CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1 Concepts of Soil Fertility

Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is ‗A set of soil fertility management practices that
necessarily include the use of fertilizer, organic inputs, and improved germplasm combined with the
knowledge on how to adapt these practices to local conditions, aiming at maximizing agronomic use
efficiency of the applied nutrients and improving crop productivity.

Most rural households in Africa are dependent on agriculture for an important part of their livelihood.
Increasing farm productivity for the millions of people engaged in agriculture is clearly required for
living standards to rise and for these people to come out of poverty.
However, land degradation and soil fertility depletion in smallholder farms are serious threats - the
fundamental biophysical root cause of declining per capita food production and a major cause of poverty
amongst rural households. Large numbers of rural households are trapped in a vicious cycle between
land degradation and poverty, and the lack of resources and knowledge to generate adequate income and
opportunities to overcome the degradation. Consequently, investments by national governments and the
international community have been insufficient to arrest poverty, ensure food security and reduce
environmental degradation, as national economies have remained stagnant and the quality of services
and governance have deteriorated.
In developing countries, harsh climatic conditions, population pressure, land constraints, and the decline
of traditional soil management practices have often reduced soil fertility. Because agriculture is a soil-
based industry that extracts nutrients from the soil, effective and efficient approaches to slow removal
and returning nutrients to the soil will be required in order to maintain and increase crop productivity
and sustain agriculture for the long term.
The soil is a natural medium for plant growth and it supplies nutrients to plants. In fact, the soil supplies
1a elements required for the nutrition of crop plants. These essential nutrients must be available
continuously in balanced proportions. But this is not always true with all types of soils. There are certain
soils which do not fulfill these objectives and, as such, are supposed to be infertile. On the other hand,
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there are soils which fulfill all these requirements and are called fertile soils. Therefore, soil fertility is
an aspect of the soil-plant relationship. The first knowledge about soils was gained from farmers through
trial and error. Later on, some experiments were conducted.
Soil fertility is the inherent capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper
balance for the growth of specified plants when other growth factors such as light, moisture and
temperature and the physical condition of the soil are favorable. A fertile soil is considered to be one that
produces abundant crops under suitable environmental conditions. Only a very small fraction of the total
nutrient content of soil can be utilize by plants.
Nutrients are continuously removed from the soil by crops in addition to losses by leaching and erosion.
It is therefore, essential that sound soil and crop management practices are adopted to improve and
maintain soil fertility and soil physical conditions for the purpose of sustained crop production.
The overall strategy for increasing crop yields and sustaining them at a high level must include an
integrated approach to the management of soil nutrients, along with other complementary measures. An
integrated approach recognizes that soils are the storehouse of most of the plant nutrients essential for
plant growth and that the way in which nutrients are managed will have a major impact on plant growth,
soil fertility, and agricultural sustainability. Farmers, researchers, institutions, and government all have
an important role to play in sustaining agricultural productivity.
Properties of a fertile soil
A fertile soil:
a) Is rich in nutrients necessary for basic plant nutrition (including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and sulphur);
b) Contains sufficient micronutrients for plant nutrition (including boron, copper, iron, zinc, manganese,
chlorine and molybdenum);
c) Contains an appropriate amount of soil organic matter;
d) Has a pH in a suitable range for crop production (between 6.0 and 6.8);
e) Has a crumbly structure;
f) Is biologically active;
g) Has good water retention and supply qualities

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1.2. Factors affecting plant growth and Soil Fertility

An understanding of soil properties helps to manage soil fertility. The physical, biological, and chemical
characteristics of a soil for example its organic matter content, acidity, texture, depth, and water-
retention capacity all influence fertility. Because these attributes differ among soils, soils differ in their
quality. Some soils, because of their texture or depth, for example, are inherently productive because
they can store and make available large amounts of water and nutrients to plants. Conversely, other soils
have such poor nutrient and organic matter content that they are virtually infertile. A soil‘s potential for
producing crops is largely determined by the environment that the soil provides for root growth. Roots
need air, water, nutrients, and adequate space in which to develop. Soil attributes, such as the capacity to
store water, acidity, depth, and density determine how well roots develop. Changes in these soil
attributes directly affect the health of the plant. For example, bulk density, a measure of the compactness
of a soil, affects agricultural productivity. When the bulk density of soil increases to a critical level, it
becomes more difficult for roots to penetrate the soil, thereby impeding root growth. When bulk density
has increased beyond the critical level, the soil becomes so dense that roots cannot penetrate the soil and
root growth is prevented. Heavy farm equipment, erosion, and the loss of soil organic matter can lead to
increases in bulk density. These changes in soil quality affect the health and productivity of the plant,
and can lead to lower yields and/or higher costs of production.
Several factors are known to govern the fertility of soil and their influences on soil fertility are
described here below:
Soil Organic Matter (OM): Soil organic matter plays a critical role in soil processes and is a key
element of soil fertility management. Organic matter is important to soil structure and tilth. It provides
energy for soil microorganisms, improves water infiltration and water holding capacity, reduces erosion
potential and is an important element in the nutrient and carbon cycles. Organic matter is the adhesive of
the soil, binding together the soil components into stable aggregates. It is widely considered to be the
single most important indicator of soil quality and productivity.
Soil Organisms: One of the most important functions of soil microorganisms is the decomposition of
organic matter and decomposition is performed by a variety of soil bacteria and fungi. A particularly
important product of decomposition is humus (humic acid) which has a great influence on soil chemistry
(cation exchange capacity) and water retention. Other products formed when organic matter is
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decomposed include carbon dioxide and nitrogen and other essential plant nutrients are released and
made available to growing crops and other micro-organisms.

A particularly important soil organism is Rhizobium. This is a genus of soil bacteria that is responsible for
symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legume plants. These organisms penetrate plant roots causing the formation of
small nodules on the roots. They then live in symbiotic relation with the host plant.
Soil Texture: Soil texture is arguably the single most important physical property of the soil in terms of
soil fertility. This is because it affects and is related to several other soil properties such as soil structure,
aeration, water holding capacity, nutrient storage and water movement.
Soil Structure: Soil structure refers to the arrangement of particles in a soil and how the individual soil
particles clump or bind together. Structure is very important because the arrangement of soil particles
plays the biggest role in determining the size and shape of the pores that conduct air and water. It also
affects the plant‘s ability to send its roots through the soil.
Soil pH: Another important soil property that affects soil fertility and the availability of nutrients in soil.
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Soil pH has considerable effect on microbial
activity and solubility of minerals or nutrients. Many soil elements change form as a result of chemical
reactions in the soil. Plants may or may not be able to use elements in some of these forms. Because pH
influences the soil concentration and, thus, the availability of plant nutrients, it is responsible for the
solubility of many nutrient elements.
 K, Ca and Mg: These nutrients are most present in soils with pH levels greater than 6.0. They are
generally not as available for plant uptake in acid soils since they may have been partially leached out of
the soil profile.
 P: Phosphorus solubility and plant availability are controlled by complex soil chemical reactions, which
are often pH-dependent. Plant availability of P is generally greatest in the pH range of 6 to 7. When soil
pH falls below 5.8, P reacts with Fe and Al to produce insoluble Fe and Al phosphates that are not
readily available for plant uptake. At high pH values, P reacts with Ca to form Ca phosphates that are
relatively insoluble and have low availability to plants.
 Micronutrients: In general, most micronutrients are more available in acid than alkaline soils. As pH
increases, micronutrient availability decreases, and the potential for deficiencies increase. An exception

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to this trend is Mo, which becomes less available as soil pH decreases. In addition, B becomes less
available when the pH is <5.0 and again when the pH exceeds 7.0.
 Al, Fe, and Mn Toxicity: At pH values less than 5.0, Al, Fe, and Mn may be soluble in sufficient
quantities to be toxic to the growth of some plants. Aluminum toxicity limits plant growth in most
strongly acid soils. Aluminum begins to solubilize from silicate clays and aluminum hydroxides below a
3+
pH of approximately 5.3, which increases the activity of exchangeable Al . High concentrations of
exchangeable Al are toxic and detrimental to plant root development.
Parent material
Parent material or the initial soil material refers to the unconsolidated mass from which thesoil develops.
The parent material may be formed, in place by weathering of rocks or may be transported from the
place of their origin. The fertility of a soil depends, to a great extent, on the chemical composition of the
parent material from which it has developed. For example, the alluvial soils, developed from alluvium
parent materials, are often very fertile.
Topography: Topography or relief implies relative elevation and has been defined as elevations or
inequalities of land surface considered collectively. Soil slope as a part of relief and an integral part of
soil as a natural body is the incline of the surface. Topography influences soil fertility through its effect
on drainage, run-off, soil erosion and microclimate i.e. exposure of land surface to the sun and wind.
The soils on the upper slope are less fertile than the soils on lower slope. It is because of high leaching
and erosion of upper soils. That is why soils of hilly areas are not as fertile as soils of plains.
Climate
Climate includes precipitation, temperature, humidity and wind. These climatic factors influence soil
fertility very much. In high rainfall areas, soluble nutrients leach down to the lower horizons of the soil
and thus become unavailable to the crop plants. Similarly, temperature also influences soil fertility. In
tropical or subtropical climate, decomposition of organic matter is faster and easier than in temperate
climate. Therefore, soils of tropical and subtropical regions are less fertile than those of temperate
regions.
Soil age
A soil body at any point of time reflects the combined influence of soil forming processes and
impression of soil forming factors in its profile development. This span of period from the inception of
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soil development to the present stage is termed as soil age. This may vary from a few years to several
thousand years. Very old soils often become unfertile because of intensive crop rising for years which
disrobes the soil of its capacity to provide nutrients. Similarly, very young soils on which soil formation
process is still active are also less fertile than mature soils.
Depth of soil profile
Deep soils are more fertile than shallow soils. In deep soils, roots are spread better than that in shallow
soils. In these soils, plant roots penetrate into the deeper layers and utilize more nutrients and water.
Shallow soils because of dry condition do not support good plant growth.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC): The cation exchange capacity of soils is defined as the sum of
positive (+) charges of the adsorbed cations that a soil can absorb at a specific pH.
The more cation exchange capacity a soil has, the more likely the soil will have a higher fertility level.
Most of the soil‘s CEC occurs on clays and soil humus, with the value for humus per unit weight being
several times those for clays. Soils high in humus and montmorillonite clays will have high CEC‘s. Thus
it is easy to see why some sandy soils or some soils of the tropics with dominantly sesquioxide clays
may have low fertility.
1.3. Essential Plant Nutrients
The term essential elements were proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939). These authors concluded that for
an element to be considered essential, three criteria must be met:
a. Plant cannot complete its life cycle without essential element
b. The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element
c. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.
Based on the essentiality criteria, plants need 18 elements for their growth and completion of life cycle.
They are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur,
iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, cobalt, molybdenum, chlorine and nickel. This essentiality
criterion is considered as too rigid from practical point of view. According to this criterion, sodium is
considered as non-essential. However, sodium is known to increase yield of several crops such as sugar
beets, turnips, and celery. Nicholas (1961) proposed the term ‗functional nutrient‘ for any mineral
element that functions in plant metabolism whether or not its action is specific. With this criterion,

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sodium, cobalt, vanadium and silicon are also considered as functional nutrients in addition to those
essential elements.
Classification of essential plant nutrients
The essential elements can be classified based on the amount required and their mobility in plant
and soil.
On the basis of amount of nutrient present in plants, they can be classified into three groups.
Basic nutrients- The basic nutrients, which are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, constitute 96 % of the
total dry matter of plants. Among them, carbon and oxygen constitute 45 % each and hydrogen
constitutes nearly 6% of the total tissue. These elements are abundantly present in atmosphere and need
not to be applied.
Macro nutrients-The nutrients required in large quantities are known as macronutrients. They are N, P,
K, Ca, Mg and sulfur. Among these, N, P and K are considered primary nutrients or major nutrients and
Ca, Mg and sulfur are considered secondary nutrients.
Micronutrients/Trace- The nutrients which are required in small quantities (traces) are known as
micronutrients or trace elements. They are Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Mo, B, Co, Cl and Ni. These elements are
very efficient and minute quantities produce optimum effects. On the other hand, even a slight
deficiency or excess is harmful to plants. Though micronutrients are required in trace amounts, they are
just as important as the major nutrients.
Table 1: Relative and average plant nutrient concentrations
Plant Nutrient Form Absorbed Average Concentration*
H H2O,H+ 6.0 %
O O2 45.0 %
C CO2 45.0 %
N NO3- , NH4+ , CO(NH2)2 1.5 %
K K+ 1.0 %
Ca Ca2+ 0.5 %
Mg Mg2+ 0.2 %
P H2PO4 - , HPO4-2 0.2 %
S SO42- 0.1 %
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Cl Cl- 100 ppm (0.01%)
Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ 100 ppm
B H3BO3 , H2BO3- 20 ppm
Mn Mn2+,Mn4+ 50 ppm
Zn Zn2+ 20 ppm
2+
Cu Cu 6 ppm
Mo MoO4-2 0.1 ppm
Sources: McLaren and Cameron, 1996, *Concentration expressed by weight on a dry matter basis.
Table 2: Macronutrients and their Sources

Element Symbol Source

Oxygen O Air/Water
Hydrogen H Air/Water
Carbon C Air/Water
Nitrogen N Soil
Phosphorus P Soil
Sulfur S Soil
Potassium K Soil
Calcium Ca Soil
Magnesium Mg Soil
Based on their mobility in the soil, plant nutrient elements can be grouped as mobile, less mobile and
immobile. The mobile nutrients are highly soluble and are not adsorbed on clay complex; e.g.: NO3-
,SO4--, BO3--, Cl-, Mn++. Less mobile nutrients are also soluble, but they are adsorbed on clay complex
and so their mobility is reduced; e.g.: NH4+, K+, Ca++, Mg++ and Cu++. Immobile nutrient ions are highly
reactive and get fixed in the soil; e.g.: H2PO4-, HPO4--, Zn++.
Based on their mobility in the plant
 N, and K are highly mobile
 Zn is moderately mobile
 S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, and Cl are less mobile
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 Ca, P and B are immobile
Mobility of nutrients in the plant helps in finding what nutrient is deficient. A mobile nutrient in the
plant moves to the growing points in case of deficiency. Deficiency symptoms, therefore, appear on the
lower leaves.
1.4. Addition and Removal of Nutrients from Soil

Nutrient supply to plant roots is a very dynamic process.

