a clear organizational pattern that flows
naturally and is easy for the reader to understand will increase the effectiveness of your written
communication. Making the document pleasing to look at and easy to read means “chunking” the
information into visually distinct sections, using paragraphs.
Organize the Document: Appropriately organizing a document is the first step a business
writer can take to make sure the reader understands the message. There are several methods for
organizing a document, depending on the type of document, its content, and the audience. The
following paragraphs discuss some options for organizing a business document:
Problem-solution: development begins with a description of a problem and moves on todiscuss
possible solutions or a proposed solution to the problem. A variation on this methodis the cause-
and-effect style of development, which outlines a cause and its possible effects.For example, if
you were writing a report on employee turnover, you would start by describingthe problem of
turnover and its magnitude, then move on to discuss some possible waysto retain employees and
minimize turnover. You would then outline the proposed best solutionand offer reasons for
selecting this solution.
The chronological or sequential: organizational pattern begins with the first in a series of events
or steps and moves on to the second, third, and so on. This organization pattern allows you to
report on events or steps in the order in which they occurred or will occur. Using sequential
development is helpful when writing a training manual, for example. When training someone in
how to perform a skill, the steps must be enacted in a particular order. A team leader overseeing
fifteen service agents at a customer service call center may need to develop a short training
program on how to process a call. The training manual would likely include a step-by-step
description of each behavior involved in processing a call effectively and successfully.
Priority: development focuses on the most urgent or important information first, then moves on
to less important or urgent information. This style would work well when developing an agenda
for a business meeting. An agenda lists the items to be discussed in the meeting in the order they
will be discussed. If, for example, an increase in customer complaints were an important priority
item to discuss in a meeting, then that would be listed first on the agenda.
General-to-specific: development is a format that allows you to begin with the big picture and
move on to specific details. When preparing a sales proposal, for example, you may want to start
by discussing the overall goals and move on toward the specifics of the product or service you
are offering. Another way to use this method is to go from specific to general. For example, a
restaurant chain marketing agent might describe a recent drop in sales at one store location and
move on to outline the larger, global effects of this decline on the entire organization. Although
this list of organizational patterns is not exhaustive, it can give you an idea of the various
methods used to organize information. While organizing your document, you need to be aware of
the reader and to select a method that best fits with the subject matter. An effective way to
determine a method that works well for your message is to first develop an outline, or a basic
skeleton of the information you want to write about. You can review the format to ensure that it
fits with your message and makes sense to the reader before you fully develop the document.
Develop Paragraphs: The paragraphs in your document are important tools that you can use to
divide your information into logical sections. Paragraphs also provide visual breaks on the page,
making the message easier to read. Three factors to consider when developing a paragraph are
the topic sentence, length, and coherence.
The topic sentenceof a paragraph is generally the first sentence, and it states the main idea. In
other words, the topic sentence informs the reader about the content of the paragraph. The
sentences that follow the topic sentence support the idea asserted in the topic sentence. For
example, when writing in support of a proposed travel budget increase, you could start with the
following sentence: “As a result of the rising cost of fuel, transportation costs have nearly tripled
in the last quarter.” The sentences following the topic sentence in the paragraph describe and
offer evidence of the increased cost.
The second factor to consider in developing a paragraph is length, which again depends on your
subject matter, reader, and the type of document. A memo, for instance, may have short
paragraphs. In a letter or report, making the paragraphs too short could result in an
underdeveloped message and information that is not clear to the reader. Paragraphs that are too
long are not visually appealing and can be difficult to read if they fail to chunk information into
manageable sections for the reader.
The third factor to consider when constructing paragraphs is coherence. Coherence refers to
unity created by common underlying concepts, logical organization, and clear,natural
development of the content. Coherence can be created, for example, by writing inone tense or
from one point of view. To make the information easier to read, headers can be used when
separating paragraphs or main ideas. Headers also help to break the page up into visually distinct
and easy-to-read sections.
Using Appropriate Writing Style: When writing for business, consider both style and
clarity.Writing style refers to the tone, language, voice, and overall viewpoint of the sentences.
Compared to other forms of writing, business writing style is generally more precise, brief, and
direct. Also, the style of business writing has evolved from a previously formal and elaborate
style to one that is more personal, although this may vary depending on the organization. The
business writer also needs to take into consideration the tone and bias of the language used.
Use Appropriate Tone and Vocabulary: Whatever the type of document they are preparing,
writers should consider the tone of their message. Tonerefers to the attitude of the writer toward
both the reader and the subject matter. In many ways the tone of a written document has an effect
similar to that of the tone of voice in face-to-face communication— the tone of a document
(courteous, brusque, demanding, deferential, or friendly) complements the words used in the
document. The following questions will help you to determine the appropriate tone for your
message:
 Why am I writing this document?
 Who am I writing to and what do I want them to understand?
 What kind of tone will complement and reinforce my written message?
Fortunately, you can use the same tone for most business messages. Remember that the main
goal is to adapt your message to your reader. Using difficult vocabulary or phrases that
demonstrate a lack of confidence, such as “I think you will find our product to be useful and
beneficial to your organization,” may not effectively communicate to your reader that you are
convinced of the benefits of your product. Follow these general guidelines when considering
what kind of tone to use in your letters and how to present information in that tone:
 Be confident.
 Be courteous and sincere.
 Adapt to the reader by stressing benefits.
 Write at an appropriate level of difficulty.
Use Unbiased Language: One of the ways you can make your business writing effective is to
avoid biased messages. Biased messages include words and expressions that offend because
they make inappropriate assumptions or repeat stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, physical or
mental disability, age, or sexual orientation. Although some people dismiss the notion that they
should use unbiased messages as mere “political correctness,” in reality, it is what most parents
have been teaching their children for years—to be considerate of others.
Following are several ways to use unbiased verbal messages:
Avoid use of the generic he. Generic verbal messages include words that may apply to only one
sex, race, or other group, as though that group represents everyone. For example, using the word
he to include both men and women is no longer appropriate in the diverse professional
workplace. Some people argue that the use of heautomatically includes both men and women.
But research does not confirm this widely held belief. The use of he is exclusionary; it leaves
women out. Using he/she is awkward in many situations; it’s best to use plural pronouns. Rather
than writing “A manager is effective because he is a competent communicator,” write “Managers
are effective because they are competent communicators.” Contrary to popular belief, when
writers use the generic man to refer to men and women (as in the word mailman), women feels
excluded.
In fact, research suggests that people usually visualize men when they hear that label.
Additionally, when job titles end in “man,” individuals in those positions are assumed to have
stereotypically masculine personality traits. Rather than using the generic word man, try using
the following to make your business writing style more effective and appropriate:

Instead of . . . Use . . .
Chairman Chair
Freshman First-year student
Fireman Firefighter
Salesman Sales representative
Mailman Mail carrier
Parallel verbal phrases use language and phrases that are symmetrical. Nonparallel verbal
messages treat groups differently and therefore are perceived negatively, as biased. Here are a
few examples to clarify the difference between parallel and nonparallel verbal messages:
Nonparallel Phrases Parallel Phrases
Ladies and men Ladies and gentlemen
Men and girls Men and women
Boys and women Boys and girls
Writing with Clarity
Clarity refers to the specificity of a message and how easily the reader can comprehend the
information. Many of the ideas discussed in this section were also discussed in Chapter 3, which
examined how to use and interpret verbal messages. However, Chapter 3 discussed clarity as it
pertains to oral, or spoken, messages. In this section, we discuss clarity as it relates to the written
word
When writing for business, as opposed to other forms of writing (such as creative writing),
clarity of message and thought is very important. Ambiguous messages or unclear sentences can
prevent your writing from communicating to the reader. A clear paragraph is coherent; it has a
logical sequence and smooth transitions between the sentences. Another consideration in
achieving clarity is the choice of words. Abstract phrases, such as “use a bright color palette,”
will not communicate as much or as clearly as concrete phrases, such as “use bright oranges,
yellows, and reds.” The business writer should also be cautious about jargon.
As defined in Chapter 3, jargon is language used by a particular group, profession, or culture
that may not be understood or used by other people. Jargon is common in the workplace, and it
tends to become overused. If you’ve ever worked as a restaurant server, for example, you
probably recognize the phrase “in the weeds,” which you have used anytime you are so
overwhelmed with customers that you feel like you can’t catch up. But for those who haven’t
worked in the food industry, that statement holds little meaning. Phrases such as “Let’s dialogue”
(instead of “Let’s discuss this”) can become clichéd and can seem inappropriate to a reader
outside of the organization.
Jargon can be effective if readers are familiar with the terms. When writing for an outside
audience, however, avoid jargon. A final consideration when writing for clarity is to be concise.
Concise writing avoids unnecessary words and phrases but does not sacrifice clarity or
necessary detail. A report need not be brief to be concise, and making something shorter is not
appropriate if clarity is sacrificed. Here are some suggestions for writing concisely.
Use subordination: Instead of writing “We received the sales report this afternoon. It was five
pages. The report clearly illustrated a drop in sales marketwide,” subordinate, using conjunctions
to combine the ideas from these sentences to make one coherent, concise sentence: “This
afternoon we received the five-page sales report, which clearly illustrates a marketwide drop in
sales.”
Avoid redundancy:Even if you are not repeating whole phrases and sentences, a report can still
be redundant. Eliminate qualifying terms that are not necessary, such as “first and foremost” or
“basic and fundamental.”
Don’t overuse intensifiers:Sometimes intensifiers are relevant and help convey the importance
of an idea. However, their overuse can become redundant and cause your writing to lose some of
its clarity. It is not necessary to write “The report was perfectly clear and completely accurate.”
Instead, just say “The report was clear and accurate.” Although intensifiers are sometimes
appropriate, take caution to avoid overusing them because they lose their intensity.
Avoid telegraphic language: One pitfall in attempting to write concisely is the tendency to
oversimplify.
Telegraphic styleis a writing style that condenses a message by eliminating articles, pronouns,
conjunctions, and transitions. Although telegraphic style may make a document brief, the
document may not necessarily remain clear. Consider the following examples:
Telegraphic style: Per May 5 memo, meeting agenda attached. Supervisor wants report by
Houston office. Meeting as soon as report received. August almost full, please advise to set date.
Clear message: As I mentioned in my May 5 memo, I have attached the next meeting agenda.
The supervisor wants the report to be completed by the Houston office. As soon as we get the
report, we can schedule a meeting. Our August calendar is almost full, so please suggest a date
soon.
Biased messages: messages that include words or expressions that offend because they make
