Ilko V.

Korunets´

THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF TRANSLATION

1
ÓÄÊ 802.0 (075)
ÁÁÊ 81.432.1-7
Ê 68

Ðåäàêòîð: Î.². Òåðåõ

Êîðóíåöü ². Â.
Ê 68 Òåîð³ÿ ³ ïðàêòèêà ïåðåêëàäó (àñïåêòíèé ïåðåêëàä):
ϳäðó÷íèê. – ³ííèöÿ. «Íîâà Êíèãà», 2003 – 448 ñ.
ISBN 966-95804-0-4

Ó ïðîïîíîâàíîìó ï³äðó÷íèêó âèñâ³òëþºòüñÿ øèðîêå êîëî ïè-

òàíü òåî𳿠òà ïðàêòèêè â³äòâîðåííÿ ìîâíèõ îäèíèöü ³ ÿâèù ëåêñèêîëî-
ã³÷íîãî ³ ãðàìàòè÷íîãî àñïåêò³â àíãë³éñüêî¿ é óêðà¿íñüêî¿ ìîâ. Ó òåîðå-
òè÷í³é ÷àñòèí³ äîõ³äëèâî àíãë³éñüêîþ ìîâîþ âèêëàäàþòüñÿ êîðîòê³ â³äî-
ìîñò³ ïðî ³ñíóþ÷³ òèïè ³ âèäè ïåðåêëàäó, ïðî ³ñòîð³þ ðîçâèòêó ïðèí-
öèï³â ïåðåêëàäó â Çàõ³äí³é ªâðîï³ òà â Óêðà¿í³ âïðîäîâæ îñòàííüîãî
òèñÿ÷îë³òòÿ. Ïðîòå îñíîâíà ÷àñòèíà ï³äðó÷íèêà â³äâåäåíà ñïîñîáàì
â³äòâîðåííÿ ëåêñèêîëîã³÷íèõ òà ãðàìàòè÷íèõ òðóäíîù³â àíãë³éñüêî¿
ìîâè óêðà¿íñüêîþ ³ íàâïàêè. Çîêðåìà: â³ðíîìó/àäåêâàòíîìó â³äòâî-
ðåííþ ð³çíèõ òèï³â âëàñíèõ íàçâ ëþäåé, ãåîãðàô³÷íèõ íàçâ ³ íàçâ
óñòàíîâ, êîìïàí³é, îðãàí³çàö³é, íàçâ ãàçåò, æóðíàë³â òîùî. ϳäðó÷íèê
ì³ñòèòü áàãàòî ð³çíîìàí³òíèõ âïðàâ íà çàêð³ïëåííÿ òåîðåòè÷íîãî ìà-
òåð³àëó.
ÁÁÊ 81.432.1-7

ISBN 966-95804-0-4 © ². Â. Êîðóíåöü, 2003

© ³ííèöÿ, «Íîâà Êíèãà», 2003
². Â. Êîðóíåöü

ÒÅÎÐ²ß ² ÏÐÀÊÒÈÊÀ
ÏÅÐÅÊËÀÄÓ
(ÀÑÏÅÊÒÍÈÉ ÏÅÐÅÊËÀÄ)
ϲÄÐÓ×ÍÈÊ
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ïåðåäìîâà .................................................................................... 8
I. Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of
Translation ................................................................................. 10
Translation as a Notion and Subject ............................................ 10
Significance of Translating/Interpreting ......................................... 13
Translation in Teaching of Foreign Languages .............................. 15
Ways of Translating ..................................................................... 17
Machine Translation ..................................................................... 26
Kinds of Translating/Interpreting ................................................... 28
Suggested Topics for Self-Control and Class Discussion ............. 32
II. A Short Historical Outline of European and
Ukrainian Translation ................................................................ 34
Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages .................. 38
Translation during the Renaissance Period .................................. 41
Translation during the Period of Classicism and
Enlightenment .............................................................................. 42
The Epoch of Romanticism and Establishment of the
Principles of Faithful Translation in Europe .................................. 44
Translation in Kyivan Rus’ during the 10th – 13th Centuries
and in Ukraine during the 14th – 16th Centuries .......................... 47
The Kyiv Mohyla Academy and Revival of Translation
Activities in Ukraine ..................................................................... 52
Kotlyarevskyi’s Free Adaptation of Virgil’s Aeneid and the
Beginning of a New Era in Ukrainian Translation .......................... 54
Translation and Translators during the Late
19th – Early 20th Centuries ......................................................... 57
Translation during the Years of Ukraine’s Independence
(1917-1921) and Soviet Rule ........................................................ 63
Translation and Translators in Post-War Ukraine. The
Development of the Principles of Faithful Translation .................... 72
Translation in Ukraine during the Last Decade of the 20th
Century and the Role of the Vsesvit Journal ................................. 86
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ............. 89

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III. Lexicological Aspects of Translation ................................... 91
Methods and Ways of Translating Various Proper Names ........... 92
Conveying the Names of Companies, Corporations, Firms ......... 104
Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing .................... 113
Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation .................... 126
Units of International Lexicon and Ways of Rendering
Their Meaning and Lingual Form ................................................ 128
Ways of Conveying the Lexical Meaning of Genuine
Internationalisms ........................................................................ 135
Translating of Loan Internationalisms ......................................... 140
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ........... 141
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 142
Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation .................... 146
News Items for Class Translation at Sight (in Viva Voce) ........... 148
Units of Nationally Biased Lexicon and Ways of
Their Translation ........................................................................ 151
Ways of Rendering the Meaning of Nationally
Biased Units of Lexicon ............................................................. 157
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 169
Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation .................... 177
Translating of Idiomatic/Phraseological and Stable
Expressions ............................................................................... 182
Transformations of Some Idioms in the Process of
Translating ................................................................................. 196
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ........... 198
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 198
IV. Lexico-Grammatical Aspects of Translation ..................... 208
Rendering of the Contextual Meanings of the Definite and
Indefinite Articles ....................................................................... 208
Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Definite Article ......... 210
Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Indefinite Article ....... 215
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ........... 221
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 221
Asyndetic Noun Clusters and Rendering Their
Meaning into Ukrainian ............................................................... 225
Approaches to Translating Asyndetic Substantival Clusters ....... 226

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Translation of Two-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters ..................................................................................... 227
Translation of Three-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters ..................................................................................... 232
Translation of Four-Componental Asyndetic Substantival
Clusters ..................................................................................... 237
Translation of Five-, Six- and Seven-Componental Asyndetic
Substantival Clusters ................................................................. 240
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ........... 243
Exercises for Class and Home Translation ................................ 244
Translating of English Verbals and Verbal
Constructions/Complexes .......................................................... 252
Ways of Rendering the Lexico-Grammatical Meanings
and Function of the English Infinitive .......................................... 253
Ways of Translating Infinitival Complexes .................................. 256
Ways of Translating the Objective with the Infinitive
Constructions/Predicative Complexes ........................................ 259
Ways of Rendering the Meaning of the Subjective with the
Infinitive Constructions ............................................................... 263
Ways of Translating the Participles and Participial
Constructions ............................................................................ 269
Ways of Translating Participial Constructions/Complexes ......... 273
A. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes .......................................................... 274
B. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes .......................................................... 276
C. Ways of Translating the Nominative Absolute Participial
Constructions/Complexes .......................................................... 280
D. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative
Absolute Participial Constructions ............................................. 283
Structural Types of Ukrainian Language Units Conveying the
Meanings of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions ... 285
Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes .................. 295
Ways of Translating Gerundial Complexes/Constructions .......... 299
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ............................. 302
Ways and Means of Expressing Modality in English and
Ukrainian ................................................................................... 308
The Lexico-Grammatical Expression of Modality
through Modal Verbs .................................................................. 310