Soil solution is restocked with all these mineral elements partly as a result of:
 organic matter decomposition,
 release from primary minerals,
 association of legumes with bacteria,
 application of manure,
 fertilizers' applications,
 liming material,
 Rain and air, particularly near industries.
Removal of Nutrients from Soil
 Plant uptake
 Erosion (wind or water)
 Evaporation (In vapor form)
 Leaching
 Gaseous losses

Plants nutrients (cations and anions) are absorbed from the soil solution and release small quantities of ions (H +,
OH-, HCO3) back to the solution. As plants absorb nutrients, the nutrient concentration in the soil solution
decreases. As a result, several chemical and biological reactions occur to buffer or resupply the soil solution. Ions
adsorbed to the surface of soil minerals desorbs from these surface to resupply the soil solution. Ion exchange in
soil is an important chemical reaction to plant nutrient availability. Soils also contain minerals that can dissolve
to resupply the soil solution. Addition of nutrients or ions through fertilization or other inputs increase ion
concentration in the soil solution. Although some of the added ions remain in solution, some are adsorbed to
mineral surfaces or precipitated as solid minerals. As soil microorganisms degrade plant residues they can absorb
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ions from the soil solution into their tissues. When microbes and other microorganisms die they release nutrients
back to the soil solution. Microbial reactions are important to plant nutrient availability as well as other
properties related to soil productivity. Microbial activity is dependent on adequate energy supply from organic C
(i.e crop residues), inorganic ion availability, and numerous environmental conditions. Plant roots and soil
organisms utilize O2 and respire CO2 through metabolic activity. As a result, CO2 concentration in the soil air is
greater than in the atmosphere. Diffusion of gasses in soils decrease dramatically with increasing soil water
content.

Numerous environmental factors and human activities can influence ion concentration in soil solution, which
interacts with mineral and biological processes in soils. For example, adding P fertilizer to soil initially increase
the H2PO4 – concentration in soil solution. With time, the H2PO4 – concentration will decrease with plant uptake,
H2PO4 – adsorption on mineral surface and P mineral precipitation. All of these processes and reactions are
important to plant nutrient availability; however, depending on the specific nutrient, some processes are more
important than others. For example, microbial processes are more important to N and S availability than mineral
surface exchange reactions, where the opposite is true for K, Ca, and Mg. These chemical and biological
processes are complex, and only their general description and importance to plant nutrient availability are
presented.

Under natural vegetation, as in the case of virgin forests, nutrients taken up by the plants from the soil are
returned to it by leaf and fruit fall. These high nutrient reserves have gradually been depleted and degraded as a
result of continuous crop removal, excessive grazing, leaching and erosion. Under most subsistence farming
situation, nothing goes back to the soil, because all crop residue and manure are totally consumed in the form of
fuel, feed, and construction materials. A fundamental principle of sustainability, therefore, is to return to the soil
the nutrients removed from it through harvest, run-off erosion, leaching, de nitrification and other path ways.

At any one time, a certain amount of organic and inorganic N, P and K is present in the soil in stable or labile
plant-available forms. When measured one year later, these amounts are not necessarily the same. This is
because various processes cause nutrients to flow into and out of the root able soil layers. In spite of the
uncertain nature of the many factors affecting soil fertility, a relatively simple model should serve the purpose of
simulating the processes. The five input and five output factors mostly considered are listed in the following
Table.
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Table 3. Addition and removal of nutrients to and from soil

Input Output
IN1 Mineral fertilizers OUT1 Harvested product
IN2 Manure OUT2 Crop residues
IN3 Deposition OUT3 Leaching
IN4 Biological N fixation OUT4 Gaseous losses
IN5 Sedimentation OUT5 Erosion

1.5. Mechanisms of nutrient uptake

Ion absorption by plant roots requires contact between the ion and the root surfaces. There are generally
three ways in which nutrients reach the root surface:
1. Root interception 2. Mass flow 3. Diffusion.
1. Root interception
Root interception represents exchange of ions through physical contact between the root and mineral
surfaces. Ion absorption by root interception is enhanced by increasing the quantity of absorbing roots in
a given volume of soil. As roots develop and exploit more soil, soil solution and soil surface retaining
adsorbed ions are exposed to the increasing root mass. Ions such as H+ adsorbed to the surface of root
hairs may exchange with ions held on the surface of clays and OM because of the intimate contact
between roots and soil particles.
The quantity of nutrients that can come in direct contact with plant roots is the amount in a volume of
soil equal to the volume of roots. For most field crops, roots occupy less than 1% of the 0- to 20-cm soil
layer. About 1% of the available nutrients in the soil are considered to be taken up by roots because of
root interception.
Interception can contribute to the absorption of Ca and Mg since their concentration in most soils is
higher than other nutrients.
2. Mass flow
Mass flow occurs when ions in soil solution are transported to the root as a result of transpiration water

11
uptake by the plant, water evaporation at the soil surface and percolation of water in the soil profile.
Transport of ions in the soil solution to root surfaces by mass flow is an important factor in supplying
nutrients to plants.
Transpiration is the major driving force for mass flow. During mass flow, both water and solutes are
moved to the root surface. The greater the concentration of a solute in the soil solution, the greater the
quantity brought to the root surface in a given volume of water:
Q = VC,
Where Q is the quantity of solute (or ion) moved by mass flow,
V is to the volume of water flow, and C is the solute concentration.
Mass flow can also supply an excess of Ca2+, Mg2+, several micro nutrients, and most of the soluble
nutrients such as NO3 -, Cl -, and SO42-. As soil moisture is reduced, water transport to the root surface
decreases. Mass flow is reduced at low temperatures because the transpirational demands of plants and
water evaporation at the soil surface decreases at low soil temperature.
3. Diffusion
Diffusion complements the movement of nutrients by mass flow and together mass flow and diffusion
account for about 99% of nutrient movement to roots. Diffusion occurs when ions move from an area of
high concentration to one of the low concentration. As roots absorb nutrients from the surrounding
solution, the nutrient concentration at the root surface decreases compared with the‖ bulk‖ soil solution
concentration. Therefore, a nutrient concentration gradient is established that causes ions to diffuse
towards the root. A high plant requirement for a nutrient result in a large concentration gradient, favoring
a high rate of ion diffusion from the soil solution to the root surface most of the P and K move to the
root by diffusion. Diffusion is the most important for phosphorus and potassium uptake. Diffusion
moved about 90% of the phosphorus and 80% of the potassium to the roots. It has been estimated that
the distance of diffusion per day through soil at field capacity to roots is 1 cm for N, 0.13 cm for K, and
0.004 cm for P ions.
1.6. Soil fertility Vs. soil productivity
Soil fertility is the inherent capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in proper
balance for the growth of specified plants while soil productivity is the ability of a soil to produce a
good crop.

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It is very important to understand the basic nutritional needs of plants before going on to discuss the best
ways to provide these requirements. All plants are dependent on a favorable combination of five
environmental factors; light, heat, air, nutrients, and water. Farmers sow their crops in locations with
sufficient sunlight and at the time of the year when temperatures allow growth to maturity. They try to
ensure adequate water availability either through irrigation or by predicting rainfall. Farmers have also
been aware of the importance of nutritional supplements.
It is possible for plants to develop and mature quite well without soil if they are provided with suitable
combinations of the five essential environmental factors; light, heat, air, nutrients, and water.
We have already seen that much of the world‘s soils are becoming less fertile. Soil fertility is the status
of a soil with respect to its ability to supply elements essential for plant growth without a toxic
concentration of any element. Fertile soils have an adequate and balanced supply of elements
sufficiently labile or available to satisfy the needs of plants. Because plants have evolved in different
climates and on diverse soils, plants have different needs for the essential nutrients and different
tolerances of the toxic elements. For example, cassava is native to the humid tropics and grows well on
strongly acid soils high in soluble aluminum. Wheat, by contrast, originated where soils are neutral or
alkaline and contain very low soluble aluminum. Many cultivated wheat cultivars have low tolerance for
soluble aluminum, and their root growth is restricted in its presence. As a consequence, an acid soil can
be fertile for cassava and at the same time be infertile for wheat. In fact, there is no standard for either
fertility or productivity because both depend upon the crops to be grown. Thus, when defining the
characteristics of a fertile soil, it is necessary to make reference to a particular crop or class of crops.
Soil productivity encompasses soil fertility plus all the other factors affecting plant growth, including
soil management practices. Soil productivity is the capacity of a soil to produce a certain yield of
agronomic crops, or other plants, with optimum management. All productive soils are fertile for the
crops being grown, but many fertile soils are unproductive because of drought or other unsatisfactory
growth factors or management practices. There is a strong positive correlation in productive soils
between fertility and other soil properties so that highly productive soils have desirable physical and
biological properties, as well as high fertility.
The productivity of a given soil can be manipulated and improved by use of fertilizers. Therefore, soils
which were once less productive can be more productive than others. Good soil management, including

13
the use of fertilizers and application of soil conservation measures can produce crop yields on currently
less productive tropical soils equal to or greater than the yields now common on more naturally fertile
soils of the temperate zones.
Table 4: Difference between soil productivity and soil fertility
No Soil productivity Soil fertility
1 Productivity of a soil increases with the increase in the Soil fertility does not increase with the
market prices of the produce obtained from it, even if increase in the prices of the produce.
the fertility of the soil is low Soil fertility can be increased only
through proper tillage practices,
application of manures and fertilizers,
proper water management practices,
etc.
2 Soil productivity is influenced by soil fertility, Soil fertility is influence by the
transportation changes, demand of the crop grown etc. chemical, physical and biological
conditions of the soil and by the
quantity and balance of essential
nutrients present in it.
3 Soil productivity is the ability of a soil to produce a Soil fertility is the inherent capacity of
good crop soil to provide essential nutrients
required for plant growth and
development in balanced and optimum
quantity.
4 Soil productivity is a broad term. It includes physical Soil fertility is a part of soil
condition of the soil, market value of the crop grown, productivity. The factors such
and economic laws prevailing on farming business economic laws, demand, supply cost of
production, produce value etc. do not
have any role in determining the soil
fertility

CHAPTER TWO
2.0. MACRONUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
2.1. Functions, sources, availability and management of primary Nutrients
Primary Nutrients and their Available Forms
Nitrogen: NH4+; NO3-
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Phosphorus: HPO4-2; H2PO4-
Potassium: K+
2.1. 1. Functions, sources, availability and management of Nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the main chemical elements required for plant growth and reproduction. Nitrogen is a
component of chlorophyll and therefore essential for photosynthesis. It is also the basic element of plant
and animal proteins, including the genetic material DNA and RNA and is important in periods of rapid
plant growth.
Unlike other essential plant nutrients, nitrogen (N) is not found in significant amounts in the rocks and
minerals of the earth's crust. Almost all of the soil's nitrogen supply originates from the earth's
atmosphere. The air that we breathe contains about 78 percent nitrogen. Unfortunately, elemental
nitrogen is an inert gas that must first be converted to ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-) before it can
be used by plants. Most of the nitrogen found in the soil (97 to 98 percent) is in an organic form that is
largely unavailable to plants. The remaining 2 to 3 percent of soil nitrogen is inorganic (mineral), mostly
ammonium and nitrate ions. A small amount of organic nitrogen is converted each growing season to the
inorganic form through a process known as mineralization. The reverse of mineralization, the process in
which inorganic nitrogen is used by plants or soil microorganisms and converted back to the organic
form, is known as immobilization. Mineralization increases soil nitrogen availability, whereas
immobilization combines nitrogen into organic compounds, which renders it temporarily unavailable for
plant use. These processes occur simultaneously in the soil.
Nitrogen is the one nutrient most often limiting plant growth. The need for nitrogen varies from plant to
plant. For example, tomatoes and vine crops (cucumbers, squash, and melons) will put on excessive vine
growth at the expense of fruiting with excess nitrogen. Whereas potatoes, corn, are heavy feeders and
benefit from high soil nitrogen levels. Bluegrass turf and many annuals also benefit from routine
nitrogen applications. Trees and shrubs have a low relative need for soil nitrogen. Plants contain 1 to 6%
N by weight and absorb N as both nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+). In moist, warm, well-aerated
soils, soil solution NO3- is generally greater than NH4+. Before NO3- can be used in the plant, it must be
reduced to NH4+ or NH3. Nitrate reduction involves 2 enzyme catalyzed reactions that occur in roots
and/or leaves, depending on the plant species. Both reactions occur in series so that toxic nitrite (NO2-)
does not accumulate.