inappropriate assumptions or repeat stereotypes about gender, ethnicity, physical or mental
disability, age, or sexual orientation.
Using Correct Spelling and Grammar
Readers often view how you communicate in written messages as a measure of your
effectiveness. Paying close attention to spelling and grammar will help you develop credibility
with your readers. A document that contains spelling or grammatical errors can be difficult to
read and may fail to communicate the message completely. Mistakes generally reflect poorly on
the writer and often on the organization as well.
The spell-check tool on most word-processing programs is a good place to start when you want
to identify spelling errors. Spell-checkers are not foolproof, however, and relying solely on a
spell-check tool may not give effective results. It is always a good idea to go over a hard copy of
any document yourself and then pass it on to a friend or a colleague to proofread before
delivering it to readers. Reread your notes to confirm the spelling of names and places; a
proofreader often cannot catch such mistakes. For example, Mr. Schmitt; may not appreciate
receiving a letter addressed to Mr. Schmidt; but because the latter is a more common spelling, it
will likely not be identified as an error by a spell-check program or a proofreader. Examine the
following sentences to see if you can identify the mistakes that a spell-checker would miss.
 Of all the perspective employees we have interviewed, you have the most impressive
resume and work experience. (prospective)
 A background in education training has proven to be a real compliment to my experience
as a trainer. (complement)
 . . . identified potential roadblocks to ensure that project operations preceded smoothly.
(proceeded)
 . . . organized and lead a fifteen-member customer service team who processed all the
calls in the customer retention department. (led)
All the words in these four sentences are spelled correctly and would not be caught by a spell-
checker. However, the indicated words are not appropriate for the context. Although helpful, a
spell-check program is no replacement for editing and proofreading.
Equally important in business writing is proper usage of grammar. Grammarrefers to the
functions of words and the way they work together to form coherent language. Standard English
grammatical rules apply in business writing, and being familiar with these rules will help in the
writing process. Many word-processing programs have grammar check tools, but be aware that
these programs may not correct all mistakes. Once again, proofreading a hard copy of your
document for grammatical errors is always a good idea.
The skills discussed in this section apply to all forms of business writing. They help make your
writing clear, precise, effective, logical, and accurate. The first skill is to clearly develop and
organize your document, using structure and clear paragraphs. The second skill is to use the
appropriate writing style for your document, audience, and subject. A third skill is to write
clearly, using concise, effective messages to enhance communication. The fourth skill we
discussed is to make sure your spelling and grammar are correct, which can develop your
credibility with the reader and ensure you have effectively communicated your message. Use
these skills when developing any business document.
Table 6.6 Skills for Effective Business Writing
Skills for Effective Business Writing
Skills Strategies Examples
Organize the document  Decide on an  A persuasive sales proposal
organizational structure or might use a problem-solution
format. format.
 Use paragraphs with topic  Start a new paragraph with a
sentences. new topic sentence for new
 Develop an outline ideas, to highlight the main
ideas and make the document
easy to read.
 Lay out your main ideas first
to see how they fit together.
Then support with sub-points
where necessary.
Use appropriate style  Select appropriate tone “Hi, how are you doing, Sarah?”
and vocabulary works well for an informal greeting,
 Avoid biased language whereas “Good afternoon, Dr.
Strong,” strikes a more formal tone.
Say police officer instead of
policeman, or cop.
Write with clarity  Be concise The statement “Please come to the
 Avoid jargon. meeting which will be today at 5
o’clock in the afternoon.” is too
wordy. A more concise statement
would be “Please come to the
meeting at 5 P.M. today.”
Don’t use words or phrases that only
certain people might understand,
particularly when composing for an
audience outside the organization.
Use correct spelling and  Use more than word- Have a friend, family member, or
Grammar processing programs’ coworker assist by proofreading; read
spell-check tools. the document aloud; and double-
check the spelling of proper nouns.