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English Modal Verbs Having not Always Modal Verbs
Equivalents in Ukrainian ............................................................. 334
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ............................. 343
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 343
Transformations in the Process of Translation ........................... 361
Grammatically and Stylistically Prearranged
Transformations ......................................................................... 367
Stylistically/Subjectively Predetermined Transformations .......... 369
Ways of Conveying the Passive Voice Constructions ................ 370
Objectively Required and Subjectively Introduced/Contextual
Transformations of Language Units ............................................ 376
Objectively and Subjectively Conditioned Transformations
of Lexical Units in the Process of Translation ............................ 382
Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ............................. 387
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 387
V. Semantic Aspects of Translation ........................................ 391
Language Units and Levels of Their Faithful Translation ............. 391
Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic
Language Units .......................................................................... 394
Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at
Passage/Text Level .................................................................... 398
Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of
Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt .............................. 405
Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion ........... 419
Exercises for Class and Homework ........................................... 420
Publicistic and Newspaper Style Texts and Ways of
Their Translation ........................................................................ 423
New Items for Class and Home Written or Oral Translation ....... 436
A List of Literature Used and Recommended ............................. 444

7
ÏÅÐÅÄÌÎÂÀ
ϳäðó÷íèê «Òåîð³ÿ ³ ïðàêòèêà ïåðåêëàäó» ðîçðàõîâàíèé íà
ñòóäåíò³â ïåðåêëàäàöüêèõ â³ää³ëåíü óí³âåðñèòåò³â òà ³íñòèòóò³â.
Îäíàê ïîàñïåêòíèé âèêëàä íàâ÷àëüíîãî ìàòåð³àëó òà ñèñòåìà ð³ç-
íîìàí³òíèõ âïðàâ äëÿ éîãî âèâ÷åííÿ é ³íòåíñèâíîãî çàêð³ïëåííÿ
äîçâîëÿº åôåêòèâíî âèêîðèñòîâóâàòè ï³äðó÷íèê â óñ³õ ãóìàí³òàð-
íèõ ³ òåõí³÷íèõ âóçàõ, äå âèêëàäàºòüñÿ ïåðåêëàä, à òàêîæ ó êî-
ëåäæàõ ³ ã³ìíàç³ÿõ òà â ñòàðøèõ êëàñàõ çàãàëüíîîñâ³òí³õ øê³ë. Ñòàíå
â³í ó ïðèãîä³ ³ âñ³ì áàæàþ÷èì ñàìîñò³éíî îïàíîâóâàòè ë³íãâ³ñòè÷-
í³ îñíîâè ïèñüìîâîãî òà óñíîãî ïåðåêëàäó ç àíãë³éñüêî¿ ìîâè íà
óêðà¿íñüêó òà íàâïàêè. Öüîìó ñïðèÿòèìå ³ ðîçïîä³ë òà âèêëàä íà-
â÷àëüíîãî ìàòåð³àëó, à òàêîæ ïðîïîíîâàí³ ñïîñîáè ïîäîëàííÿ áà-
ãàòüîõ ëåêñèêîëîã³÷íèõ, ëåêñèêî-ãðàìàòè÷íèõ, ñåìàíòè÷íèõ ³ ñèí-
òàêñè÷íèõ/ñòðóêòóðíèõ òðóäíîù³â ïåðåêëàäó ð³çíèõ ìîâíèõ îäè-
íèöü.
Ó ïåðøîìó ðîçä³ë³ ðîçãëÿäàþòüñÿ çàãàëüíîòåîðåòè÷í³ é ïî-
÷àñòè ìåòîäîëîã³÷í³ ïèòàííÿ ïåðåêëàäó, çîêðåìà ðîëü ³ çíà÷åííÿ
ïåðåêëàäó äëÿ çä³éñíåííÿ áàãàòîñòîðîíí³õ çâ’ÿçê³â íà ð³çíèõ ð³âíÿõ
ðîçïîâñþäæåííÿ ³äåé, ïðè îáì³í³ ³íôîðìàö³ºþ òà çáàãà÷åíí³ íà-
ö³îíàëüíèõ ìîâ, ë³òåðàòóð ³ êóëüòóð, ïðè íàâ÷àíí³ òà âèâ÷åíí³ ³íî-
çåìíèõ ìîâ òîùî.  öüîìó ðîçä³ë³ ïîÿñíþþòüñÿ òàêîæ äåÿê³ ïå-
ðåêëàäàöüê³ òåðì³íè é ïîíÿòòÿ.
Ó äðóãîìó ðîçä³ë³ ïîäàºòüñÿ êîðîòêà ³ñòîð³ÿ ðîçâèòêó ºâðî-
ïåéñüêîãî ³ çîêðåìà óêðà¿íñüêîãî ïåðåêëàäó â³ä äàâíèíè äî ñó-
÷àñíîñò³, ùî ìîæå çàö³êàâèòè íå ò³ëüêè ³ñòîðèê³â.
Çàñîáè â³ðíîãî/àäåêâàòíîãî ïåðåêëàäó ð³çíèõ ìîâíèõ îäè-
íèöü, ïîíÿòü ³ ÿâèù àíãë³éñüêî¿ ìîâè óêðà¿íñüêîþ ³ ïî÷àñòè óêðà-
¿íñüêî¿ àíãë³éñüêîþ ðîçãëÿäàþòüñÿ â ïîäàëüøèõ ðîçä³ëàõ ï³äðó÷-
íèêà. Òàê, ó òðåòüîìó ðîçä³ë³ îá´ðóíòîâóþòüñÿ ïðàâèëà â³äòâîðåí-
íÿ/ïåðåêëàäó ð³çíèõ íàçâ, çîêðåìà é ãåîãðàô³÷íèõ, ³íòåðíàö³îíà-
ë³çì³â, ðåàë³é ñóñï³ëüíî-ïîë³òè÷íîãî æèòòÿ, óñòàëåíèõ òà ³ä³îìà-
òè÷íèõ âèðàç³â àíãë³éñüêî¿ é óêðà¿íñüêî¿ ìîâ.
Ëåêñèêî-ãðàìàòè÷í³ ïèòàííÿ ïåðåêëàäó º îá’ºêòîì ðîçãëÿäó
â ÷åòâåðòîìó ðîçä³ë³, äå ïðîñë³äêîâóþòüñÿ çàñîáè âèðàæåííÿ é
â³äòâîðåííÿ ìîæëèâèõ êîíòåêñòóàëüíèõ çíà÷åíü îçíà÷åíîãî é íå-
îçíà÷åíîãî àðòèêë³â, îá’ºêòèâíî¿ (ãðàìàòè÷íî¿) òà ñóá’ºêòèâíî¿ ìî-
äàëüíîñò³, àíãë³éñüêèõ àñèíäåòè÷íèõ ³ìåííèêîâèõ ñëîâîñïîëó÷åíü
³ êîíñòðóêö³é/êîìïëåêñ³â ç â³ä䳺ñë³âíèìè ôîðìàìè, à òàêîæ ð³çí³
âèäè ïåðåêëàäàöüêèõ òðàíñôîðìàö³é.