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Reduction reaction Enzyme Reaction site
Step 1 NO3- NO2- Nitrate reductase Cytoplasm
Step 2 NO2- NH3 Nitrite reductase Chloroplasts
In recent years there has been increased interest in NH4 versus NO3 – nutrition of crops, and the results
+

of a number of studies indicate better growth of plants and higher yield with a mixture of NH4 + and NO3
–
rather than a single ionic form.
The NH3 in the plant is assimilated into amino acids that are subsequently combined into proteins and
nucleic acids. Proteins provide the frame work for chloroplasts, mitochondria and other structures in
which most biochemical reactions occur. In addition to the formation of proteins, N is an integral part of
chlorophyll, which converts light into chemical energy needed for photosynthesis. An adequate supply
of N is associated with high photosynthetic activity, vigorous vegetative growth, and a dark green color.
An excess of N in relation to other nutrients, such as P, K and S, can delay crop maturity and can form a
succulent plant, which is susceptibility to lodging, insect and disease attacks. If N is used properly in
conjunction with other needed inputs, it can speed the maturity of crops.
The Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is the most frequently deficient nutrient in most non legume cropping systems. Many organic
and inorganic sources are available to supply N to crops. The quantities of N2 fixed by legumes can be
sufficient for their growth. Understanding the chemistry and biology of soil N is essential for
maximizing productivity while reducing the impacts of N inputs on the environment. The ultimate
source of all N used by plants is N2, which constitutes 78% of the earth‘s atmosphere. Unfortunately,
higher plants cannot metabolize N2 directly into protein. N2 must first be converted to plant available N
by: microorganisms that live symbiotically on legume roots. As N2 is fixed by these different processes,
numerous microbial and chemical processes release N2 back to the atmosphere. Cycling of N in the soil-
plant-atmosphere system involves many transformations between inorganic and organic forms (figure
1).

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Figure 1. The N cycle

Nitrogen Transformations in Soils

Supplying sufficient NH4+ and NO3- to meet plant requirement depends on the quantity of N mineralized
from soil organic N with the remainder provided through fertilizer or organic N applications. The
amount of plant available N released from organic N depends on many factors affecting N
mineralization, immobilization and losses of NH4+ and NO3- from the soil.
Immobilization and Mineralization of Soil Nitrogen
Soil N is very dynamic and is constantly shifting back and forth between inorganic and organic forms.
The "IMMOBILIZATION" of N refers to the absorption of plant available N forms (NH4+ and NO3-) by
plants and microbes and their transformation into amino acids and proteins. At some future time these
organic N compounds will undergo a decomposition process by bacteria, fungi, and other organisms to
liberate plant available inorganic N forms (NH4+, and NO3-). This process of decomposition and
+
liberation of NH4 , and NO3- from plant tissues is known as "MINERALIZATION". Both
immobilization and mineralization are on-going processes in the soil and generally are in balance with
one another. That is, just as much nitrogen is being liberated into the soil by mineralization (organic
matter decomposition) as is being immobilized (absorbed by plants).
Nitrification:
The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is called nitrification. It is oxidation process and releases energy
for the use of soil microorganisms. The conversion is a two step process in which ammonium is first
converted to nitrite (NO2) and nitrite is converted to nitrate (NO3). The conversion of ammonium to
nitrite is performed by a number of soil microorganisms but the most important is a group of obligate
17
autotrophic bacteria known as NITROSOMONAS. This process can be represented as follows:
2 NH4+ + 3 O2 Nitrosomonas
2 NO2- + 2 H2O + 4 H+ + Energy
The conversion of nitrite to nitrate is also performed by a number of soil microorganisms but is
performed mainly by another group of obligate autotrophic bacteria known as NITROBACTER. This
process can be represented as follows:
Nitrobacter
2 NO2- + O2 2 NO3- + Energy
The resulting NO3-
- is highly mobile in soils and is easily lost from the soil with water that moves downward laterally
through a soil profile. This NO3- is a potential pollutant if it reaches surface and ground water supplies.
It is important to remember that these processes require molecular oxygen; that is, they take place most
rapidly in well-aerated soils. Poor aeration due to soil wetness or lack of pore space will slow or stop the
mineralization process. Also, since living soil microorganisms are responsible for the processes, the rate
of reaction is very dependent on soil environmental conditions. These include soil temperature, soil
moisture, soil pH, tillage system, cropping system, and the presence of other nutrients.
Losses of Nitrogen
Nitrogen can be easily lost from an agricultural system by various pathways. Those pathways include
de- nitrification, volatilization, leaching, and runoff and crop removal.
De nitrification: When soils become waterlogged, O2 is excluded and anaerobic decomposition takes
place.
Some anaerobic organisms have the ability to obtain their O2 from N02- and N03-, with the
accompanying release of N2 and N2O. The most probable biochemical pathway leading to these losses is
indicated in the following equation:
NH4+ NO3- NO2- NO N2O N2
Large populations of denitrifying microorganisms exist, the most common being the bacteria
pseudomonas, Baccilus and Paracoccus.
Volatilization, or the gaseous loss of ammonia, may occur under certain conditions with ammonium
fertilizers. In situations where the soil pH is acidic, or where limestone has recently been applied on acid
soils, applications of ammonium sulfate, urea or ammonium nitrate may result in the transformation of
the ammonium (NH4+) to ammonia (NH3 -) which may be lost to the atmosphere. This situation can be

18
avoided by incorporating these fertilizers into the soil in the case of soils with alkaline pH, or waiting at
least a month after limestone applications to surface apply ammonium fertilizers.
UREA fertilizers are particularly prone to volatilize if left on the surface of any soil and there is
sufficient moisture and adequate temperatures. This material should always be incorporated or banded
into the soil to reduce volatilization losses. Irrigation immediately after the soil application of urea is
very effective in reducing losses. Some studies indicate that under optimal conditions, if not properly
incorporated into the soil, N losses could exceed 16% of the nitrogen contained in the urea.
Leaching and Runoff are other important sources of N loss. Leaching occurs when inorganic forms of
N, particularly nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) are solubilized and carried with water through the soil
profile or with surface waters. Apart from being an economic loss to the farmer, these nitrites and
nitrates are potential pollutants to ground water and surface water resources. Factors which contribute to
nitrite and nitrate leaching or runoff include the following.
* Heavy, one-time applications of N fertilizers on sandy textured soils.
* Over applications of manures or sludge to land.
* Improperly timed applications of N fertilizer.
* Poorly designed or non-existent soil conservation measures.
* Periods of exceptionally heavy rain.
Crop Removal is a very important, but often overlooked, way that N is lost. Many crop materials
contain 1 to 6% N on a dry weight basis. If these crop materials are exported from the farm in the form
of grains, forages, meat, etc. However, if crop residues and manures are saved and returned to the soil,
some of the N will be recycled for future crops.
2.1. 2. Functions, sources, availability and management of Phosphorus
Although phosphorus is required in lower amounts than other major nutrients, it is critical in the early
developmental stages of growth, and in energy transfer within the plant throughout the growing season.
Typical phosphorus contents of plants range between 0.1 to 0.46 percent P on a dry weight basis,
approximately ten times less than for nitrogen or potassium. Phosphorus apparently stimulates young
root development and earlier fruiting (earliness). It is essential in several bio chemicals that control
photosynthesis, respiration, cell division, and many other plant growth and development processes.
Phosphorus is concentrated in the seed and fruit, and strongly affects seed formation.

19
The most essential function of P is in energy storage and transfer. Adenosine di and triphosphates (ADP
and ATP) act as ―energy currency within the plants. ADP and ATP are formed and regenerated in the
presence of sufficient P. Almost every metabolic reaction of any significance involves H2PO4-
derivatives. As a result, P deficiency is associated with restricted growth and development. P is an
essential element in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that contain the genetic
code of the plant to produce proteins and other compounds essential for plant structure, seed yield, and
genetic transfer. Like N, phosphorus (P) is an essential part of the process of photosynthesis. It is readily
translocated from older tissue to younger tissue and as plants mature, most of the element moves into the
seeds and/or fruits. P is important for overall growth and metabolism including utilization of starch and
sugar, cell nucleus formation, cell division and multiplication. Adequate P increases straw strength in
cereals and increase N2 fixation capacity of legumes. The quality of certain fruit, forge, vegetable, and
grain crops is improved and disease resistance enhanced under adequate P availability.
Phosphorus is highly immobile in soils and generally is fixed near the point of application. Phosphorus
fixation, or more precisely, phosphate fixation, is the form of phosphorus in virtually all fertilizer
products. No matter what fertilizer we add to the soil, whether it is a dry product or a solution product,
the fate of phosphate is ultimately the same. When applied to the soil, the phosphate in each of these
products precipitates…or as we say…is fixed. Phosphate precipitation happens very fast. Therefore,
fixation occurs at the point of application, and the phosphate tends to move very little…usually just a
fraction of a centimeter in any single season.
Fixation results in only about 10 to 30 percent of the applied phosphate fertilizer being utilized by the
crop during the first season. Some will be utilized in subsequent years, but in progressively lesser
amounts. Also, if the phosphate is not placed in the vicinity of developing roots…such as top dressed
and not incorporated…then it may be positional unavailable.
Soil pH affects phosphate availability in such a way that, in acid soils, phosphate is fixed by iron and
aluminum. Aluminum is most active fixing phosphate at a pH of 5.0 to 5.5. Iron is especially active
below pH 4.0 where phosphate is very strongly fixed. Calcium is primarily responsible for phosphate
fixation in alkaline soils where fixation peaks around pH 8.0. Of the three fixation
processes…precipitation by iron, aluminum, or calcium…phosphorus is relatively more available when
phosphate is fixed by calcium. Therefore, fixation is actually of less concern in alkaline than in acid

20
soils. Fixed phosphorus can become available to plants when, for example, we can minimize phosphate
fixation by adjusting soil pH to an optimum level for phosphate availability. Phosphate fixation is
minimized relative to soil pH when the pH is just slightly acidic, between 6.0 to 7.0. This is one of
several benefits to liming acid soils.
Strategies for Efficient Utilization of Phosphorus Fertilizer
Due to the fast reactivity of soluble P in fertilizers with the cations in soil solution and cations and
anions on the surface of clay and organic matter particles, P does not move far from the point of
placement. Therefore, the key to efficient P utilization is deep placement near the growing young roots
of the crop. Although a few recommendations are available for foliar application of soluble phosphate
fertilizers, most fertilizer phosphate is applied to soil before or at seeding of a crop. Deep placement in a
standing crop without damaging the root system is neither possible nor desirable due to the immobile
nature of P. However, in recent years some recommendations have emerged for split application of P in
rice; top dressing in such cases has to be quite early in the crop‘s life span and can provide a solution in
situations where phosphate fertilizers are not applied before transplanting. Knowledge of the early
rooting habits of various crop plants is helpful in determining the most satisfactory method of placing
phosphate fertilizer. If a vigorous taproot is produced early, such as for cotton, tobacco, and most grain
legumes, application may best be made directly under the seed. If many lateral roots are formed early,
such as in cereals, side placement may be best. Increased root growth in the P-fertilized volume of soil
compared with unfertilized soil is well known. A rule of thumb is that, for row-sown crops, phosphate
must be placed; the wider the interrow spacing, the greater the advantage of P placement. Only for those
crops that are sown broadcast, incorporation in soil may be as good as deep placement. By banding,
fertilizer P comes into less direct contact with soil, reducing the opportunity for fixation of soluble P.
Likewise, using larger fertilizer P particles, which are subject to less fixation, is sometimes more
effective than using finely ground P fertilizer.
2.1. 3. Functions, sources, availability and management of potassium
One major function for K is that of enzyme activation. Enzymes are protein complexes that catalyze
chemical reactions. More than 60 enzymes need to be activated by K. This activation occurs when
potassium cations (K+) bind to the enzyme surface, changing the enzyme shape, and allowing the
enzyme active site to attach to its substrate more rapidly or accurately. Potassium is a primary nutrient in

21
plant growth. It is absorbed by plant roots as K+ and its tissue concentration is 1% in dry matter. Unlike
N, P, and most other nutrients, K is not a component of biochemical compounds in the plant. K exists
solely in solution or bound to (-) charges on tissue surfaces. The plant uses K in photosynthesis, in
carbohydrate transport and in protein synthesis. The benefits of proper K nutrition include improved
disease resistance, vigorous vegetative growth, increased drought tolerance. As a result, potassium
fertilization is frequently associated with improved crop quality as well as better handling and storage
properties.
Normal Sources of Potassium (K) is soil/fertilizer.
K fertilizers are completely water-soluble & have a high salt index – placement too close to seed
Row placement of K more efficient than broadcast application for low K rates and low soil K levels.
2.2. Functions, sources, availability and management secondary nutrients
 Secondary Nutrients: Ca, Mg & S
 Just as important to plant nutrition as primary nutrients – some plants may not take up as much.
 Commonly applied as soil amendments or applied along with materials which contain primary
nutrients.
Calcium and magnesium, two secondary plant nutrients, have several common characteristics.
Some of these are as follows:
1. Both have similar valence 2+.
2. Both are taken up by plants as cations.
3. Both are basic or base-forming elements.
4. They occur together in nature as dolomitic limestone
Ca2+ or Mg2+ availability to crop plants depends upon the following factors;
1. Total Ca or Mg supply
2. Type of clay minerals present
3. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soil
4. Percentage saturation of CEC with Ca2+ or Mg2+
5. Soil pH
6. Ratio of Ca2+ or Mg2+ to other cations in soil solution
Benefits of Calcium