6.6.1. Business letter writing

Business letters are standard communication formats that are important and common in the
workplace. As a leader, you will likely need to communicate with those outside of your
organization—for example, with clients or those in other organizations. Being able to apply the
skills discussed earlier to business letters is important and valuable.
Correspondence: refers to business letters sent to customers, coworkers, superiors, and
subordinates.Because business correspondence often is more personal than formal proposalsand
reports, it should generally be written in a conversational style. Suggestions for writingeffective
correspondence include the following.
Develop goodwill: Goodwill is a positive perception of the author on the part of the audience. A
good way to build goodwill is to keep correspondence audience focused. Put simply, adapt to
your reader. Rather than saying, “We need to see a receipt before we can process a return or
exchange of the merchandise,” say, “You may receive a full refund or exchange of the
merchandise if you mail or fax a receipt.” The two sentences say essentially the same thing, but
the focus in the second sentence is on the needs of the customer. In this case you could build
even more goodwill by sending an acknowledgment letter letting the person know the receipt
arrived and thanking the person for being prompt.
Include standard elements of correspondence:Although the general appearance and format of
correspondence may vary, following is a list of elements present in most business
correspondence. Use this list as a guideline when deciding what to include in your business
letter.
a. Return address. The return address contains the sender’s address and the date the letter
was written. If the letter appears on letterhead that includes an address, a date is enough
for the return address.
b. Inside address. Include the name and address of the recipient of the letter before a
salutation.
c. Salutation. A salutation should address the recipient of the letter directly and
appropriately. A letter intended to be social and friendly can have a comma after the
salutation; a more formal letter should include a colon. Avoid “Dear Sir” unless you are
certain the recipient is male. The overused “To Whom It May Concern” is too impersonal.
Take the time to determine exactly to whom the letter should be addressed.
d. Body. The body contains the content of the letter. It should be written in paragraph form.
Including a non–task-related message at the beginning of the letter can help to build
rapport, for example, “Thank you for expressing interest in exploring the employment
options offered at our institution.” Then enter into the main message.
e. Closing. The end of the letter should include a closing expression before your signature.
This can be the common and effective “Sincerely,” “Cordially,” or something more
personal such as “Best,” or “Respectfully yours.” The letter should include both a
handwritten signature and a typed signature block. The block usually contains your name,
as well as your title and the name of your organization (unless your letter appears on
letterhead).
Deliver bad news tactfully:Occasionally correspondence must contain bad news. This must be
handled tactfully. A general rule for handling bad news is to deliver it gently and courteously.
When presenting bad news through correspondence, consider: Opening with a description of the
context, to provide a buffer. For example, you might begin a letter with “Thank you for applying
for the position of service manager at ABC Company”.
Sample business letter
1532 1st Lane
Addis Abeba, Dembal City Center 78541
July 5, 20XX

Mr. KebedeDjabesa
InnoTech Associates
817 Freddy Gonzalez Drive
Addis Abeba, DCC 78539

Dear Mr. KebedeDjabesa:

We appreciated the customer service training program you provided to our company last month.
This letter is intended as a follow-up to that training and to thank you for your time and attention
to detail.