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Ñåìàíòè÷í³ é ïî÷àñòè ñòèëüîâ³ àñïåêòè ïåðåêëàäó ïîäàþòü-
ñÿ â ï³äðó÷íèêîâ³ áåçïîñåðåäíüî ÷åðåç ïðàêòèêó ïèñüìîâîãî é
óñíîãî â³äòâîðåííÿ ñïåöèô³÷íèõ îñîáëèâîñòåé íà â³äïîâ³äíî ï³-
ä³áðàíèõ äëÿ ö³º¿ ìåòè òåêñòîâèõ âïðàâàõ ó ÷åòâåðòîìó ðîçä³ë³.
Îêðåì³ ç öèõ âïðàâ äîö³ëüíî âèêîðèñòîâóâàòè â³äïîâ³äíî äëÿ ïèñü-
ìîâîãî é óñíîãî ï³äñóìêîâîãî êîíòðîëþ çíàíü ³ âì³íü ñòóäåíò³â.
Ïðîòå ãîëîâíîþ ìåòîþ ââåäåííÿ òåìàòè÷íèõ òåêñòîâèõ âïðàâ º
íàâ÷èòè é ïåðåâ³ðèòè çàñâîºííÿ òåîðåòè÷íèõ çíàíü òà ¿õ ðåàë³çà-
ö³þ ÷åðåç íàâè÷êè ïèñüìîâîãî é óñíîãî ïåðåêëàäó ð³çíèõ òèï³â
òåêñòó (çîêðåìà é õóäîæíüîãî òà íàóêîâî-òåõí³÷íîãî). Ìàòåð³àëè
âïðàâ ìîæóòü áóòè âèêîðèñòàí³ ³ íà ëåêö³ÿõ ÷è ñåì³íàðñüêèõ çà-
íÿòòÿõ ÿê íàî÷íèé/³ëþñòðàòèâíèé ìàòåð³àë äî â³äïîâ³äíèõ òåîðå-
òè÷íèõ òåì àñïåêòíîãî ïåðåêëàäó òà äëÿ òðåíóâàíü ïèñüìîâîãî òà
óñíîãî ïåðåêëàäó ç àðêóøà.
Îñê³ëüêè òåîðåòè÷í³ ïîëîæåííÿ êîæíî¿ òåìè ðîçðàõîâàí³ íà
³íòåíñèâíå ¿õ âèâ÷åííÿ, çàêð³ïëåííÿ ³ ïðàêòè÷íå çàñòîñóâàííÿ, âñ³
ïðàâèëà ïåðåêëàäó â êîæíîìó ðîçä³ë³ ôîðìóëþþòüñÿ ëàêîí³÷íî
äîñòóïíîþ àíãë³éñüêîþ ìîâîþ òà ³ëþñòðóþòüñÿ äîñòàòíüîþ ê³ëü-
ê³ñòþ ïðèêëàä³â. Öå äຠâèêëàäà÷åâ³ çìîãó âèíîñèòè îêðåì³ òåìè
íà ñàìîñò³éíå îïðàöþâàííÿ ñòóäåíòàìè. Êîðèñíèì äëÿ ñâ³äîìîãî
çàñâîºííÿ íàéâàæëèâ³øèõ òåîðåòè÷íèõ ïîëîæåíü ìîæóòü áóòè ³í-
äèâ³äóàëüí³ ÷è ãðóïîâ³ çàâäàííÿ ñòóäåíòàì, ùîá âîíè ñàìîñò³éíî
â³äøóêàëè ³ëþñòðàòèâíèé ìàòåð³àë äî îêðåìèõ òåì ç â³äïîâ³äíèõ
àíãë³éñüêèõ ÷è óêðà¿íñüêèõ ïåðøîäæåðåë.
Âèêëàä ïåðåâàæíî¿ á³ëüøîñò³ òåîðåòè÷íèõ ïèòàíü ³ ïîëîæåíü
ó ï³äðó÷íèêîâ³ øèðîêî ³ëþñòðóºòüñÿ ð³çíèìè ñëîâíèêîâèìè ïðè-
êëàäàìè ³ ðå÷åííÿìè îðèã³íàëó òà ¿õíüîãî ïåðåêëàäó. Çâàæàþ÷è
íà çì³íè é óòî÷íåííÿ/ñèíîí³ì³÷í³ çàì³íè é ³í., âíåñåí³ â îêðåì³
óêðà¿íñüê³ é àíãë³éñüê³ ïåðåêëàäè ç ìåòîþ ïîâí³øî¿ ³ëþñòðàö³¿ ïåâ-
íèõ ìîâíèõ îäèíèöü/ÿâèù, ³ìåíà ïåðåêëàäà÷³â íå ñêð³çü íàâî-
äÿòüñÿ.
Àâòîð ³ç âäÿ÷í³ñòþ ïðèéìå âñ³ êðèòè÷í³ çàóâàæåííÿ òà ïðî-
ïîçèö³¿, ñïðÿìîâàí³ íà ïîë³ïøåííÿ â ïîäàëüøîìó ïðîïîíîâàíîãî
ï³äðó÷íèêà.

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I. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION AS A NOTION AND SUBJECT
Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its
common and most general meaning being mostly associated with the
action or process of rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a
source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text)
in the target language or with the result of the process/action of
rendering. In other words with the work performed by the translator
(cf. this is my translation). «Translation» is also used to denote the
subject taught or studied, the examination in the subject (cf. we have
translation in the time-table today; I have to pass translation
tomorrow). «Translation» may refer to the title of the manual/theoretical
work on the subject (cf. I bought Translation by Ivanenko). Besides,
the Romanization of proper nouns, geographical names, different
internationalisms, etc., when Latin letters are used to convey the
Ukrainian nouns, verbs, adverbs is «translation» too: Kè¿â Kyiv, Áðîâàðè
Brovary, Ëüâ³â Lviv, Á³ëà Öåðêâà Bila Tserkva, Ïîëòàâà Poltava,
Çãóð³âêà Zghurivka, Ìåäâèí Medvyn, algebra àëãåáðà, geographer
ãåîãðàô, computer êîìï’þòåð, opera îïåðà, telephone (v)
òåëåôîíóâàòè, mechanically ìåõàí³÷íî, ignore ³ãíîðóâàòè, historically
³ñòîðè÷íî. «Translated» in this way, i.e., transliterated with the help
of Cyrillic letters are many English and other foreign names and different
terms. Cf.: Archibald Cronin Àð÷³áàëüä Kpoí³í, Robert Frost Ðîáåðò
Ôðîñò, Ottawa Îòòàâà, Nick ͳê, Susan Ñþçàí, Helmut Kohl Ãåëüìóò
Êîëü, shilling øèë³í´, pizza ï³ööà, therapeutic òåðàïåâòè÷íèé, etc.
No less ambiguous is also the term «interpretation» which is
synonymous to «translation» and is used to denote the way or manner
of presenting the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its
aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other
qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). These may
be artistic, genre and stylistic peculiarities rendered by the translator
in his particular way, which is somewhat different from that of the
author’s. The thing is that «interpretation», unlike «translation», admits
some more freedom of the translator in his treatment (at least in certain
places or cases) of the matter under translation. Hence, the existence
of free versifications (ïåðåñï³âè) and free adaptation (ïåðåëèöþâàííÿ)