22
conditions: Microbial activity, Molybdenum availability & uptake of other
nutrients.
Calcium is present in the cell wall, is involved in cell division, and is therefore an important component
of plant structure; it is generally considered an immobile element in plants. Calcium in soils serves as an
excluder or detoxifier of heavy metals such as Ni, as well as other elements that might otherwise be
toxic. In addition, Ca provides protection against drought, salinity, and mechanical stress.
Sources of Calcium
 In general, Ca deficient soils are acid
 Good means of correcting low pH & Ca deficiencies is to apply lime
 Calcitic (CaCO3) and dolomitic (Ca, Mg) (CO3)2 limestone are excellent sources
Values greater than 3% total Ca in soils indicate the presence of calcium carbonate. Such soils are
known as calcareous soils.
Calcite (CaCO3) is the most important source of Ca in calcareous soils; when present, dolomite (CaMg
[CO3]2) also contributes to soil Ca. In arid and semiarid regions gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) could be an
important source of Ca.
Functions of Magnesium
Magnesium, on the other hand, is the core cation in the structure of the chlorophyll molecule and is thus
2+
vital to photosynthesis. Chlorophyll usually accounts for 15 to 20% of the total Mg content of plants.
Magnesium also serves as a structural component in ribosome and thus plays an important role in
protein synthesis. It is fairly mobile in plants.
Magnesium Sources
 Dolomitic limestone (Mg Carbonate) (MgcO3)
 Magnesia (Mg oxide) (MgO)
Functions of Sulfur
Sulfur is an essential element for growth and physiological functioning of plants. The total sulfur content
in the vegetative parts of crops varies between 0.1% of the dry weight. The uptake and assimilation of
sulfur and nitrogen by plants are strongly interrelated and dependent upon each other, and at adequate
levels of sulfur supply the organic N/S ratio is around 20:1 on a molar basis. Sulfur is required for

23
synthesis of S- containing amino acids cysteine, cysteine and methionine, which are essential
components of protein that comprise about 90% of the S in plants. Although not a constituent, S is
required for the synthesis of chlorophyll. S is a vital part of the Fe-S protein in the chloroplast.
Ferredoxin has a significant role in NO2- and SO4-2 reduction, the assimilation of N2 by root nodule
bacteria, and free living N- fixing soil bacteria. S occurs in volatile compounds responsible for the
characteristic taste and smell of plants in the mustard and onion families.
Plants absorb S in the form of SO42-. It has some similarities in metabolism and function with N. It is
important constituent of proteins and keeps active protein functioning as enzyme. Plant protein contains
about 0.5 – 2% S.
Sources of Sulfur
Gypsum- CaSO4.2H2O
Ammonium Sulfate- (NH4)2SO4

CHAPTER THREE
3.0. MICRONUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
3.1. Functions, Sources and availability
Importance and functions: Micronutrients are defined as those elements required in small quantities
for plant growth and reproduction. The exact quantity needed varies with plant species and the specific
element. Eight elements are generally considered as plant micronutrients, these include boron (B),
Copper (Cu), chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), and nickel (Ni).
The factors that determine the amounts of micronutrients available to plants are closely related to soil
conditions and plant species.
Table 5. List of Essential Elements and their major functions
Element Form % mass in Major Functions
available to Dry Tissue
Plants
Macronutriens
Cabon CO2 45% Major component of plants organic compounds
Oxygen O2 45% Major component of plants organic compounds

24
Hydrogen H2O 6% Major component of plants organic compounds
Nitrogen NO3-, NH4+ 1.5% Component of nucleic acid, proteins, chlorophyll, etc.
Potassium K+ 1.0% Cofactor in protein synthesis, major solute functioning
in water balance, operation of stomata.
Calcium Ca 2+ 0.5% Important information and stability of cell walls and in
maintenance of membrane structure and permeability
activate some enzymes.
Magnesium Mg 2+ 0.2% Component of chlorophyll, activate many enzymes
-
Phosphorus H2PO4 0.2% Component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP
HPO42-
Sulfur SO4 2- 0.1% Component of proteins, coenzymes
Micronutrients
Chlorine Cl- 0.01% Required for water splitting step of photosynthesis,
functions in water balance
Iron Fe 2+, Fe 3+ 0.01% Component of cytochrome, activate some enzymes
Manganese Mn 2+ 0.005% Active information of amino acids, activate some
enzymes required for water splitting step of
photosynthesis.
Boron H2BO3- 0.002% Cofactor in chlorophyll synthesis role in cell wall
function
Zinc Zn 2+ 0.002% Active in chlorophyll formation, activate some
enzymes.
2+
Copper Cu 0.001% Component of many redox enzymes
Nickel Ni 2+ 0.001% Cofactor for an enzyme functioning in nitrogen
metabolism
Molybdenum MoO4 2- 0.0001 % Essential for symbiotic relationship with nitrogen
fixing bacteria, cofactor in nitrate reduction.

Table 6. Micronutrients and their sources

25
Element Symbol Source
Iron Fe Soil
Manganese Mn Soil
Boron B Soil
Molybdenum Mo Soil
Copper Cu Soil
Zinc Zn Soil
Chlorine Cl Soil

3.2. Management of micronutrient deficiency

The following terms are commonly used to describe nutrient levels in plants
Deficient: when the concentration of an essential element is low enough to severely limit yield and
distinct deficiency symptoms are visible. Extreme deficiencies can result in plant death. With moderate
or slight deficiencies, symptoms may not be visible, but yields will still be reduced.
Critical range: the nutrient concentration in the plant below which a yield response to added nutrient
occurs. Critical levels or ranges vary among plants and nutrients but occur somewhere in the transition
between nutrient deficiency and sufficiency.
Sufficient: the nutrient concentration ranges in which added nutrients will not increase yield but can
increase nutrient concentration. The term luxury consumption is often used to describe nutrient
absorption by the plant that does not influence yield.
Excessive or toxic: when of the concentration essential or other element is high enough to reduce plant
growth and yield. Excessive nutrient concentration can cause an imbalance in other essential nutrients,
which can also reduce yield. Yield is severely affected when a nutrient is deficient, and when the
nutrient deficiency is corrected, growth increase more rapidly than nutrient concentration. Nutrient
sufficiency occurs over a wide concentration range, where yield is unaffected. Increase in nutrient
concentration above the critical range indicate that the plant is absorbing nutrients above that needed for
maximum yield, commonly called luxury consumption. Elements absorbed in excessive quantities can
reduce plant yield directly through toxicity or indirectly by reducing concentrations of other nutrients
below their critical ranges.
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Nutrient deficiency symptoms
 Deficiency of a mobile nutrient usually affects older organs than young ones
 Deficiency of a less mobile nutrient usually affects younger organs than older ones
 The most common deficiencies are those of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus.
 Nutrient deficiency symptoms usually appear on the plant when one or more nutrients are in short
supply.
 In many cases, deficiency may occur because an added nutrient is not in the form the plant can use.
 Every soil is not susceptible to the same nutrient deficiencies.
 For example, coarse-textured soils low in organic matter is susceptible to sulfur deficiencies whereas
sulfur is usually in adequate supply in clayey soils or soils high in organic matter.

Table 7. Macronutrient Deficiencies & Soils

Element Soil Factor Causing Deficiency
N&K Excessive leaching on coarse-textured low organic matter soils
P Acid low organic matter soils
Cold wet soils such as occurs during early spring
Newly cleared soils
S Excessive leaching on coarse-textured low organic matter soils in areas
where air pollution is low (minimal levels of SO2 in the air)
Ca & Mg Excessive leaching on coarse-textured low organic matter soils
Soils where large amounts of K have been applied

Deficiency Symptoms - N
 General chlorosis.
 Chlorosis progresses from light green to yellow.
 Entire plant becomes yellow under prolonged stress.
 Growth is immediately restricted and plants soon become spindly and drop older leaves.

27
Deficiency Symptoms - P
 Leaves appear dull, dark green, blue green, or red-purple, especially on the underside, and
especially at the midrib and vein.
 Petioles may also exhibit purpling. Restriction in growth may be noticed.
Deficiency Symptoms - K
 Margins become brown and cup downward.
 Growth is restricted and die back may occur.
 Mild symptoms appear first on recently matured leaves.
Deficiency Symptoms - Ca
 Growing points usually damaged or dead (die back).
 Margins of leaves developing from the growing point are first to turn brown.
Deficiency Symptoms - Mg
 Leaves show yellow chlorotic interveinal tissue on some species, reddish purple progressing to
necrosis on others.
 Younger leaves affected with continued stress.
 Chlorotic areas may become necrotic, brittle, and curl upward.
Deficiency Symptoms - S
 Leaves uniformly light green, followed by yellowing and poor spindly growth.

Table 8. Micronutrient Deficiencies & Soils

Element Soil Factor Causing Deficiency
Fe Poorly drained soils, Low organic matter soils, pH >7.0, Soils high in P
Zn Cold wet soils low in organic matter and highly leached, High pH soils (pH >7.0), Soils
high in P, Exposed sub soils
Cu Peat and muck soils, High pH, sandy soils, Soils heavily fertilized with N
B Excessive leaching on coarse-textured low organic matter soils, Soils with pH>7.0
Mn Excessive leaching on coarse-textured low organic matter soils, Soil with pH>6.5
Mo Soils high in Fe oxides, high adsorption of molybdenum, Soil cropped for a long time

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Micronutrients
A. Iron (Fe)
- Component of cytochromes (needed for photosynthesis)
- Essential for N fixation (nitrate reductase) and respiration
- Deficiency
Symptom: Interveinal chlorosis on new growth
Fe is immobile
Iron chlorosis develops when soil pH is high
Remedy for iron chlorosis:
1) Lower soil pH
Iron is in more useful form (Fe2+)
B. Manganese (Mn)
- Required for chlorophyll synthesis, O2 evolution during photosynthesis
- Activates some enzyme systems
- Deficiency: Mottled chlorosis between main veins of new leaves
, similar to Fe chlorosis
- Toxicity: Chlorosis on new growth with small, numerous dark spots
Deficiency occurs at high pH
Toxicity occurs at low pH
- Fertilizers: Manganese sulfate (MnSO4)
C. Boron (B)
- Involved in carbohydrate metabolism
- Essential for flowering, pollen germination, N metabolism
- Deficiency: New growth distorted and malformed, flowering and fruit set depressed, roots
tubers distorte
- Toxicity: fruit splitting, leaf edge burns
- Fertilizers: Borax (Na2B4O710H2O), calcium borate (NaB4O7 4H2O)
D. Zinc (Zn)
- Involved in protein synthesis

29
Deficiency: (occurs in calcarious soil and high pH)
Growth suppression, reduced internode lengths, rosetting, interveinal chlorosis on young leaves
(Zn is immobile in tissues)
- Toxicity: (occurs at low pH) Growth reduction, leaf chlorosis
E. Molybdenum (Mo)
- Required for nitrate reductase activity, vitamin synthesis
Nitrate reductase
NO3- ————————————— NH2
Mo
Root-nodule bacteria also require Mo
- Deficiency: Pale green, cupped young leaves (Mo is immobile)
Occurs at low pH
- Toxicity: Chlorosis with orange color pigmentation
- Fertilizer: Sodium molybdate
F. Copper (Cu)
- Essential component of several enzymes of chlorophyll synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism
- Deficiency: Rosette or ‗witch‘s broom‘
- Toxicity: Chlorosis
- Fertilizers: Copper sulfate (CuSO4)
G. Chlorine (Cl)
- Involved for photosynthetic oxygen revolution
- Toxicity: Leaf margin chlorosis, necrosis on all leaves

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. SOIL FERTILITY DIAGNOSIS
4.1. Soil fertility diagnosis at different scales (Macro, meso and micro)
 Soil fertility diagnosis can be done at three levels at macro, meso and micro-levels.
• At macro level is a large scale analysis like in Country level
• Meso in regional level
• Micro at plot or district level
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4.2. Indicators of soil fertility problems
• No production
• Stunted plant growth
• Weed infestation
• Deficiency symptoms on plant parts
• Water logging
• Salinity
• Sodicity
• Soil color and structure
• Erosion
• Root density etc…
4.3. Methods of Diagnosing Soil Fertility Problems
4.3.1. Yield gap analysis
Farmers often achieve far less than 50% of the climatic and genetic yield potential for a given sowing
date, cultivar choice and site. Figure 1 illustrates factors that define yield gaps at different levels. The
potential yield or maximum yield (Ymax) is limited by climate and crop cultivar only, all other factors
being optimal. Under irrigated conditions, water is assumed not to be limiting, but under rain fed
conditions this assumption is often not true. Ymax is not constant but fluctuates from year to year and
with sowing date because of climatic variability. The attainable yield (Ya) is the ‗nutrient-limited‘ yield
that farmers can achieve with current soil fertility management practices, but with optimal water and
crop management. The maximum Ya is often about 80% of Ymax. This is often referred to as the
economic yield target (Ytarget) as it is often not economical to close the remaining gap of about 20% of
Ymax. In reality actual farmer yields (Yf) are much lower because of a range of constraints to crop
growth, including weed pressure, pests and diseases and sub-optimal soil fertility and water management
practices. A first approach to try to understand causes of low yields is to compare average yields in the
village with the yields best farmers obtain. Discussions with farmers may give hints about what ‗best
farmers‘ do differently. This will help to identify the causes of the differences, e.g. weeds, pests or
diseases (reducing factors), and will also provide the scope for short term improvement (yield gap 1 =
best farmer yield – average yield). Crop growth simulation models can be applied to determine the

31
attainable yield ceiling under given growth conditions (yield gap 2 = attainable yield ceiling – best
farmer yield). This ceiling is limited by nutrients and / or water (the limiting factors). Finally these
models can also be used to determine potential yield, i.e. when sufficient water and nutrients are
available. It should be realized that these yield gaps give indications about what is agronomically
possible, not what would be economically optimal. Crop growth simulation models may also be helpful
to analyze farmer management practices, and identify areas for improvement.