The training was effective and productive. Our customer service agents have greatly increased
morale and motivation when interacting with customers. We have seen great results from your
training just in the last month.

We are considering a telephone etiquette course as a follow-up to the customer service training
you provided. We were impressed with your demeanor, training style, and attention to detail, and
would like InnoTech Associates to conduct the training program. If you are interested in
providing us with a training program in customer service telephone etiquette, please contact me.
Once again, thank you for your interest in helping our employees work to improve their customer
service skills. You have taught us some invaluable lessons and our company and workers are
grateful.

Sincerely,
KamisoGuyo
Training Department Supervisor
PemCo Inc., ABC
Phone: (011) 551-3347
Fax: (011) 551-3300k2
[email protected]

Explaining the bad news rather than simply stating it: For example, an explanation of a hiring
decision might be, “Because of the extensive pool of applicants, we have chosen to place
someone in the position with ten years of experience who will need minimum training to begin.”
Closing with a goodwill message that reinforces a positive relationship with the recipient: For
example, you might close with a statement such as, “With your excellent academic record and
ability to put others at ease, we have no doubt you will be successful in finding a position with
another organization.”
Use a standard format: When developing a business letter, you also need to consider the format.
A common format for correspondence is the full-block, or standard letter style. Although
organizations may have their own preferred correspondence format, this format (above) is
standard for any letter. Many word-processing programs contain templates for correspondence. If
you are using letterhead paper, consider the bottom of the letterhead to be the top of the page
when creating margins. Although the length of the letter may vary, it is a good idea to center the
letter on the page. A short one- or two-sentence correspondence may be better sent by email. The
main consideration with format is that once an organization has developed a standard for outside
correspondence, you should be consistent in following the standard in all your correspondence.
Complaint Letters: There will be times when you are not satisfied with a product or service and
believe somerestitution is in order. A complaint letter expresses dissatisfaction with a product
or service.A letter of complaint can be an effective method for resolving a dispute, if it is
writtenwith the appropriate tone and does not sound as though you are being accusatory or
whining.You might even get more than you expected. Many businesses appreciate knowingwhen
something is going wrong, and they will do what they can to create goodwill with
adissatisfiedcustomer.The following suggestions will help you write a letter of complaint that’s
likely to be readand acted on.
Complain only when appropriate: Sending numerous frivolous letters of complaint will get you
nowhere. Send your letters only for genuine problems and only after initial communication with
company representatives has failed. In other words, if the widget you bought didn’t work as
expected, ask the salesperson or the customer service department to correct the problem before
you fire off a letter of complaint to the head office.

Address the letter to the correct person: You need to reach the person who has the authority to
correct the problem. If your complaint is with a local business, address the letter to the owner or
manager. If you’re dealing with a local branch of a large corporation, you’ll need to find out
whether your complaint should be sent to the local branch or if the problem was created by
policies set by a corporate office. It might take some detective work to find out who should
receive your letter. If you can’t find out by asking, try the company website, annual reports, or
business directories in your local library.

Be courteous and professional: Avoid sarcasm. No matter how angry you are, sending a rude,
discourteous, inflammatory letter will not help you get the problem corrected.
Keep it short: One page is all you need. A recipient is more likely to read and act on your letter if
you keep it brief and to the point. No one has time or patience to wade through a six-page tome.
Be factual: Identify the problem and outline the efforts you have made to correct the problem.
Remember the questions journalists typically try to cover in their writing: Who, What, When,
Where, and How.
Identify what you want: You have a complaint. What will it take to make things right? Do you
want your money refunded? The product exchanged? A service contract extended? An apology?
Stipulate what you want, and you are more likely to get it.
Remember to date your letter and include full contact information, including an email addresses
and account numbers or any other information that the recipient might need to trace your
problem.
State consequences only if previous letters have failed to get the problem corrected: It is both
unnecessary and ineffective to start out with threats of punitive action. Remember, other people
dislike receiving threats as much as you do. But, when previous attempts have failed, it’s time to
state what you are prepared to do, and when. Leaders regularly communicate through written
correspondence to those outside of the organization. Equally important as writing letters to those
outside the organization or team is learning effective strategies for writing other types of
business documents, especially interoffice documents.