10
which are rightly treated as new creations (when they are of high
artistic value). To the latter belong the famous free interpretations of
Virgil’s Aeneid in Ukrainian by I. Kotlyarevskyi or I. Franko’s free
adaptation of the German work Reineke Fuchs under the Ukrainian
title «Ôàðáîâàíèé ëèñ», and many others both in our national literature
and in world literature. Practically «adapted» (thought in a peculiar
way and with the highest degree of faithfulness, i.e. interpreted
according to our national literary tradition), are also Shakespearean
masterpieces, Byronean writings and many other poetic and prose
works. Consequently, «interpretation» may denote apart from the oral
method of translation also a peculiar, pertained to a master of the pen
and characteristic of him, as well as the only way of presenting a
prose or poetic work in translation. («Interpretation» may also denote
the style of a peculiar translator and his way of presenting a particular
literary work).
Apart from the two mentioned above, there are some other terms
in the theory of translation which may seen ambiguous to the
inexperienced student. These usually common terms are: accurate
or exact (to what degree?) translation òî÷íèé ïåðåêëàä; faithful (or
realistic) translation, àäåêâàòíèé/â³ðíèé ïåðåêëàä; faithfulness of
translation/interpretation, àäåêâàòí³ñòü/â³ðí³ñòü ïåðåêëàäó/
òëóìà÷åííÿ; fidelity (or faithfulness) of translation/interpretation
â³ðí³ñòü, àäåêâàòí³ñòü ïåðåêëàäó; equivalent translation/interpretation
åêâ³âàëåíòíèé ïåðåêëàä; free interpretation â³ëüíèé ïåðåêëàä,
ïåðåëèöþâàííÿ; free adaptation â³ëüíèé ïåðåêëàä, ïåðåðîáêà; free
interpretation â³ëüíèé ïåðåñï³â, ïåðåëèöþâàííÿ; free/loose
translation â³ëüíèé ïåðåêëàä, ïåðåêàç; consecutive interpretation
ïîñë³äîâíèé ïåðåêëàä, óñíå òëóìà÷åííÿ; off-hand translation/
interpretation ïåðåêëàä/òëóìà÷åííÿ áåç ïîïåðåäíüî¿ ï³äãîòîâêè (ç
ãîëîñó ÷è ç àðêóøà); rehash â³ëüíà ïåðåðîáêà (âäàëà ÷è íåâäàëà)
òâîðó; sight translation/interpretation (translation at sight) ïåðåêëàä/
óñíå òëóìà÷åííÿ ç àðêóøà/òåêñòó; simultaneous translation/
interpretation ñèíõðîííèé ïåðåêëàä; rough translation ðîáî÷èé âàð³àíò
ïåðåêëàäó, ÷îðíîâèé ïåðåêëàä and some others.
Each of the above-mentioned terms may be understood and
interpreted differently. Thus, «free interpretation» may mean both «free
translation», «free adaptation» and sometimes even «loose
translation». Similarly with the terms and notions as «faithful translation»
and «equivalent translation» which are synonymous if not identical by
their general meaning thought not without some difference between

11
them. The term «faithful translation» (àäåêâàòíèé, â³ðíèé ïåðåêëàä)
is used to denote the highest level/degree of rendering the denotative
or connotative meanings of words, the sense of word-groups and
sentences, the content, the expressiveness, picturesqueness and the
pragmatic subtext/intention of passages or works of the source
language with the help of the available means of the target language.
The term «equivalent translation» ³s nowadays practically used in the
same meaning as «faithful translation» with one exception only: it
also includes the necessity of quantitative and qualitative representation
of all constitutive parts or elements of the source language units in
the target language. Consequently, a «faithful translation» very often
means the same as «equivalent translation» which can be best
illustrated on single words, word-groups or sentences as the following:
acre àêð, democracy äåìîêðàò³ÿ, work ïðàöÿ, professors and students
ïðîôåñîðè é ñòóäåíòè, to work hard âàæêî ïðàöþâàòè, take part
áðàòè ó÷àñòü, throw light ïðîëèâàòè ñâ³òëî, between Scilla and
Charybdis ì³æ Ñö³ëëîþ ³ Õàð³áäîþ, Ukraine celebrated her fifth
anniversary in August 1996 Óêðà¿íà ñâÿòêóâàëà ï’ÿòó ð³÷íèöþ ñâ
íåçàëåæíîñò³ â ñåðïí³ 1996 ðîêó.
Equivalent can also be considered the translation of the following
English sentence which maintains in Ukrainian its main constituent
parts, its content, expressiveness and picturesqueness: There was
Penelope flying after me like mad. (W.Collins) Çà ìíîþ ãíàëàñü, ìîâ
íàâ³æåíà, Ïåíåëîïà.
In regard to the afore-said, there can be no equivalence but only
faithfulness in the translation of such and the like English language
units as: complexion êîë³ð îáëè÷÷ÿ, to take measures âæèâàòè
çàõîä³â, little bird äîíîùèê («ñòóêà÷»), live in the street ð³äêî áóâàòè
âäîìà, one’s sands are running out (idiom) òîíêî ïðÿäå/éîìó íåäîâãî
ðÿñò òîïòàòè, same here (colloq.) öå æ ñàìå (òàê ñàìî) ³ â ìåíå (ç³
ìíîþ), òå/öå æ ñàìå ìîæó ñêàçàòè ³ ïðî ñåáå or: öå òàê ñàìî
ñòîñóºòüñÿ ³ ìåíå. In a large number of cases «translation» is
traditionally applied to various substitutions of the source language
constituents/images for the explicatory constituents and images of
the target language, which helps achieve the necessary faithfulness
in conveying their meaning. Cf.: penny-in-the slot ïðèëàä/ïðèñòð³é-
àâòîìàò äëÿ ðîçðàõóíê³â çà òîâàðè (òîðã³âëÿ); the land of golden
fleece Àâñòðàë³ÿ; red blood ìóæí³ñòü, â³äâàãà, õîðîáð³ñòü (êîãîñü);
let George do it ²âàí êèâຠíà Ïåòðà (îäèí ñïèõຠâ³äïîâ³äàëüí³ñòü
íà äðóãîãî); agonic (ãåîìåòð³ÿ) ùî íå óòâîðþº êóòà, etc. Therefore,
«faithfull» is not always «equivalent».