Figure 1: Effect of crop management on potential or maximum yield, attainable yield, best farmer yield
and actual average farmer yield.

When analyzing growth reducing and limiting factors, soil fertility will often be one of them. It should
be realized, however, that crop growth in farmers‘ fields may also suffer from other factors, such as
drought or excessive flooding or from incidence of pests, diseases and weeds. Current management
practices may prevent the farmer from obtaining better yields, such as choice of variety, plant
population, sowing date and the type of fertilizer applied. In the latter case, crop response to fertilizer
application may be disappointing due to the fact that the type of fertilizer applied does not match the
requirements of the soil, e.g. soils that are low in K will not respond to large doses of N or P.
4.3.2. Soil Testing
A soil test is a chemical or physical measurement of soil properties based on a sample of soil.

32
Commonly, however, a soil test is considered as a rapid chemical analysis or quick test to assess the
readily extractable chemical elements of a soil. Interpretations of soil tests provide assessments of the
amount of available nutrients, which plants may absorb from a soil. Recommendations for fertilization
may be based on the results of soil tests. Chemical soil tests may also measure salinity, pH, and presence
of elements that may have inhibitory effects on plant growth. Soil tests are done to:

 Determine the relative ability of a soil to supply crop nutrients during a particular growing
season,
 Predict the probability of obtaining a profitable response to fertilizer application,
 Determine the need to adjust soil pH,
 Diagnose problems such as excessive salinity or alkalinity,
 Provide a basis for fertilizer recommendations for a given crop,
 Evaluate the fertility status of the soil as the basis for planning a nutrient management program.

A soil test report will give basic information about deficiencies and problems and suggest measures that
should be taken to correct problems and specific nutrients that are needed to obtain better yields. Soil
tests are considered to be a helpful diagnostic tool. The information they provide must be interpreted
using common sense and consider the goals and circumstances of the grower. A key point to remember
is that the test only provides information about the fertility level and chemical properties of the soil.
Correcting these is only one part of a grower‘s crop management program. There are many other factors
that may result in low yields even when nutrients are adequate.

Remember, a soil analysis is only as good as the soil sample taken. If the sample submitted for testing is
not representative of the actual status of the field, the results and recommendations will not be very
valuable and will probably be misleading. It is therefore important that you know proper procedures to
follow when collecting soil samples.

A basic principle of soil testing is that an area can be sampled so that chemical analysis of the samples
will assess the nutrient status of the entire sampled area. Methods of sampling may differ with the
variability of the area being sampled and with the nutrients being tested. A larger number of samples

33
may need to be taken from a non-uniform area than from a uniform area. Movement of nutrients into the
soil, as with nitrate leaching downward, may cause the need for sampling of soil to be at a greater depth
than with nutrients that do not move far from the site of application. Wide differences in test results
across a field bring into question whether a single recommendation for fertilization can be made for the
entire field. Variations in patterns of applications of fertilizers, such as placement of fertilizers in bands
in contrast to broadcasting of fertilizers, can affect soil samples.
Chemical soil test activities include:
 Sampling: the most important aspect of soil testing, as the error in sampling is much greater than the
error in lab analysis. A soil test cannot be better than the sample that is tested. Therefore, careful
sampling is a ―must‖. One of the weakest steps in making good fertilizer recommendations by using soil
tests is the obtaining of a representative soil sample. A soil sample of 1 kg when used to represent a
hectare of land means that 1 Kg of soil is used to characterize 1500 to 3000 tons of soil. Fairly uniform
areas of fields should be sampled separately on the basis of uniformity in soil characteristics (color) and
past soil management. Sampling of unusual areas, including the location of manure or lime piles, should
be avoided. To minimize laboratory costs, soil samples are generally collected from several locations
within a field and composited (mixed) in a clean bucket prior to submitting to an analytical laboratory.
Hand augers, spades, shovels or vehicle-mounted hydraulic probe and auger are common tools to sample
soil. The sampling depth should correspond with crop rooting depth. For example, if the bulk of a plant‘s
roots are located within the top 15 cm of soil, then the relatively immobile nutrients (such as P and K)
need only be sampled in the top 15 cm. Sampling depth for the more mobile nutrients (nitrate, sulfate,
and chloride) should be to the depth that roots can extract water. This depth varies with crop, cropping
system, and soil depth.
 Analysis: A soil test by a nutrient extraction method chemically extracts and measures the amount of
nutrients available to crops from a small sample of soil that is taken to the depth of the arable layer
(ploughed layer).
4.3.3. Plant Tissue Analysis

Analyzing plant tissue can indicate the success of a soil fertility program and uncover potential
problems. Plant tissue analysis complements soil testing by measuring the nutrients actually taken up by
the plant. It should be noted, however, that plant nutrient content represents the effects of not only soil
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nutrient status but also all the factors controlling plant growth. Therefore, a single year‘s information
may not be useful for planning a soil fertility management program. But as results are accumulated over
a period of years, the information will become more valuable.

Sample collection is very important. The nutrient concentration in a plant varies with the plant‘s age and
the part of the plant sampled. If plant analyses are to be meaningful, the appropriate plant part must be
collected for the age of the plant, and a number of plants must be included to obtain a representative
sample.

Plant tissue analyses may be useful in diagnosing crop nutritional problems. Take samples from the
problem area and a nearby ―normal‖ area for comparison. Then, use all available information to interpret
the plant analysis for diagnosing a nutrient deficiency. Look carefully at symptoms on the plants, note
any patterns in the field, and consider the timing of the problem‘s appearance. Keep in mind that not all
nutrient deficiencies in plants are the result of nutrient deficiencies in the soil.

Soil testing and plant analysis can confirm each other, but they also can indicate when the cause of the
problem is something other than a nutrient deficiency in the soil. If the soil test level is adequate but the
plants are deficient, some other factor is limiting the plant‘s ability to take up available nutrients. Some
areas to consider include: possible interactions with other cultural practices such as tillage or pesticide
use; pest injury such as rootworm feeding; differences in varieties or hybrids; or soil physical conditions
such as compaction.

Plant analysis was one of the means used by scientists to determine the essentiality of chemical elements
as plant nutrients. Further refinements and applications of plant analysis led to studies of the relationship
between crop growth or yield and nutrient concentrations in plants. Elemental analysis of leaves is
commonly used as a basis for crop fertilizer recommendations. Plants can be tested for sufficiency of
nutrition by analytical tests, which employ quantitative analysis (total or specific components) in
laboratories, or by tissue tests (semi-quantitative analysis), often applied in the field.
4.3.4. Field observation and diagnostics keys

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Of course, it is realized that laboratory testing of soil and plant tissue samples are not generally
economic or even possible options for most farmers in developing countries. But there are many other
tools. Making timely and focused observations in the field has been a valuable way to diagnose
problems since the dawn of agriculture and continues to be the most common and valuable way to
identify deficiencies and the basis for interventions.
Probably the simplest approach in observation is the transect walk. A grower or agriculturalist can
acquire a tremendous amount of information just by walking through a field or production area and
noting what looks good and what doesn‘t.
In a transect walk, the diagnostician walks from one edge of the field or area to the other and makes
notes on what is observed including the types of landscape, plants and animals and obvious differences
that may be problems that need addressing.
Many find it helpful to draw the walk on paper in what is known as a transect map. Such maps show
topographical cross-sections of the territory and are made more useful if notes are made below each
portion of the cross-section.
Diagnostic Keys
Of course, it helps if you can recognize problems as you observe fields and areas. Keys are an excellent
tool for helping you do this. Diagnostic keys provide a systematic approach to observing plant and crop
systems and help to narrow down the possibilities.
In order to use them effectively, however, you will need to be familiar with a few fundamental terms
used to describe observed symptoms.
Table 9.Some of the most common nutrient deficiency symptoms used in keys are listed and defined in
the table below:

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Term Definition and comments
Chlorosis General yellowing of the leaf tissue. A very common deficiency symptom,
since many nutrients affect the photosynthesis process directly or indirectly.
Firing Yellowing, followed by rapid death of lower leaves, moving up the plant
and giving the same appearance as if someone touched the bottom of the
plants
Interveinal Yellowing in between leaf veins, but with the veins themselves remaining
Chlorosis green. In grasses, this is called striping.
Necrosis Severe deficiencies result in death of the entire plant or parts of the plant
first affected by the deficiency. The plant tissue browns and dies. The tissue
which has already died on a still living plant is called necrotic tissue.
Stunting Many deficiencies result in decreased growth. This can result in shorter
height of the affected plants.
Abnormal Red, purple, brown colors caused by pigments
coloration

Another important factor to keep in mind when using keys or when observing symptoms is that
deficiency symptoms can often be confused with other complex field events, such as high water tables,
salt damage, disease, drought, herbicide stress and varietal differences.
The appearance of a growth disorder based on visual symptoms does not absolutely mean a nutritional
deficiency exists.
The observation of a symptom could also be a result of nutrient unavailability or other environmental
factors and not to the absence of a particular nutrient in the soil.
If more than one deficiency is present, one can be more dominant in its symptoms, obscuring the
symptoms of the other element.
4.3.5. Nutrient balance (flow) analysis
Accurate historical records can be valuable but keeping such records is not all that common, particularly
for developing country farmers. One way to get a handle on what is happening to the nutrient status of a
field over time is to analyze and map nutrient flows.
Nutrient flow analysis can be used to give insight into the impact of farmer management decisions on
soil fertility in his or her farm.

37
Farmers transport material that contains nutrients - be it harvested products, manure, fertilizer or straw
that is used to build roofs. Some processes may lead to a loss in nutrients, e.g. burning of straw will
result in complete loss of carbon and nitrogen.
Estimating nutrient flows is a useful way to find out if farmers‘ crop management practices are
sustainable, i.e. are outputs of nutrients balanced by a sufficient level of inputs.
To compare flows, there is a need to express them in the same unit, e.g. kg of nitrogen, phosphorus or
potassium. This means that one needs to know the concentration of nitrogen in e.g. manure, millet grains
and millet straw, etc. and the amount of dry matter (at 0% moisture) that is produced, transformed or
transported.
Nutrient flow analysis should enable a farmer to answer questions such as: ‗What is happening to my
soil if I do not apply any fertilizer to my rice field, and I sell both rice grain and rice straw?‘
It is important to realize that such analyses try to model a complex reality and should, therefore, used
with care.
The nutrient balances include, on one hand, major nutrient inflows from rainfall, organic manure,
mineral fertilizers, symbiotic N-fixation and sedimentation; on the other hand, nutrient outflows through
harvested produce and losses due to erosion, leaching etc. For a given soil nutrient (usually N, P or K)
the equation reads:
Balance = [IN1 + IN2 + IN3+ IN4 + IN5 + …] – [OUT1 + OUT2 + OUT3 + OUT4 + OUT5 +
OUT6+…]
where:
• IN1 = mineral fertilizers; IN2 = animal manure; IN3 = atmospheric deposition; IN4 = biological
nitrogen fixation; IN5 = sedimentation; and OUT1 = harvested production; OUT2 = crop
residues; OUT3 = leaching; OUT4 = gaseous losses; OUT5 = soil erosion; OUT6 = losses in
deep pit latrines.
Clearly some of these parameters are easier to measure or estimate than others. Nutrient inflows from
atmospheric deposition or losses as gases are invisible and not easy to comprehend by farmers.
Often, estimations are combined with actual measurements, which may lead to considerable errors.
A simple method to get an idea of nutrient flows associated with a farm or larger area is to
develop resource maps.

38
Such discussions will, therefore, often be more qualitative than quantitative, but can still give important
insights, pinpointing e.g. at ‗leaks‘ in the system.
4.4. Soil fertility status of Ethiopia

With a rapidly growing population, Ethiopia needs to increase food production in grain equivalent, by at
least one million metric tons.
Currently about 85‐90 percent of the population (68‐70 million, or around 12 million households), lives
on agriculture. Total cultivated land is around 12 million hectares, majority as semi‐commercial or
subsistence farming systems.
Population growth and agricultural production are not growing equally.
• Due to land shortage, expansion to marginal lands and protected areas has also become a
common practice.
Land degradation has also been at its worst until recently. As a result, nutrient depletion has also
been very severe. The arable soils are amongst the oldest in Africa and are highly degraded and
eroded by a combination of water and wind erosion. Farmers remove all crop biomass from the fields
and use less farmyard manure.
The figure for pulse crops is generally around 0.8 t/ha
These have resulted in the deficiency of key nutrients such as N, P, K, S, and Zn.
Recent investigations also show deficiency of boron, and copper in some areas.
Other soil productivity related problems include:
– Water logging
– Acidity
– Alkalinity
• Farmers‘ use of fertilizers is also low.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.0. SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES
5.1.Organic sources
5.1.1. Composting
What is Compost?
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Compost is organic waste that has biologically decomposed into humus. This carefully managed process
uses organisms to transform manure, plant wastes, and other by-products into compost by digestion and
excretion of organic matter. Bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi are among the principal decomposition
microorganisms. Insects and earthworms can also play an important role in decomposing organic matter.
These organisms, primarily bacteria, are k
ey to the breakdown of organic matter. As microorganisms metabolize organic matter the temperature of
the pile increases. Compost temperatures above 45° C create conditions favorable for thermophilic
(heat-loving) organisms. The temperature increase destroys pathogens and weed seeds present in manure
and plant wastes. By maintaining favorable air and moisture conditions, the temperature can be
maintained until the compost is finished.
Benefits of compost
Composting is a means of ensuring or improving long-term soil fertility, especially to smallholder
farmers with no or little access to manures and fertilizers. Compost is more than a fertilizer. It is not just
a nutrient source, but also acts on the structure of the soil and on its capacity to hold and provide
nutrients and water. Its main value lies in its long-term effect on soil fertility.
Compost contributes to an increase of the organic matter content of the soil and thus to a better soil
structure. It clearly enhances drought resistance of crops. During the composting process diseases, pests
and weed seeds are destroyed. Even viruses are destroyed, if a high temperature is reached. Thus,
composting helps solve common problems associated to the management of plant residues. Compost
also increases biological activity of the soil and its capacity to positively influence biological control of
root rot diseases from fungi, bacteria and nematodes.
The humic substances are relatively resistant to microbial decomposition. Thus, the nutrients are
released slowly and are not easily lost. The total nutrient content of compost is similar to that of cow
manure with an average nutrient content of 0.5 % N, 0.1 % P and 0.5 to 2 % K. Nevertheless, the values
of compost cannot be estimated high enough. Compost also increases the availability of phosphorus to
plants in soils rich in iron oxides. Due to its neutral pH, compost improves the availability of nutrients in
acid soils.
Specific bioprocesses in composting
Composting is a mass of interdependent biological processes carried out by a myriad of microorganisms