6.4.2 Memo and Report Writing

Writing Business Documents

As a leader, you will be responsible for organizing and developing a number of business
documents, including memorandums (more commonly known as memos), progress and activity
reports, sales proposals, and formal reports. This section outlines the basic components of each
type of document, as well as considerations for their appropriate use. The sample documents
provided are only guidelines; organizations may have their own procedures and formats for the
various types of business documents.
Memos
A memo is a short and usually informal written communication to others within an organization.
Memos are used as reminders or to pass along information. Memos can be as simple as a
sentence written on a sticky note, but they are usually printed on company letterhead. An
example of a memo appears in the following page. Although there is no standard format for
memos, they should generally contain at least some form of each of the following elements:

Heading: The heading should note the sender and the recipient, the date, and the subject. Ensure
that all names of individuals who need to receive the memo are included following the word TO.
If the subject of the memo is relevant to only one person, do not send the memo to the entire
office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo; sometimes a face-to-
face conversation or a phone call is preferable. For example, a memo is an inappropriate way to
notify employees of a layoff. Memos are most effective when they communicate company or job
objectives, such as a change in a standard procedure or a department reorganization.

Body: Although a memo’s length can vary, depending on the content, a good rule is to keep it
under one page. Many organizations have standard memo formats, so it’s best to check with your
organization first and follow established standards.
Sample Memo
ABC Company
TO: KajelaAmante, Service Manager
FROM: LaliseChala, Local Store Marketer
DATE: May 17, 20XX
SUBJECT: Opportunity for local adv campaign
ABC has been offered an opportunity to participate in a local advertising campaign in
conjunction with the Chamber of Commerce’s “Local Tastes” program. “Local Tastes” is an
annual program featuring community restaurants and other businesses, including a two-week
mailer campaign and events at local stores. This campaign culminates in a well-attended day-
long event at the convention center featuring products from each participating business.
Participating businesses will be featured on a front page of the mailer, get a 30-second spot with
a local news outlet, and be given a booth with banner at the “Local Tastes” event on July 3.

I think this would be an excellent opportunity to get the company recognized in the community
and interact with the Chamber of Commerce as well as work with other businesses in the area.
Please respond by May 25 with a decision regarding participating in this event. I need to respond
to the Chamber of Commerce and turn in a deposit by June 1.

cc: Abdisa Tufa, Managing Partner

Closing: Most memos don’t require the standard signature you would find in a letter or other
correspondence. It is helpful, however, to include notation of any attachments and a list of people
who received copies of the memo. When considering who within the organization should receive
copies of your memo, keep in mind that in most companies this can be a highly political issue.
Send copies only to those who need the information.

Progress and Activity Reports

A progress report gives updates on the status of a project. An example of a progress report is
shown below. Most project reports are generated by a company that has been contracted to do a
particular job or provide a service. In such cases, it is appropriate to submit project reports at
regular intervals to communicate the project’s status and keep all personnel on task. Although
the format for project reports varies depending on the project, the policies of the organization
providing the report, and the requirements of the client or customer, all reports should maintain
the same format for any particular project. Progress reports may contain information about
whether a project is within budget. If you anticipate going over budget, mention that and discuss
some possible reasons and solutions. A progress report should also include information about
how the work is progressing—what has been completed as well as what is anticipated. If you
expect you may not complete the work on schedule, discuss this in the progress report and
explain what arrangements need to be made to complete the project.

When communicating the status of a project within an organization, an activity report is most
appropriate. An activity reportis a document that communicates progress and achievements to
others within an organization or on a team. Most activity reports give information on the status
of one or several ongoing projects. If several departments are working on the same project, a
manager may combine all the activity reports; the combined reports could be the basis for a
progress report to send to a client.
Activity reports are typically issued regularly (biweekly or monthly in most organizations) and
normally do not require a formal structure because the material is familiar to the readers.
Although progress reports and activity reports contain similar content, they differ in audience
and often in tone. Progress reports are most often written to clients or an audience outside the
organization, and they are more formal; an activity report is commonly an internal document,
with a less formal structure and tone.
Sample progress report
Date: August 17, 20XX
To: TotobaAdugna, Managing Partner, ABC trading.
From: Buta Caro, general Services
Subject: Progress Report for July 1–29, 20XX