12
The term «translation» is used even to denote purely functional
substitutions which have absolutely nothing in common with any
expression/rendering of meaning of the source language sense units
in the target language. A graphic example of this kind of «translation»
can be the following passage: «There’s the tree in the middle… It
could bark... It says «Bough-wough»... «That’s why its branches
are called boughs». (L.Carrol, Alice in Wonderland). In Ukrainian: Îí
Ô³êóñ ñòî¿òü!.. Ìè òîìó é ïðîçâàëè éîãî Ô³-Êóñ, ùî â³í êóñàºòüñÿ. It
goes without saying that the lexical meaning of «tree» is not «Ô³êóñ»
and «Bough-wough» or «boughs» do not correlate with «êóñàòèñü»
which they were substituted for in this Ukrainian translation by
H.Bushyna.
Similarly «translated» i.e. functionally substituted are different
English and Ukrainian metaphorically used nouns, verbs and set
expressions as in the examples knight of the pencil æóðíàë³ñò/
êîðåñïîíäåíò, baby-snatcher ñòàðà æ³íêà, ùî îäðóæèëàñÿ ç
ìîëîäèì ÷îëîâ³êîì, the Square Mile Ëîíäîíñüêå ѳò³ (ô³íàíñîâèé
öåíòð Ëîíäîíà), the Square Mile of Vice (Ñîãî, ðàéîí í³÷íèõ ðîçâàã
ì³ñòà Ëîíäîíà), soft head íåäîóìêóâàòà ëþäèíà (äóðíèê), etc.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING
The importance of translating and interpreting in modern society
has long been recognized. Practically not a single contact at the
international level or even between any two foreign persons speaking
different languages can be established or maintained without the help
of translators or interpreters.
Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted
functioning of different international bodies (conferences, symposia,
congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies like the
E.E.C.(European Economic Council), the I.M.F. (International Monetary
Fund) or the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils,
assemblies, commissions, committees and sub-committees. These
can function smoothly only thanks to an army of translators and
interpreters representing different states and working in many different
national languages.
Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up
with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world
thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and technical
matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. The

13
latter comprise nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecological
environment, plastics, mining, chemistry, biology, medicine, machine
building, electronics, linguistics, etc. In the present days translation
of scientific and technical matter has become a most significant and
reliable source of obtaining all-round and up-to-date information on
the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries
of the world.
The social and political role of translation/interpretation has
probably been most strongly felt in the 20th century when it provided
the dissemination of political (doctrinal) ideas, of social and political
knowledge in various fields of sciences.
Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements
and enriching national languages, literatures and cultures (operas,
artistic films). The many translations of the prose, poetry and drama
works of the world’s famous authors into different national languages
provide a vivid illustration of this permanent process. Due to masterly
translations of the works by W.Shakespeare, W.Scott, G.G.Byron,
P.B.Shelley, C.Dickens, W.Thackeray, O.Wilde, W.S.Maugham,
A.Christie, H.W.Longfellow, Mark Twain, J.London, T.Dreiser, R.Frost,
E.Hemingway, F.C.Fitzgerald and many other authors their works have
become part and parcel of many national literatures. The works by
Ukrainian authors have also been translated into English and some
other languages, the process being increasingly intensified after
Ukraine’s gaining independence in 1991. Hitherto only the works of
Ukrainian classics had mainly been published in some foreign
languages. Among them are first of all T.Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesya
Ukrainka, M.Kotsyubynskyi, V.Stephanyk, V.Vynnychenko, I.
Bahryanyi, O.Honchar, O.Dovzhenko. Now the works of V.Symonenko,
L.Kostenko, I. Drach, Hryhir Tyutyunnyk, V.Stus and others are also
translated into various foreign languages and have become available
for many readers abroad.
Whatever the type of matter is translated (belles-lettres,
scientific or didactic, social or political, etc.) and irrespective of the
form in which it ³s performed (written or oral) the linguistic and social
or cultural significance of translation/interpretation remains always
unchanged. It promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of
expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing everyday
political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different
nations the lexicon of all languages constantly increases. Thousands
of words and phrases, which were unknown in national languages

14
before, become an integral part of their lexicon. Among them are units
like steppe, Cossack/Kozak, Verkhovna Rada, hryvnia, various
scientific/technical and other terms (ê³áåðíåòèêà, êîìï’þòåð, äèñêåòà,
àóäèò, áàðòåð, ìåíåäæìåíò, ñïîíñîð, ìîí³òîðèí´, åêîëîã³ÿ, etc.).
Consequently, translation/interpretation is a very effective means of
enriching the national and international lexicon of all languages. But,
as has been said, ³t is not only the word-stock (or rather the vocabulary)
of languages that is constantly enriched. And it is not only separate
words that are borrowed by national languages as a result of translating/
interpreting; a lot of expressions and regular sentence idioms have
come to national languages in this way as well. For example: the
first/second, third reading (Parliament) ïåðøå/äðóãå/òðåòº ÷èòàííÿ,
Olympic calmness îë³ìï³éñüêèé ñïîê³é, the Òån Commandments
äåñÿòü çàïîâ³äåé, to see a mot in one’s eye áà÷èòè ïîðîøèíêó â
÷óæîìó îö³, to take part áðàòè ó÷àñòü, time is money ÷àñ – ãðîø³,
black ingratitude ÷îðíà íåâäÿ÷í³ñòü, the Trojan horse òðîÿíñüêèé
ê³íü, Judah’s kiss ïîö³ëóíîê ²óäè, and many others.
Among the adopted sentence structures are, for instance, the
idioms God defend me from my friends; from my enemies ² will defend
myself çàõèñòè ìåíå, Áîæå, â³ä äðóç³â, à ç âîðîãàìè ÿ ñàì
óïîðàþñü; an old dog will learn no new tricks íà ñòàðîñò³ âàæêî
ïåðåâ÷àòèñÿ; he laughs best who laughs last òîé ñ쳺òüñÿ íàéêðàùå,
õòî ñ쳺òüñÿ îñòàíí³ì, to be or not to be áóòè ÷è íå áóòè, the game
is not worth the candle ãðà íå âàðòà ñâ³÷îê, etc.
These few out of many more sentence idioms are a testimony
to the versatile influence of translators’ activities upon the enrichment
of languages through translation. The idiomatic word-groups and sen-
tences of the source language almost always partly influence the place-
ment of their component parts in the Ukrainian target language and
thus facilitate their memorizing as well.