40
essential for the decomposition of organic matter. Most systems are aerobic, meaning the
microorganisms require oxygen (O2). The overall biochemical equation can be written:
Organic Matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria =>CO2 + NH3 + Products + energy
Potentials and constraints of composting
From a farmer‘s perspective, there are a number of reasons for investing time and effort into making
good compost. Compost production is labor intensive, however, and demands regular attention.
Collecting the composting materials, setting up the heap, regular watering and repeated turning of the
heap make composting a very labor intensive activity. But the work can be done, when the farm‘s labour
forces are free. It is not restricted to a particular season. Livestock can greatly ease transportation of
plant material to the composting area and when adding compost to the fields. If labor requirements for
compost production are considered, composting may not be economical.
In African context, it is more economical to produce compost than to buy the equivalent amount of
nutrients in mineral form. This is especially true if the compost‘s effect on soil quality improvement is
considered.
Starting with composting may be difficult when organic materials are rare or competition for other uses
of organic materials is high. In this case, special efforts would be necessary to produce more organic
material in the farm growing hedges, establishing agroforestry systems and growing other plants to
provide material for composting. During the composting process the volume of the organic materials is
halved. This means that a farmer needs 2 tons of organic material to produce 1 ton of compost. P and K
are similar in compost (approx. 1.5 kg per m3).
Composting is an appropriate measure for soil fertility improvement, especially when soil fertility is low
and organic materials, labor and a water source in proximity of the fields are available.
The composting process
Properly made compost goes through three phases: the heating phase, the cooling phase and the
maturing phase.
The heating phase: During the heating phase, within three days after setting up the compost heap,
temperature in the center of the heap rises to about 60 to 70 °C. It usually stays at this level for two to
three weeks. The high temperature is a result of the energy that is released during the decomposition of
easily digestible materials by the bacteria. The heat destroys diseases, pests, weed-roots and seeds and

41
thus prevents their further propagation. Due to the rapid development of their population, the oxygen
demand of the bacteria is very high during this phase of the composting process. High temperatures in
the heap indicate that oxygen supply is adequate. If temperature stays low or the compost develops an
unpleasant odor, this can be an indication that the heap is compacted and oxygen supply is low. Due to
the high biological activity and high evaporation, the humidity requirements are highest during the first
phase of composting.
The cooling phase: After decomposition of the green plant material by the bacteria, the temperature in
the compost heap declines slowly to 25 to 45 °C. When temperature declines, fungi settle and start the
decomposition of straw, fibers and wooden material. As this decomposition process is slower, the
temperature of the heap does not rise.
The maturing phase: During the maturing phase, red compost worms and other soil organisms start to
inhabit the compost heap. Nutrients are mineralized and humic acids and antibiotics are built up. At the
end of this phase the compost has lost about half of its original volume, has taken on a dark color and the
smell of fertile soil and is ready to use. Water requirements during this phase are low. The longer the
compost is stored, the more it will lose its quality as a fertilizer.
How to make compost
a. Selection of a suitable composting site
The composting process should be conducted in a place that is easy to access for easy transport of
materials to the composting site and close to the fields where the compost is to be used after production,
and next to a water source. A well-drained and leveled ground minimizes the risk of sieving out of
nutrients by runoff rainwater. Natural shade such as a tree or a built shade reduces evaporation.
b. Materials for compost production
Ideally composting plant material is a mixture of 50 % different fresh green material and 50 % of dry
material. If too much fresh material is used, aeration of the heap will be poor. As a result the heap will
start to smell and nitrogen will be lost. If too much dry material is used, bacteria lack food and the
composting process will not start.
As most crop residues are low in nitrogen, sources high in nitrogen such as leaves of green legume
plants or pruning‘s from leguminous trees or legume stalks may be used to insure sufficient nitrogen for
the composting process. Whenever possible, plant materials should be composted together with animal

42
manure. Addition of animal manure accelerates the composting process and results in compost with
higher fertilizer value. Urine and slurry, both rich in nitrogen, can encourage decomposition of dry
material.
Ashes can be spread in thin layers between the other materials. Too much ash, however, can result in
gaseous nitrogen losses. Materials that should not be used for composting include materials from
diseased or pest infested plants or plants that have been sprayed with pesticides or herbicides.
Non-organic materials such as metal or plastic, rubber, leather and textile materials cannot be
composted.
C. Compost making procedure
There are different methods for making compost based on different approaches and origins.
The materials go through an intensive heating phase. In dry climates composting is mainly practiced in
pits to keep the compost humid and save on water and labour for maintaining ideal conditions.
How to proceed for making compost:
1. Collect adequate quantities of the materials needed.
2. Measure out an area 1.5 meters wide and of any convenient length. The width should enable to work
with the compost without having to walk on it.
3. Dig out a shallow pit of the planned size of the compost heap. The more arid the climate, the deeper
the pit is usually dug. Compost pits should, however, not be deeper than 50 cm to ensure aeration. If no
pit is dug in a humid climate, loosen the ground where the compost heap will be, as the materials need
close contact with the loose soil at the bottom. The topsoil obtained when digging the trench should be
carefully put to one side beside the trench so that it can be used in the compost.
4. Woody materials should be chopped into pieces 5 to 10 cm in length or spread on a road or used as
livestock bedding before composting to be bruised and increase its surface for better decomposition. Wet
plant material such as fresh grass should be wilted before mixing it with other material.
Straw should be pre-soaked in water, if possible. Ideally dry material is thoroughly mixed with urine and
animal dung.
5. Lay down the bottom layer of rough vegetation such as maize stalks or hedge cuttings. This layer
should be about 30 cm thick. Such materials allow for air circulation into the heap.
6. Then add a layer of mixed green material and animal manure (if available) followed by a layer of dry

43
material. Then mix both layers and water well. The better the different materials are mixed, the better the
composting process.
7. Repeat the process to build a heap to a height of 1 to 1.5 meters. Make sure to water each new layer
well to create humid conditions. As for composting, aerated conditions are needed, the compost heap
should not be stamped. A well-made heap has almost vertical sides and a flat top. If you have a lot of
materials, it is good to make several heaps of about 2 meters in length.
8. To complete the pile, ideally cover it with 10 cm of topsoil to prevent gases from escaping from the
compost pile. Lastly, cover the whole pile with dry vegetation or banana leaves to prevent loss of
moisture through evaporation.
9. Take a long, sharp, pointed stick and drive it into the pile at an angle. The stick helps to check the
condition of the pile from time to time. If the stick is pulled out and is warm after two to three days, this
indicates that decomposition has started. If the stick is white, this is an indication that the heap is dry
inside. The heap should be turned and watered well.
How to maintain the compost heap:
1. About every third day, depending on the weather conditions and if it has rained or not, the heap must
be watered.
2. If all goes well, the heap should be turned after 3 weeks, after the temperature of the pile has fallen.
Compost heaps are usually turned 2 to 3 times in their early stages. When turning the compost heap,
make sure the outside material comes inside. Thus, when turning the heap, first take the material from
the top and the outside to make the new heap. This procedure ensures that all parts of the compost go
through a proper heating phase. Do not add new material during turning.
3. After 3 to 6 weeks the heap should be turned again. By now the compost should have a fresh earth
smell and no grass, leaves or animal droppings should be visible. Some woody branches or stalks may
still be present, as they take a longer time to rot.
4. In 3 to 6 weeks after the second turning, the compost should be ready for use. Mature compost turns
blackish-brown in color and has a pleasant smell. If the planting season is still far off, leave the pile
covered where it is. The pile should always be kept moist and covered with dry material. If the heap
becomes too wet it should be opened up and mixed with dry organic matter or allowed to dry in the sun
before rebuilding.

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The decomposition process is quickened by adding large amounts of fresh animal manure and by turning
the heap more frequently.
d. Applying compost in the field
In an African context, there is no such thing as too much compost. Usually the amount that can be
produced by a smallholder farmer is rather small. So it is, therefore, important that compost be applied
where the cultivated plants can use it and where it directly contributes to better plant nutrition and water
retention.
Efficiency of the compost can be improved through targeted application to the root zone of the crop
plants through banding or placing into planting holes rather than spreading it over the entire field.
Labour requirements may be higher with targeted application, it may however result in higher
productivity and help to reduce the size of land required to produce the required quantities of food.
In planted crops, compost is best applied into the planting holes and mixed with topsoil. In perennial tree
crops, compost application is most efficient when applied along the drip line of the trees.
Availability of nitrogen and other nutrients from compost can be increased, when the compost is
supplemented by nitrogen rich liquid manure or fresh animal manure after its application. Compost that
has not fully decomposed can be used for mulching between crops or around tree crops. When using
compost as mulch, it should be covered with a thin layer of straw or dry grass or leaves. This will avoid
loss of nutrients due to direct exposure to sunlight and heat.
The compost can be used immediately or stored for later use. Ripe compost for storage should be kept in
the shade and covered with 10 cm of top soil to keep it humid and prevent loss of nutrients.

5.1.2. Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting is the method where compost is prepared using earthworms as agents for
decomposition. In contrast to ordinary composting, vermicomposting is mainly based on the activity of
worms and does not go through a heating phase. Vermicomposting is a good technique for recycling
food waste and crop residues from vegetable gardens in the proximity of the house. It creates small
volumes of very rich manure. Though vermicompost is very good manure, it requires more investment
(a tank and worms), labour and more permanent care compared to ordinary composting. On the other

45
hand, letting worms recycle farm or household waste saves time and labour input because no turning is
required to keep the compost aerated.
Red Wigglers reproduce quickly, adapt well to life in a confined environment, and compost food rapidly
as they consume their weight in food per day. They are three to five inches in length, dark red in color,
and will tolerate temperatures from 12 to 30 degrees Celsius. They prefer to live in the dark and moist
places, and about half a kilogram of Red Wigglers is needed to start a colony.
The worms are very sensitive to fluctuations in moisture and temperature, however, and need a
continuous supply of organic material for ‗food‘.
How to proceed for vermicomposting:
Build a brick and mortar enclosure with a concrete bottom, one or two chamber sand proper water
outlets. Convenient chamber size is 2 m x 1 m x 0.75 m. However, the size of the chambers should be
determined according to the volume of the composting material. Alternatively, a sizeable plastic or metal
container or wooden boxes with a secure and removable lid to keep out predators and with ventilation
holes on the side walls and holes on the bottom to release excess moisture from the container, but small
enough to keep out flies if possible. The ‗four tank‘ or ‗four chamber‘ method of chamber construction is
also commonly used because it facilitates easy and continuous movement of earth worms from one
chamber with fully composted matter to a fresh chamber. Whatever container is used or built, it should
be placed in a dark and damp place.
> A layer of good moist loamy soil (vermin bed) is placed at the bottom, about 15 to 20 cm thick above a
thin layer (5 cm) of broken bricks and coarse sand.
> Earthworms are introduced (about 150) into the loamy soil, which the worms will inhabit as their
home.
> Then, a small quantity of fresh cattle dung is placed over the vermin bed.
> The compost pile is then layered to about 5 cm with dry leaves or preferably chopped hay/straw or
agricultural waste biomass such as vegetable peels, leftover food, dead leaves and plants. Egg shells can
also be broken into small pieces and added to the pile.
> For the next 30 days, materials are continuously added to the pit until it is full and is kept moist by
watering it whenever necessary. Meat or fish scraps, greasy foods, dairy products or bones should not be
added into the pile, as these will attract ants and rodents. The pile should be covered with porous

46
material to keep off predators. The compost should be ready within 60 to 90 days.
In the two or four pit system, watering should be stopped in the first chamber so that worms will
automatically move to another chamber where the required environment for the worms are maintained in
a cyclical manner and harvesting can be done continuously in cycles.
To remove some of the compost, let the top of the heap dry out by discontinuing the watering for two to
three days so that the worms move down to the cool base of the heap. Compost can then be removed and
taken back to a fresh pile.