Dear Mr. Totoba,

I am happy to say the parking lot and building refinishing project is on schedule. At this point we
are somewhat over budget in terms of materials, but I am confident we will finish early enough
to save you money in labor costs.
Costs: The truck rental went over cost by approximately $1700 because of two extra days’
rental. The other materials are costing out at the price originally quoted to you.
Work Completed: The building has now been completely refinished. Work on the outside work
area and parking lot still needs to be completed.
Work Schedule: With the addition of two crew members, we should be able to complete the
work by August 30.
If you have any questions, please contact me.
Sales Proposals
A sales proposal is a document intended to persuade possible clients of their need for your
product or service. An effective sales proposal demonstrates to prospective clients that they have
a problem and your product or service will help to solve that problem. The writer of a sales
proposal must first determine the selling points, or the most attractive features of the product or
service, and then construct a document that clearly illustrates these points. The proposal should
highlight the specific benefits that customers will receive from the use of the product or service.
For example, the owner of a landscaping business might notice that a local restaurant is
surrounded by dry dead grass and overgrown shrubbery. In a proposal offering landscaping
services, the business owner would try to persuade the restaurant manager of the appeal of a
well-kept, lush, green exterior and convince him that landscaping could increase his bottom line.
Keep in mind that in many states, sales proposals are legally binding documents,which means
that any incentives or benefits offered in the sales proposal must be reasonableand must be
delivered as promised.
It is not uncommon for organizations to be sued overfailing to deliver on the promises offered in
a persuasive sales proposal.If you choose to use a former client’s testimony or image in a sales
proposal, make sureyou have permission to do so and that you have not fabricated the testimony.
For example,if the landscaping business owner wanted to include comments from current or
formercustomers about the quality of her company’s landscaping work in her sales proposal,
shewould first need to get the customers’ permission in writing to use the testimony or picturesof
the work in the proposal.

Following are some guidelines for creating an effective salesproposal that is adapted to the needs
of the client.
Outline the problem:Although you may have already discussed the problem with the client, a
good sales proposal reminds the potential client of the problem and a need for some solution.
Include any requirements the client has mentioned, such as for cost or procedure. Keep your
message client focused, aligning yourself with the client’s needs.
Discuss your approach:Your sales proposal should discuss exactly what you suggest as an
effective solution to the problem. Discuss what particularly needs to be done and how those
actions will address the problem. Discuss as well why you and your organization are the best
choice for implementing this solution. Mention any support and training you will provide (if
necessary) and guarantees on your work or products. The landscaping company owner, for
example, could discuss what type of vegetation she proposes to plant around the restaurant, how
the plants might be combined and arranged, and possibly a contract for continuing maintenance
to keep the outside looking well-cared for.
Describe the benefits: Although they may seem obvious, it is a good idea to identify for the
client the biggest benefits of your proposal. Indirect outcomes such as an increase in customer
base or employee morale should be outlined. The landscaping business owner could describe
what a well-maintained exterior communicates to customers and other business owners about the
restaurant. Keep in mind, however, that this section should not promise anything that may not be
within your power to fulfill. You can expose yourself and your organization to legal
consequences if promised benefits are not realized.

Mention schedule and costs: A sales proposal should outline a proposed schedule and cost
estimate. These things will later be detailed more formally in a contract but should be discussed
in a sales proposal so there will be no surprises later. The restaurant manager may expect the job
to start tomorrow and be completed in two days; the landscaping company owner needs to
communicate clearly about whether that timeline fits with her schedule. Most clients will not be
willing to move on to the contract stage of the process without a clear outline of proposed costs
and schedule.

Formal Reports: is a highly detailed and comprehensive report on an ongoing project or

acompleted project that is often coauthored by several writers. For example, if you were
implementingnew procedures in your organization over a twelve-month period, you mightsend
out a status report midway through the implementation process to those affected bythe changes.
Once the implementation process was completed, you would send out a finalreport detailing the
process and the effectiveness of the implementation. Reports are morestrictly formatted than
most other forms of business correspondence, and the format variesaccording to company
policies. Reports are divided into three main parts: the front matter,the body, and the back
matter. Each part contains several elements whose order and lengthvary according to company
recommendations. Following are basic descriptions of the componentsof a formal report.

Front matter:consists of those aspects of a report that come at the beginning and serve to prepare
the reader for the main information. The report title, the authors’ names, lists of the report’s
contents, and a brief summary should all be a part of the front matter.
Title page: A title page contains the full title of the report, a list of the writers’ or researchers’
names, date(s) of the report, the organizational affiliations of the writers, and the organization to
which the report is being submitted.
Abstract: An abstract is a summary (two or three paragraphs) that highlights the major points of
the report.
Table of contents: This should list all the major sections of the report along with page numbers.
List of figures and tables.
Foreword or preface: A foreword is an optional introductory statement about the report written
by someone other than the authors; a preface is an introduction written by an author.