TRANSLATION IN TEACHING
OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Translating as a means of teaching foreign languages has no

independent value of its own for it is impossible to teach all aspects of
a language in their complexity by means of translation only. Neverthe-
less translation in foreign language teaching (and learning) can not
and should not be ignored altogether since in many a case it remains

15
not only the most effective but also the only possible teaching means
in achieving the necessary aim. That is why translation is often resorted
to in the process of teaching and presenting some important aspects
of a foreign language.
Translation in teaching is employed by the teacher both at the
initial, at the intermediary and at the advanced stage of learning/
teaching foreign languages. But irrespective of the level at which the
foreign language is studied or taught, translation is both helpful and
indispensable in the following cases:
1. When introducing even simple abstract lexemes or notions,
which can not easily be explained in a descriptive way or by actions
(gestures): think, hate, love, actual, invincible, generally, peace, turn,
friendship, image, dream, consider, feeling, firstly, immensely, at last,
gray, immense, strongly, beautifully, haggis, lordship, ladyship, etc.
2. In order to save time and avoid diverting the attention of
students by lengthy explications of the meaning of words, various,
word-combinations or sentences in the process of reading or listening
to an unfamiliar passage.
3. When checking up the comprehension of the lexical material
(new words, expressions) and in order to avoid the unnecessary
ambiguity which may arise in the process of teaching through «pic-
tures», since a picture of a tree, for example, may be understood as
«a tree» or as a kind of tree (oak-tree, birch-tree, pine-tree, etc.).
4. While introducing at the lesson (usually at the initial stage of
teaching/learning) the new grammar/phonetical material, especially
the phenomena which do not exist in the native tongue
(e.g. the continuous or the perfect forms of the verb, different passive
constructions, infinitival, gerundial, and participal constructions (secon-
dary predication complexes).
5. When revising the lexical or grammar material studied at the
lesson/at previous lessons or answering questions like: ‘What is the
Ukrainian for the «gerund», sequence of tenses, the «progressive/
perfect form» of the verb?’ etc.
6. While discriminating the meaning of synonyms or antonyms
of the foreign language, for example: explain the difference between
great and large, small and tiny, tall and high, clever and unwise, etc.
7. When checking up the knowledge of students in written and
oral tests on lexical or grammar material.
8. When introducing idiomatic expressions which is mostly im-
possible to teach and learn otherwise than on the basis of translating

16
(cf. Hobson’s choice, to play hooky, look before you leap; when at
Rome, do as the Romans do; the game is worth the candle, etc.).
9. Before learning any text by heart (poems, excerpts of prose
or the roles of characters in plays).
10. When dealing with characteristic national figures of speech
(metaphors, epithets, similes, hyperboles, etc.) in the process of read-
ing or translating the belles-lettres passages even at the advanced
stage of studying a foreign language.
11. When comparing the expressive means in the system of
the source language to those in the target language, etc.
Translation helps the student to master the expressive means
in the source and in the target language. In the process of translating
the student establishes sets of equivalent substitutes in the target
language for the correspondent lexical, grammatical or stylistic phe-
nomena of the source language. No wonder that the student at any
stage of learning a foreign language, when not understanding some
word, word-combination or sentence always resorts to intuitive trans-
lating it into his native language.

WAYS OF TRANSLATING

Translating is unseparable from understanding and it goes along

with conveying content and sometimes even the form of language
units. As a result, the process of translation, provided it is not performed
at the level of separate simple words, involves simultaneously some
aspects of the source language and those of the target language.
These are morphology (word-building and word forms), the lexicon
(words, phraseologisms, mots), syntax (the means îf connection and
the structure of syntaxemes), stylistics (peculiarities of speech styles,
tropes, etc.).
The level or the degree of faithfulness of translation is mostly
predetermined by some factors, which may be both of objective and of
subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the translation
to be performed, the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the
matter selected for translation, etc. Depending on these and some
other factors, the following methods of translating are traditionally
recognized in the theory and practice of translation:
1. Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing
with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as

17
their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target lan-
guage, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by origi-
nal morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English
and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical
or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator
àäì³í³ñòðàòîð, director äèðåêòîð, region ðå´³îí, hotel/motel ãîòåëü/
ìîòåëü, hydrometer ã³äðîìåòð, Tom Òîì, etc.
It is easy to notice that in some words thus translated not only
the morphemic but also the syllabic structure can sometimes be fully
conveyed (cf. an-ti àí-òè, es-cort åñ-êîðò, direct-or äèðåêò-îð, ex-
presid-ent åêñ-ïðåçè-äåíò).
In many a case, however, the lingual form of the source lan-
guage words is only partly conveyed in the target language. This
happens when the common word is borrowed by each of the two
languages in question from different source languages or when its
lingual form is predetermined by the orthographic peculiarities of the
target language: anti-alcoholic ïðîòèàëêîãîëüíèé, music ìóçèêà,
constitution êîíñòèòóö³ÿ, zoology çîîëîã³ÿ, atomic weight àòîìíà
âàãà, chemical process õ³ì³÷íèé ïðîöåñ, national opera theatre
íàö³îíàëüíèé îïåðíèé òåàòð.
The literal translation in all the examples above provides an
equivalent rendering of the lexical meaning of each language unit despite
the augmentation in the number of morphemes/syllables in the target
language (cf. atomic àòîì-í-à, alcoholic àëêîãîëü-í-èé).
Close to the literal method of translating or rather reproduction
is the so-called way of translator’s transcription by means of which
partly the orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source
language lexemes/words is conveyed: archbishop àðõ³ºïèñêîï, card
êàðòêà/êàðòà, European ºâðîïåéñüêèé, Muscovite ìîñêâè÷/
ìîñêâè÷êà, organized îðãàí³çîâàíèé, stylized ñòèë³çîâàíèé,
therapeutic òåðàïåâòè÷íèé.
Literal translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source
language lexemes or sentences when their lingual form accidentally
coincides with some other target language lexemes having quite dif-
ferent meanings: artist ìèòåöü, õóäîæíèê (rarer àðòèñò); decoration
â³äçíàêà, íàãîðîäà (and not äåêîðàö³ÿ); matrass êîëáà (and not
ìàòðàö); replica òî÷íà êîï³ÿ (and not ðåïë³êà), etc. Hence, literal
translating has some restrictions in its employment and does not
always help to render the lexical meaning of words or even morphemes

18
having often even an identical lingual form (spelling) in the source
language and in the target language.
2. Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level.
But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the
sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative
meaning only: fearful ñòðàøíèé, fearless áåçñòðàøíèé, helpless
áåçïîðàäíèé, incorrect íåïðàâèëüíèé, mistrust íåäîâ³ð’ÿ (íåäîâ³ðà),
superprofit íàäïðèáóòîê, non-interference íåâòðó÷àííÿ,
weightlessness íåâàãîì³ñòü etc.
All the words above are practically translated at the lexico-mor-
phological level, as their lexical meanings and morphological stems
are identical to those of the English words (cf. help-less áåç-ïîðàäíèé,
mis-trust íå-äîâ³ð’ÿ, super-profit íàä-ïðèáóòîê, etc.).
The overwhelming majority of other words, when translated ver-
bally do not preserve their structure in the target language. That is
explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the Eng-
lish and Ukrainian languages: abundantly ðÿñíî, bank áåðåã
(áåðåãîâèé), cliff áåñêèä (ñêåëÿ, êðó÷à), myself ÿ, ÿ ñàì/ñàìà;
àâòîìàò automatic machine/rifle, çàââèøêè high/tall, ïèñüìåííèê
writer (author), ÷åðâîí³òè to get/grow red, etc..
Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among
some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating,
which aims only at maintaining the literal form.
Thus, the Ukrainian word àâòîìàò can have the following
equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic machine; 2. slot-machine;
3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly,
the Englsih word bank when out of a definite context may have the
following equivalent variants in Ukrainian: 1. áåðåã (ð³÷êè); 2. áàíê;
3. âàë/íàñèï; 4. ì³ëèíà; 5. çàìåò; 6. êðåí, â³ðàæ (àâ³àö.); 7. ïîêëàäè
(êîðèñíèõ êîïàëèí). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun bank in
Ukrainian can be, naturally, «áàíê» only.
Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a
faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When
employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal trans-
lation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert
or completely ruin their sense, cf: I am reading now is not ÿ º ÷èòàþ÷èé
çàðàç but ÿ ÷èòàþ çàðàç; never say die is not í³êîëè íå êàæè ïîìèðàþ
but íå ïàäàé äóõîì; to grow strong is not ðîñòè ì³öíèì but ñòàâàòè
äóæèì; to take measures is not áðàòè ì³ðè but âæèâàòè çàõîä³â;
first night is not ïåðøà í³÷ but ïðåì’ºðà, etc.