5.1.3. Bio fertilizer

There are two types of supplies for agriculture, specifically fertilizer and pesticide. It can be said that
fertilizer is food, and pesticide is medicine for plants in conventional agriculture. On the other hand,
biofertilizer and/or biopesticide are referred to each of them respectively in sustainable or
environmentally friendly system. Biofertilizers are low cost, renewable sources of plant nutrients which
supplement chemical fertilizers. These are nothing but selected strains of beneficial soil
microorganisms‘ cultured in the laboratory and packed in a suitable carrier. They can be used either for
seed treatment or soil application. Biofertilizers generate plant nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous
through their activities in the soil or rhizosphere and make available to plants in a gradual manner.
Biofertilizers are gaining momentum recently due to the increasing emphasis on maintenance of soil
health, minimize environmental pollution and cut down on the use of chemicals in agriculture.
Biofertilizers are also ideal input for reducing the cost of cultivation and for practising organic farming.
Biofertilizer is most commonly referred to the use of soil microorganisms to increase the availability and
uptake of mineral nutrients for plants. So it is necessary to define the term ―Biofertilizer‖. On the other
hand ―biofertilizer‖ be defined as a substance which contains living micro-organisms which colonizes
the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability
of primary nutrient and/or growth stimulus to the target crop, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or
soil.
Whether the existence of a microorganism increases the growth of plants by making nutrients more
available or replacing soil nutrients or increasing plant access to nutrient, as long as the nutrient status of
the plant has been enhanced by the microorganisms, the substance that was applied to the plant or soil
47
containing the microorganisms, can be characterized as a biofertilizer. This definition separates
biofertilizer from organic fertilizer containing organic matter.
5.1.4. Farmyard manure
Farmyard manure commonly describes a more or less decomposed mixture of livestock dung and urine
(mostly from cattle) mixed with straw and litter, which was used as bedding material. It may also
contain residues from the fodder fed to the cattle and decomposed household waste.
Farmyard manure is extremely valuable organic manure. Farmyard manure contains large amounts of
nutrients. The availability of phosphorus and potassium from farmyard manure is similar to that of
chemical fertilizers. Chicken manure is rich in phosphorus. When dung and urine from cattle are mixed,
they form a well-balanced source of nutrients for plants.
Many farmers still underestimate the value of animal manure. In many places, it is dried and burned for
cooking or just not recognized as a source of nutrients and organic matter. By drying or burning
farmyard manure, large quantities of organic matter and nutrients are lost from agricultural systems.
Appropriate recycling of nutrients on the farm, especially if it comes from a high-value source, is a
principle of organic farming. Therefore, proper handling and use of animal manures are essential to
ensure that the nutrients in the manure are preserved and the risks of causing environmental pollution are
minimized.
Most farmers do not own animals, and neither do they have access to animal manure. In areas with
mixed crop-livestock farming systems manure is likely to be available to most households, although at
varying levels.
The quality and value of manure can be improved by the following approaches:
> Proper design of the animal housing to facilitate easy and efficient collection of manures.
> Provision of adequate bedding material of straw or dry grass to capture as much excreta as possible.
5.2. Inorganic sources/ Chemical Fertilizers
Basic definitions and concepts
Fertilizers are substances that supply plant nutrients or amend soil fertility; increase crop production
and improve the quality of food and fodder. Any natural or manufactured material, which contains at
least 5% of one or more of the three primary nutrients (N, P2O5, and K2O), can be called fertilizer.
Industrially manufactured fertilizers are called chemical (mineral) fertilizers.

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Grade and Ratio
The fertilizer grade
All governments require that fertilizers offered for sale be accurately labeled with the grade (minimum
guaranteed percentage), the weight of the material, the manufacturer‘s address. The most useful
information is the grade. The grade gives in order:
1) The total nitrogen, measured as elemental N,
2) The available phosphorus calculated as phosphorus pent oxide, P2O5
3) The potassium calculated as water soluble potassium oxide, K2O
If the grade, 27-3-9, contains 27 percent nitrogen, phosphorus equivalent to 3 percent P205 , and
potassium equivalent to 9 percent K20.
The fertilizer ratio is the relative proportions of primary nutrients in a fertilizer grade divided by the
highest denominator for that grade. A 27-3-9 fertilizer has a ratio of 9-1-3. This fertilizer is high in
nitrogen, low in phosphorus, and moderate in potassium, relatively speaking. Such a fertilizer provides
good maintenance for areas in which the soil phosphorus level from past fertilizer uses is high and the
major need is for nitrogen.
Kinds of fertilizers
A/According to form
1. Organic /Natural
2. Chemical or inorganic
B/According to fertilizer elements present
1. Complete fertilizers – a fertilizer material which contains all the three major nutrients, N, P, K.
2. Straight fertilizers- fertilizers that contain only one primary nutrient are referred to as straight
fertilizers. E.g. Urea, TSP, Ammonium Sulfate
3. Multi nutrient fertilizers- Fertilizers, containing two or three primary nutrients are called multi
nutrient fertilizers. The most noteworthy advantages of multi nutrient fertilizers to the farmers are:
 Ease of handling, transport and storage
 Ease of application
 High nutrient content
e.g. DAP, MAP, NPK fertilizers, Nitro phosphates
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Time and Methods of fertilizer application
The method of application of fertilizers is an essential component of good agricultural practices. The
amount and timing of nutrient uptake depends on various factors, such as crop variety, planting date,
crop rotation, soil and water condition. For good agricultural practices, the farmer chooses the timing
and the quantity in such a way that as much as possible much of the nutrients are used by the plants. For
optimum crop use efficiency and minimum potential for environmental pollution, he must apply the
nutrients as near to the time the crop needs them as is practical. This is of particular importance for
mobile nutrients such as nitrogen, which can easily be leached out of the soil profile, if they are not
taken up by the plant roots.
In the case of urea and di ammonium phosphate application, losses may occur through emission of
ammonia to the air. Both these fertilizers must be incorporated into the soil immediately after
application, if there is no immediate rainfall or irrigation to wash into the soil.
When fertilizers are applied by hand, extreme care should be taken to distribute nutrients uniformly and
at the exact rates. Where fertilizer application equipment is used, it should be adjusted to ensure uniform
spreading and correct rates.
The following are the most common fertilizer application methods.
A/ Broadcasting
The broadcasting of fertilizer (i.e. applying it to the surface of a field) is used mostly on dense crops not
planted in rows or in dense rows (small grains) and on grass land. It is also used when fertilizers should
be incorporated into the soil after application to be effective (phosphate fertilizers), or to avoid
evaporation losses of nitrogen (urea, diammonium phosphate). Incorporation through tilling or
ploughing – in is also recommended to increase the fertility level of the entire plough layer. Whether the
fertilizer is broadcast by hand or with fertilizer spreading equipment, the spreading should be as uniform
as possible.
B/ Row or Band placement-
When localized fertilizer placement (putting the fertilizer only in selected places in the field) is used, the
fertilizer is concentrated in specific parts of the soil during planting, which may be either in bands or
strips under the surface of the soil or to the side of, and below, the seed. This can be done either by hand
or by special planting and/or fertilizer drilling equipment. It is preferably used for row crops, which have

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relatively large space between rows (maize, cotton and sugar cane); or on soils with tendency to
phosphate and potassium fixation; or where relatively small amounts of fertilizer are used on soils with a
low fertility level.
Where crops are cultivated by hand and planted in hills, the recommended number of grams of fertilizer
are placed in the row or planting hole (preferably measured out in an appropriate tin or pot ), under, or
beside the seed, and covered with soil. Great care has to be taken that no fertilizer is placed either too
close to the seed or to the germinating plant to avoid toxicity, i.e. salt damage to the seedling (burning of
the roots).
C/ Top- dressing
Top- dressing (broadcasting the fertilizer on a standing crop) is mainly used for small and large grain
crops and for crops such as forage. Top-dressing is normal practice where there is a need for additional
nitrogen on soils and with crops where a single application of the total nitrogen amount needed at
sowing might lead to losses through leaching, or where crops show a special need for nitrogen at certain
stages of growth. The mobile nitrate moves downwards in the soil and can be taken up there by the plant
roots.
Top dressing potassium, which does not move in the soil to the same extent as nitrogen, might be
recommended on light soils, i.e. applying the total amount divided into a basal dressing and top dressing.
Phosphate hardly moves in the soil at all. Hence it is usually applied before or sowing or planting time
(basal application), preferably in combination with potassium and part of the nitrogen. The remaining
nitrogen should then be applied as a top dressing in one or more split application.
D/ Side- dressing-
Applying fertilizer as side dressing is the practice of putting it to the side of widely spaced plants grown
in rows such as maize, cotton and sugar cane. Trees or other perennial crops also are normally side
dressed.
E/ Foliar application-
Foliar application is the best method of supplying micronutrients (but under a stress situation for the
crop also N or NPK) which are needed only in small quantities and may become unavailable if applied
to the soil. To minimize the risk of leaf scorch, the recommended concentration has to be respected and
spraying should preferably be done on cloudy days and in the early morning or late afternoon (to avoid

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an immediate drying of the droplet).
F/ Fertigation
Fertigation is the application of fertilizer, primarly N, K and S, in irrigation water. The advantage of
fertigation includes correction of in-season nutrient deficiencies; application of nutrients, especially N,
in synchrony with crop N demand; and the reduction of soil-applied field operations. P fertigation is less
common because of potential precipitation of P in high calcium and magnesium waters.
Calculation of fertilizer rates
The amount of fertilizer to be applied per hectare or on a given field is determined through the amount
of nutrients needed and the type and grades of fertilizers available. Usually mineral fertilizers are
delivered in 50-kg bags. Therefore, the farmer has to know the quantity of nutrients contained in a 50-kg
bag. The easiest way to calculate the weight of nutrients in a 50-kg bag is to divide the number printed
on the bag by 2.
Steps to follow
Register the recommended rate of fertilizer
First calculate the amount of phosphorus to be applied from DAP to satisfy the recommendation
Then calculate the amount of nitrogen that can be applied when calculating for phosphorus
Finally, by subtracting N calculated from the recommended N rate, try to know N required from urea
E.g. A farmer was advised to apply fertilizer on his one-hectare wheat farm at the recommended rate of
128-92-0. Calculate the amount of Dap and Urea fertilizer that can be applied?
Solution
- recommended rate 128-92-0
- Calculating for p
100 kg DAP contains 46 Kg P2O5 X= 100*92/46
X kg DAP contains 92 kg P2O5 X= 200 kg DAP

- N applied when calculating for P2O5

100 kg DAP contains 18 kg N X= 200*18/100
200 kg DAP contains X kg N X= 36 kg N

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- N to be applied from Urea = 128-36= 92 kg N
100 kg Urea contains 46 kg N X= 100*92/46
X kg Urea contains 92 kg N X= 200 kg Urea

A farmer has to apply 200 kg Dap and 200 kg urea per hectare.
Calculation of fertilizer rates per plots
If you wish to apply straight fertilizers to the demonstration plot, you calculate the quantities for the
different treatments according to the formula.
Amount of fertilizer needed per plot= Nutrient rate * plot area in m2
%age nutrient in fertilizer *100
e.g. Recommended rate- 30 kg N/ha
Available fertilizer- Urea (46%N)
Plot area 50 m2
Calculate the amount of urea needed per plot
Solution
Amount of fertilizer needed per plot= Nutrient rate * plot area in m2
%age nutrient in fertilizer *100

= 30*50 = 0.33 kg urea needed per plot

46*100
Acidity or basicity of fertilizers
Most fertilizers are used on acid soils, so the possibility that fertilizers might aggravate soil acidity is of
great concern. Soils too highly acids can have toxic levels of aluminum and manganese and greatly
reduce microbial activity. All potassium fertilizers are neutral except potassium nitrate, which is
residually slightly base forming. Super phosphate and triple superphosphate are neutral, but both mono
ammonium phosphate and di ammonium phosphate are acid forming. Of the nitrogen fertilizers, most
are acid forming, except calcium nitrate, sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate, which are base forming.
Acidity is developed by microbial oxidation of ammonium cations to nitrate anions:
2NH4+ + 4O2 Bacteria 2NO3- + 4H+ + 2H2O

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(Ammonium) (Nitrate) (Acid) (Water)

Fertilizer use efficiency

The percentage of the added fertilizer that is actually used by plants is the measure of fertilizer use
efficiency. Although use by the crop of the initial addition may be 30-70% of added nitrogen, 10-30% of
added phosphorus, and 50-80% of the added potassium, the efficiency of split application of fertilizers is
dependent upon many things. The plant root system, the fertilizer water interaction, and the fertilizer
management techniques are factors that determine fertilizer efficiency.
Fertilizing for maximum yields seldom produces maximum profits. At the highest fertilization rates, the
additional cost of another increment of fertilizer is more than the profit from the increase plant yield.
Generally to evaluate the profitability of the applied fertilizer it is possible to calculate a value/cost ratio
Value of yield increase (in terms of money)
Value/cost ratio /VCR/= Fertilizer cost (in terms of money)

A value/ cost ratio of more than 1 indicates that the fertilizer has been profitable. A VCR of 2 indicates a
return of 100 percent. However, the value/cost ratio should be higher than 2 to secure a profitable return
to the farmer.
Problems of inorganic fertilizers

1. Water pollution

The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human
health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.

2. Soil acidification

Regular uses of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils
which progressively increases aluminum toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers has contributed
to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminum toxicity, which can only be countered by
applications of limestone or preferably magnesia dolomite, which neutralizes acid soil pH and also
provides essential magnesium.

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3. Impacts on microorganisms

High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the symbiotic relationships between plant roots
and microorganisms.

4. Lack of long-term sustainability

Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by
definition as the resources used in their production are non-renewable. Potassium and phosphorus come
from mines (or saline lakes such as the Dead Sea) and such resources are limited. However, more
effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of
crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the
critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming
over 78% of the atmospheric gases), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen
accessible to plants requires nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible
form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using fossil fuels such as natural gas and coal,
which are limited resources.