Body: The body of a formal report contains the main information in the report, including the
reasons for researching the topic, how it was researched, and what was discovered.
Executive summary: This summary provides a more complete overview than the abstract.
Introduction: The introduction provides readers with the report’s purpose and scope.
Text: The text presents details on how the topic was researched.
Conclusions and recommendations: This section discusses the findings of the research and
consequent recommendations that are offered. Conclusions may be discussed in a separate
section from recommendations.

Back matter:refers to those components of a report that traditionally come at the end of the
report, after the main body, and that provide further detail and references.
Appendixes: Any appendixes clarify or supplement information in the body of the report with
information that is detailed or lengthy and is not necessarily relevant to all audiences.
Bibliography: This is an alphabetical list of all the sources that were cited and consulted in
researching the report.
Glossary: This is an alphabetical list of terms and their definitions.
Index: An index is an alphabetical list of all the major topics and subtopics discussed in a report,
citing page numbers in the report where the reader can find those discussions. If you work for an
organization that requires you to write regular formal reports, it is a good idea to use a word-
processing program style sheet to create a format for the report. You can then save it as a
template and create future reports with the same format. You won’t have to refigure font styles
and sizes, margins, and the like. Leaders have many opportunities to write various kinds of
business documents. Letters are generally more formal and addressed to those outside the
organization. Memos and activity reports are common interoffice communication forms.
Progress reports, sales proposals, and formal reports are common business documents that most
leaders will frequently compose or help to compose.
Table 6.7. Common Date Forms used in different business and non-business writings

Convention Order Examples

U.S. standard Month day year July 14, 2012

7/14/2012
7-14-2012

Japan Year month day 12/07/14

Europe (most countries) Day month year 14 July 2012

14/07/12
14.07.12

international (ISO) format Year month day 2012-07-14

Table 6.8 Forms of Address

Person In Address In Salutation

Personal Titles

Man Mr. [first & last name] Dear Mr. [last name]:

Woman* Ms. [first & last name] Dear Ms. [last name]:

Two men (or more) Mr. [first & last name] and Dear Mr. [last name] and Mr.
Mr. [first & last name] [last name]
or Messrs. [last name] and
[last name]:

Two women (or more) Ms. [first & last name] and Dear Ms. [last name] and Ms.
Ms. [first & last name] [last name]
or Mses. [last name] and [last
name]:

One woman and one man Ms. [first & last name] and Dear Ms. [last name] and Mr.
Mr. [first & last name] [last name]:

Couple (married with same Mr. [husband’s first name] Dear Mr. and Mrs. [last
last name) and name]:
Mrs. [wife’s first name]
[couple’s last name]
Couple (married with different Mr. [first & last name of Dear Mr. [husband’s last
last husband] name]
names) Ms. [first & last name of wife] and Ms. [wife’s last name]:

Couple (married professionals [title in plural form] Dear [title in plural form] [last
with same [husband’s first name] name]:
title and same last name) and [wife’s first name]
[couple’s last name]

Couple (married professionals title] [first & last name of [Dear [title] and [title] [last
with different husband] and name]:
titles and same last name) [title] [first & last name of
wife]

Professional Titles

President of a college or [title] [first & last name], President Dear [title] [last
university name]:

Dean of a school or college [first & last name] or Dr., Mr., Dear Dean [last name]: or
Dean or Dear Dr., Mr., or Ms. [last
Ms. [first & last name], Dean name]:
of [title]
Professor Professoror Dr. [first & last name] Dear Professor or Dr. [last
name]:

Physician [first & last name], M.D. Dear Dr. [last name]:

Lawyer Mr. or Ms. [first & last name], Attorney at Dear Mr. or Ms. [last name]:
Law
Military personnel [full rank, first & Dear [rank] [last name]:
last name, abbreviation
of service designation] (add
Retired if
applicable)
Company or corporation [name of organization] Ladies and Gentlemen: or
Gentlemen and
Ladies:

Governmental Titles

President of the United States The President Dear Mr. or Madam President:

Senator of the United States The Honorable [first & last Dear Dear Mr. or Madam
name] Secretary:

Cabinet member The Honorable [first & last Senator [last name]:
name]

Attorney General The Honorable [first & last Dear Mr. or Madam Attorney
name] General:

Mayor The Honorable [first & last Dear Mayor [last name]:
name], Mayor
of [name of city]
Judge The Honorable [first & last Dear Judge [last name]:
name]