19
Despite this, verbal translation is widely employed first of all at
language level, i.e., when the lexical meaning of separate words is to
be identified. A graphic example of verbal translation is presented in
dictionaries which list the lexical meanings of thousands of separate
words. Verbal translation is also employed for the sake of discriminat-
ing the meanings of some words at the lessons, with the aim of
identifying the meaning of the unknown words (when translating sen-
tences or passages). The student like any other person eager to know
the name of an object or action/quality of the object, etc., employs
verbal translation too when asking: What is the English for ñí³ï/
â³äëèãà? What is the English for í³ê÷åìíà ëþäèíà/í³ê÷åìà, õâàëèòè
Áora? What is the Ukrainian for cranberry/mistletoe? etc.
3. Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering
sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level
of word-groups and sentences. This way of translation is often em-
ployed both consciously and subconsciously by students in the proc-
ess of translating alien grammatical constructions/word forms. Some-
times students at the initial stage of learning a foreign language may
employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly com-
mon phrases or sentences, which are structurally different from their
equivalents in the native tongue. Usually the students employ word-
for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences
which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of
connection quite different from those in the target language. To achieve
faithfulness various grammatical transformations are to be performed
in the process of translation and in the translationc itself word-for-
word variants are to be corrected to avoid various grammatical violations
made by the inexperienced students. Cf. You are right to begin with*
âè ìàºòå ðàö³þ, ùîá ïî÷àòè ç instead of Ïî÷íåìî ç òîãî/ïðèïóñòèìî,
ùî âè ìàºòå ðàö³þ/ùî âè ïðàâ³.
3. The interlinear1 way/method of translating is a con-
ventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by
word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may
be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The
method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all
speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlin-
ear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only
of content, which is often achieved through various transformations
1
«Interlinear» (from Latin interlineare) i.e., written/printed between the lines.

20
of structure of many sense units. For example, the sentence Who
took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Õòî
âçÿâ ìîþ êíèæêó?
In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sen-
tence can be faithfully rendered with the help of two and sometimes
even three equivalent variants: Ó êîãî ìîÿ êíèæêà? Õòî áðàâ/óçÿâ
ìîþ êíèæêó? The choice of any of the transformed variants is prede-
termined by the aim of the translation, by the circumstances under
which the translating/interpreting is performed or by the requirements
of style (for example, in order to avoid the unnecessary repetition of
the same form of expression/structure close to each other).
Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted
by the particularities of word forms, by the word order or by the struc-
tural form of the source language units, which are usually word-combi-
nations or sentences in the passage/work under translation.
As can be seen, the Ukrainian variants of the English sentence
above (Who took my book?) bear no traces of interference on the part
of the English language with its rigid word order in each paradigmatic
kind of sentences. Neither is there any peculiar English word-
combination transplanted to the Ukrainian sentences, as it often occurs
in word-for-word translations. Hence, various transformations in
interlinear translations, like in literary translations, are inevitable and
they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic and other
divergences in the source language and in the target language. This
can be seen from the following examples: The student is being asked
now ñòóäåíòà çàðàç çàïèòóþòü. She said she would come âîíà êàçàëà,
ùî ïðèéäå. It will have been done by then íà òîé ÷àñ / äî òîãî ÷àñó
öå áóäå çðîáëåíî. His having been decorated is unknown to me ìåí³
íåâ³äîìî ïðî éîãî íàãîðîäæåííÿ (ùî éîãî íàãîðîäèëè).
Transformations are also inevitable when there exists no iden-
tity in the form of expressing the same notion in the source language
and in the target language: a trip êîðîòêà ïîäîðîæ; ¿çäèòè íà ëèæàõ
to ski; to participate áðàòè ó÷àñòü; îâäîâ³òè to become à widow/
widower, çíåñèëèòèñÿ to become/grow weak (feeble).
Very often transformations become also necessary in order to
overcome divergences in the structural form of English syntaxemes
which are predominantly analytical by their structural form, whereas
their Ukrainian word-groups of the same meaning are mostly syn-
thetic and analytico-synthetic by structure: books of my father êíèæêè
ìîãî áàòüêà; Kyiv street traffic regulations ïðàâèëà äîðîæíüîãî ðóõó

21
ì³ñòà Êèºâà; but: a task for next week çàâäàííÿ íà íàñòóïíèé
òèæäåíü.1
Interlinear translating is widely practised at the intermediary
and advanced stages of studying a foreign language. It is helpful when
checking up the students’ understanding of certain structurally peculiar
English sense units in the passage under translation. Interlinear
translations of literary works, when perfected by regular masters of
the pen, may become good literary variants of the original. But interlinear
translations do not convey the literary merits/artistic features and
beauty of the original. While performing the interlinear translation the
student tries to convey completely the content of a source language
sentence, stanza or passage. He quite subconsciously analyses the
passage, selects in the target language the necessary means of
expression for the allomorphic and isomorphic phenomena/sense units
unknown to him and only after this he performs the translation. The
interlinear method of translating helps the student to obtain the
necessary training in rendering the main aspects of the foreign language.
Thus, he masters the means of expression pertained to the source/
target language. In the example below, taken from P.B.Shelley’s poem
The Masque of Anarchy, the interlinear translation conveys only the
main content of the poetic stanza:

Men of England, Heirs of Glory, Ëþäè Àíã볿, ñïàäêîºìö³ ñëàâè,

Heroes of unwritten story, Ãåðî¿ (ùå) íå íàïèñàíî¿ ³ñòîð³¿,
Nurslings of one mighty mother, Ñèíè îäí³º¿ ìîãóòíüî¿ ìàòåð³-â³ò÷èçíè,
Hopes of her and one another! ¯¿ íà䳿 ³ íà䳿 êîæíîãî ç âàñ!

From this interlinear translation the reader can obtain a fairly

correct notion of what the poet wanted to say in the stanza as a
whole. But this translation does not in any way reflect the artistic
beauty of Shelley’s poem, i.e., the variety of its tropes, the rhythm
and the rhyme, the musical sounding of the original work. Despite all
that it still ranks much higher than any word-for-word translation might
ever be, as it faithfully conveys not only the meaning of all notional
words but also the content of different sense units, which have no
structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Due to this the method of interlin-
ear translation is practically employed when rendering some passages
or works for internal office use in scientific/research centres and
1
See more about transformations of the kind on pages 376-387 of this book.