Major limitations of organic and inorganic fertilizers

Organic fertilizers
 Extra investment in labor for harvesting (green manures) and preparation (cattle manure)
 Unavailability of seed for green manures is one of the major limitations
 Green manures must occupy land at a time when other food crops could be grown.
Mineral/ inorganic fertilizers
 Require high purchasing power
 Availability is an obstacle, especially in remote areas
 Need to be applied seasonally
Dolomite (Ca, Mg) (CO3)2 slightly soluble materials in limestone or dolomite rock common in arid
region soils, calcium & magnesium sources.
Gypsum (Ca SO4. 2H2O) a soft, moderately soluble mineral found in arid region soils.

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CHAPTER SIX
6.0. MANAGING PROBLEMATIC SOILS
6.1. Agricultural potentials of problematic soils
Fertile soils teem with life. Porous loamy soils are the richest of all, laced with organic matter which
retains water and provides the nutrients needed by crops. Only 11 percent of the earth's soils have no
inherent limitations for agriculture. The rest are too wet, too dry, too shallow, chemically unsuitable or
permanently frozen.

When fertilizer levels correspond to the needs of specific soils and crops and the structure of soil is
conserved, yields can be sustained indefinitely. Overuse or under-use of fertilizer can lead to crop
failures. Over-application can also cause pollution: excess nutrients leach out of the soil into
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groundwater, streams, rivers and lakes, making their water unfit for consumption or boosting the growth
of algae, which can suffocate entire aquatic ecosystems. The production of food depends on healthy
agricultural systems. These in turn depend on healthy soils. Large areas of most countries are having
Vertisoils. These soils are inherently fertile but have poor drainage and workability problems.
Minimizing these constraints would enhance soil productivity

Generally, problematic soils can be productive by applying different soil management practices.
6.2. Management of waterlogged soils
When a soil contains more water than its normal requirements and there is no provision to drain out this
excess water, aeration of soil is badly disturbed. In the absence of oxygen, aerobic microorganisms do
not function properly. Further, harmful microorganisms which are often anaerobic become active and
form certain harmful acids in the soil. In waterlogged soils, plant nutrients are also lost through leaching
and as a result plant growth is very poor or sometimes plants fail to grow. These soils become infertile.

6.3. Acid soils management

Soils become acidic when considerable portions of the exchangeable cations are hydrogen, and various
forms of hydrated aluminum. (if pH is below 7 ).
Although some acidic soils develop from acidic parent material, most develop from all regions where
precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable quantities of exchangeable base-forming cations (Ca2+,
K+, and Na+) from the surface layer of soils. More briefly, as water containing hydrogen cations form
various weak acids (such as carbonic and organic acids) moves through the soil, some of the hydrogen
cations replace adsorbed base- forming exchangeable cations, then water carries the removed cations
deep in to the soil profile or in to the ground water. This process is known as leaching.
Causes and sources of soil acidity
 Hydrolyzed Aluminum
Under very acid soil condition (pH less than 5) much aluminum becomes soluble and these aluminum
ions in the soil solution contribute to the soil acidity through their tendency to hydrolyze.
Al3+ + H2O  Al(OH)3+ + H
The H+ ions thus released lower the pH of the soil solution and are the major source of hydrogen in most

57
very acid soils.
 Carbon dioxide from decomposing organic matter dissolves in water to form weak carbonic acid.
These acidified waters percolate through the soil to gradually cause soil acidity.
CO2 + H2O  H2 CO3  HCO3- +H+
 Ammonium – containing fertilizers are oxidized by bacteria to form nitrate and hydrogen ions. For
each NH4+ cation oxidized two H+ results.
bacteria
NH4 + 2O2 → NO3- + H2O + 2H+

 Sulfur, an ingredient in some fungicides and fertilizers, oxidizes to sulfate and hydrogen ions. Note
that the sulfate ion itself is not acidic.
Thiobcilus

2S + 302 + 2H2O → 2S04- - + 4H+

Bacteria

 Acid rains falls when air – borne sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, whose original sources of these
polluting oxides are the burning of fossil fuels are converted to sulfuric acid and nitric acid through
oxidation and dissolved in rain drops. Rain water made acidic by these strong acids may have a pH as
low as 2.
 Crop removal makes the soil more acidic by depleting the reserve of calcium, magnesium and
potassium.

 Anthropogenic Inputs
 Industrial effluents (S,H2S,Cl,N oxide gases)
 Nitrogenous fertilizer
 Excessive application of manures and organic wastes
Classification of soil acidity
1. Active Acidity: The active acidity is a measure of the H+ ion activity in the soil solution at any given
time. The quantity of H+ ion owing to active acidity is very small compared to the quantity in the
exchange and residual acidity forms.

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2. Exchangeable /salt replaceable/acidity
This type of acidity is primarily associated with the exchangeable aluminum and hydrogen ions that are
present in largest quantities in very acid soils. These ions can be released in to the soil solution by a
buffered salt such as KCl.

K+
Al 3+ + 4KCl + AlCl3 + HCl

3. Residual acidity
Residual acidity is that which remains in the soil after active and exchangeable acidity has been
neutralized. Residual acidity is generally associated with aluminum hydrogen ions and with hydrogen
and aluminum atoms that are bound in non exchangeable forms by organic matter & silicate clays.
Influence of soil acidity on plant growth
The soil pH greatly affects the solubility of minerals. Strongly acid soils (P H 4-5) usually have high toxic
concentrations of soluble aluminum and manganese, which have a direct effect on retarded root growth,
lower availability of the nutrient element phosphorus, reduced activity of some micro-organisms
cultivated crops vary in their tolerance to soil acidity. Tea, pineapple and several conifer timber species
tolerate strong soil acidity and grow well. In contrast alfalfa, beans, barely and sugar beets only do well
in slightly acid to moderately basic soils.
Over coming soil acidity problems
 Growing acid tolerant crops- Selecting and growing species and varieties adaptable to acidic soil
conditions is one of the solutions to overcome the soil acidity problems.
 Application of lime
Soil acidity is commonly decreased by adding carbonates, oxides or hydroxides of calcium and
magnesium compounds that are referred to as agricultural limes.
Ground limestone is the most common and is by far the most widely used of all liming materials. The
two important minerals included in limestone are calcite, which is mostly calcium carbonate /CaCO3/,
and dolomite, which is primarily calcium magnesium carbonate Ca Mg (CO3)2.
How much lime needed to neutralize soil acidity
The amount of liming material required to bring about a desired pH change is determined by several

59
factors, including:
 The change in pH required
 The chemical composition of the liming material used
 The fineness of the liming materials.
Due to the above mentioned factors, it is difficult to have one common application rate to different soil
type with different physical & chemical properties and mostly it varies from 1 ton/ha to 15 ton/ha and
more. This makes liming a very expensive and laborious work.
6.4. Management of salt affects soils
Salt accumulate in some surface soils of arid & semiarid regions because there is insufficient rainfall to
flash them from the upper soil layers. The salts are primarily chlorides and sulfates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium. The source of these salts are the weathering of rocks and minerals,
ground waters, and irrigation once deposited or released in the soil, the salts are brought to or near the
surface by up-ward moving water, which then evaporates, leaving the salts behind.
Measuring Salinity and Alkalinity
Research has shown that the detrimental effects on plants stem not only from the high salt contents but
also from the level of sodium in the soil, especially in relation to levels of calcium and magnesium. High
exchangeable sodium levels are detrimental both physically and chemically. This situation has led to the
development of the following techniques to measure three primary soil properties that, along with soil
pH, can be used to characterize salt affected soils.
Salinity First, the salt concentration of the soil is estimated by methods based on the ability of the salt
in the solution to conduct electricity. Laboratory measurements of the electrical conductivity (EC) of the
soil solution extracted from a saturated sample of soil give an indication of the salt levels.
Sodium Status. Two means are used to characterize the sodium status of these soils. The exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) identifies the degree to which the exchange complex is saturated with sodium.
ESP = Exchangeable sodium (cmol /kg)
Cation exchange capacity (cmol /kg)
The ESP is complemented by a second more easily measured characteristic the sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR) which gives information on the comparative concentration of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ in soil
solutions and calculated as follows.

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SAR= [ Na+ ]
√½ ([Ca2+] + [Mg2+])

Where [Na+], [Ca2+] + [Mg 2+

] are the concentrations (in cmol/kg) of the sodium, calcium and
magnesium ions in the soil solution.
SAR of a soil extract takes in to account that the adverse effect of sodium is moderated by the presence
of calcium and magnesium ions.
Using EC, ESP, and SAR characteristics and soil pH, salt affected soils are classified as saline, saline
sodic, and sodic.
Saline Soils
Saline soils contain a concentration of neutral soluble salts sufficient to interfere seriously with the
growth of most plants. The electrical conductivity (EC) of a saturated extract of the soil solution is more
than 4 decisimens per meter (ds/m). The exchangeable sodium percentage is less than about 15, and the
pH usually is less than 8.5 because the salts are neutral, the chlorides and sulfates of the base forming
cations dominating. These soils can be reclaimed by merely leaching out the salts, an important
consideration in their management of course the leaching water must have a low SAR to prevent an
increase in sodium adsorption, and intern, in soil pH.
Saline-Sodic Soils.
The saline – sodic soils contain appreciable quantities of neutral soluble salts and enough sodium ions to
seriously affect most plants. The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is greater than about 15, and
the electrical conductivity (EC) of a saturated extract is more than 4 ds/m . The pH is commonly 8.5 or
less because of the presence of neutral salts. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is at least 13 in these
soils.
Leaching of saline-sodic soils, unlike the result with saline soils, will markedly raise the pH, unless
calcium or magnesium salt concentrations are high in the soil or in the irrigation water. Increase of the
pH occurs because once the neutral soluble salts are removed; the exchangeable sodium readily
hydrolyzes and there by sharply increases the OH- ion concentration of the soil solution, as follows.
Na+ + H2O  H+ + Na+ + OH-

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In the presence of Na - containing neutral salts, this reaction is driven back to the left, OH- ion
concentration in the soil solutions is reduced, and the pH is prevented from rising above about 8. If the
neutral salts are removed, the pH rises above 8.5 and the mineral colloids become dispersed, resulting in
a tight, impervious soil structure. At the same time, sodium toxicity to plants increased.
Sodic Soils
Sodic soils do not contain any great amount of soluble salts. The detrimental effect of these soils on
plants is due not only to the toxicity of Na+ + HCO3-, and OH- ions but also to reduced water infiltration
and aeration. The high is largely is due to the hydrolysis of sodium carbonate.
2Na+ + CO32- + H2O  2Na+ + HCO3- + OH-
The sodium complex also undergoes hydrolysis.
Na+ + H2O  H+ + Na+ + OH-
The exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of sodic soils is more than 15 and the SAR is more than 13.
The adsorbed sodium is free to hydrolyze because the concentration of neutral soluble salts is rather law.
The pH is always above 8.5, often rising to 10 or higher. The electrical conductivity of a saturated
extract is less than 4 ds/m.
Table 6: Properties of Normal soils compared to Acid, Saline, Saline-sodic & Sodic
Soil Common pH EC ds/m SAR
Normal 6.5-7.2 <4 <13-15
Acid <6.5 <4 <13-15
Saline <8.5 >4 <13-15
Saline-Sodic <8.5 >4 >13-15
Sodic >8.5 <4 >13-15

Growth of Plants on Saline and Sodic Soils

In saline and saline sodic soils, when the soil solution containing a relatively large amount of dissolved
salts is brought in to contact with a plant cell, water will pass by osmosis from the cell in to the more
concentrated soil solution. The cell then collapses.
Sodic soils, dominated by active sodium, exert a detrimental effect on plants in four ways.
 Caustic influence of the high pH induced by the sodium carbonate and bicarbonate.
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 Toxicity of the bicarbonate and other anions.
 The adverse effects of the active sodium ions on plant metabolism and nutrition and low
micronutrient availability due to high pH
 Oxygen deficiency due to breakdown of soil structure in sodium dominated soils.
Tolerance of Higher Plants to Saline and Sodic soils.
The capacity of higher plants to grow satisfactorily on salty soils depends on a number of interrelated
factors, of the plant, its stage of growth, and it‘s rooting habits.
Old alfalfa is more tolerant of salt affected soils than young alfalfa, and that deep-rooted legumes show a
greater resistance to such soils than the shallow rooted ones.

Table 7: Relative tolerance of certain plants to salty soils

Tolerant Moderately tolerant Moderately Sensitive
sensitive
Cotton Fig Alfalfa Apple
Sugar beet Oats cabbage Bean
Bermuda grass Sorghum Corn Carrot
Wild rye Sudan grass Cow pea Lemon
Lettuce Onion
Pea Orange

Managing salted soils

It is not always possible or practical to eliminate all salts from soil, but managing the soil to minimize
salt damage is necessary part of using salted soils. Although in sodic soils some of the exchangeable
sodium must be removed, with slightly saline soils, the control of water, the proper techniques of
planting, and the choice of tolerant crops are essential for their successful use in crop production.
Water control. Maintaining high water content in the soil dilutes salts and lessens their toxic and
osmotic effects. If soil is irrigated lightly but frequently to keep it at high moisture content during the
salt sensitive germination and seedling stage, plants are able to survive to the normally more tolerant
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mature stage of growth.
Planting position Salts move with water, and some will accumulate in the surface soil or furrow ridge
as water with its salt moves upward and evaporates. By designing appropriate furrow cross sections and
planting positions it is possible to avoid damage from the salt accumulation.
Choice of crops The choice of crops is based upon
 The tolerance to salt
 Adaptability to the climate or soil characteristics
 Value of the crop in the individual farm activity
The chance of crop failure or loss is less if an adequately salt tolerant crop is selected.

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