22
laboratories, in trade and other organizations and by students in their
translation practice; it acquires some features of literary translation.
4. Literary Translating represents the highest level of a trans-
lator’s activity. Any type of matter skilfully turned into the target lan-
guage, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the
faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the
source language.
Depending on the type of the matter under translation, this method
of performance may be either literary proper or literary artistic.
Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of con-
tent and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage
or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse).
Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fic-
tion/belles-lettres passages/works. These may include scientific or
technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business cor-
respondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In
short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epi-
thets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary proper or literary artistic,
this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of complete
content but also of the stylistic peculiarities of the passage/work and
its artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style texts.
Literary translations are always performed in literary all-nation
languages and with many transformations which help achieve the ease
and beauty of the original composition. The number of phrases and
sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source
language passage/work, neither are the same means of expression
or the number and quality of stylistic devices per paragraph/syntactic
superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to achieve
faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/
work under translation. Transformations are also used to convey the
features of style and in still greater measure the genre peculiarities of
the works/passages under translation.
Literary proper/literary artistic translation of a larger passage/
work often requires linguistic, historical and other inquiries in order to
clarify the obscure places (historic events, notions of specific national
lexicon, neologisms, archaisms, etc.). Sometimes even the title of a
work may require a philologic or historic inquiry. So, «Ñëîâî î ïîëêó
²ãîðåâ³ì» in a verbal or word-for-word translation would be *A Word
about Ihor’s Regiment which does not in any way correspond to the
real meaning of this title, since the author meant under «Ñëîâî» story,

23
tale, saga, song. The word ïîëê did not mean the military unit of
today’s armies (regiment) but troop, host, army. Therefore, the mean-
ing of ïîëê would be in Ukrainian äðóæèíà and the whole title would
sound in contemporary translation as The Tale of the Host of Ihor,
which corresponds to the real meaning of the title (îïîâ³äü, ïîâ³ñòü,
ï³ñíÿ ïðî ²ãîðåâå â³éñüêî, ³.å. äðóæèíó). That is why there exist
today different translations of the title of this brilliant work. Among
them are the following: 1) The Tale of the Armament of Igor. Edited
and translated by Leonard Magnus. Oxford University Press, 1915.
2) The Tale of Igor. Adapted by Helen de Verde. London, 1918. 3) Prince
Igor’s Raid Against the Polovtsi. Translated by Paul Crath. Versified
by Watson Kirkonnell. Saskatoon. Canada, 1947. 4) The Song of
Igor’s Campaign. Translated by Vladimir Nabokov. New York 1960. As
can be seen, none of these titles conveys the meaning of the title
fully, completely equivalently and faithfully, though some are close to
it, especially that one suggested by Paul Crath (Prince Igor’s Raid
against the Polovtsi) and the V.Nabokov’s variant The Song of Igor’s
Campaign.
In Soviet times this old Ukrainian literature masterpiece had an
unchanged title The Lay of Igor’s Host (suggested by a Georgian lin-
guist). This translation does not differ greatly from the two mentioned
above for «lay» is the Middle English poetic word for «song».
A similar approach aimed at a possibly fullest expression of
the poetic content, i.e., flavour of the title can be seen in S.Garry’s
translation of M.Sholokhov’s novel «Òèõèé Äîí» sounding in English
as rhythmic lines of a song – And Quiet Flows the Don or The Don
Flows home to the Sea. The former title was used in the New York
publication of the novel (1944) and the latter in its London publication
that same year. It goes without saying that a verbal or word-for-word
translation of the title as *The Quiet Don or *The Still Don would not
convey the poetic flavour of the original title, which is strongly felt in
its source language variant.
This poetic subtext of the Russian title is really expressed only
in each of the two S.Garry’s variants which could have been sug-
gested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel’s
content, into its main idea, and into the whole system of literary im-
ages of Sholokhov’s work (as with the work mentioned before). It is no
less difficult to convey the meaning and functions of colloquial,
conversational, dialectal and other kinds of lexical units often used by
many authors in their belles-lettres works. To translate them faithfully,

24
one must consult reference books, dictionaries and often even the
native speakers of the language, e.g.: dabster – dialectal for çíàâåöü/
ôàõ³âåöü; daisy – slang for something or somebody nice, beautiful,
first-rate (ïåðøîñîðòíå); put up (adj.) is colloquial for çàäóìàíèé
çàçäåëåã³äü; ñïëàíîâàíèé; ab ovo – Latin for â³ä ñàìîãî ïî÷àòêó
(Ãîðàö³é), áóêâ. «â³ä ÿéöÿ». Constant inquiries of all kinds are also
necessary to convey the expression side of the source language mat-
ter. It becomes especially imperative in versification which is explained
by the condensed nature of poetic works in which thoughts and ideas
are often expressed through literary means. To achieve the necessary
level of faithfulness the translator has to render fully the
picturesqueness, the literary images, the rhythm and the rhyme
(vocalic or consonantal), the beauty of sounding of the original poem,
etc. An illustration of this may be D.Palamarchuk’s versified translation
of W.Shakespeare’s sonet CXV:
Those lines that I before have write do lie, (10)
Even those that said I could not love you dearer: (11)
Yet then my judgement knew no reason why (10)
My most full flame should afterwards burn clearer. (11)
Çáðåõàâ ì³é â³ðø, êîëèñü òîá³ ñêàçàâøè: (11)
«Ìî¿é ëþáîâ³ í³êóäè ðîñòè». (10)
ß äóìàâ – ð³ñò ¿¿ ñïèíèâñü íàçàâøå, (11)
Íàéá³ëüøî¿ ñÿãíóâøè âèñîòè. (10)
The Ukrainian variant of the stanza reveals its almost complete
identity with the original in the rhythmic and rhyme organization and
in the number of syllables in each line. Though in the original their
number alternates in reverse order (from 10 to 11) and in the translation
– from 11 to 10. But this is in no way a rude violation, since the
interchange takes place within the same stanza, though the translator
could not fully reproduce the alternate (acbd) rhyme, which is feminine
in the first (a) and third (c) lines and masculine in the second (b), and
in the fourth (d) lines.
Most striking, however, are the syntactic alternations, there being
no single line structurally similar to that of the original verse. All that
becomes necessary because of the predominantly polysyllabic
structure of Ukrainian words the number of which in the translation is
only 19 as compared with 35 words in the source language. Besides,
the Ukrainian stanza consists of notional words only, whereas in the
original work there are also functionals (have, do, that, most, not,
etc.). The notionals form the artistic images and ideas the number of

25
which is somewhat larger in English. Since it was next to impossible
to overcome the «resistance» of the source language verse, some
losses in translation became inevitable. They are the result of the
existing divergences in the grammatical structure or in the means of
expression in the two languages, first of all in the greater number of
syllables in the same words in Ukrainian, which is a tangible obstacle
for the translators of poetry. That is why in order to maintain the poetic
metre of the lines in the original stanza above the translator had to
transform them. As a result, the number of inevitable losses in
versifications is always larger than in prose translations. Nevertheless,
D.Palamarchuk’s versification is considered to be highly faithful and
artistic, because it conveys, in the main, the following aspects of this
Shakespearian sonet: its content, partly its types of rhythm and rhyme,
its artistic images and tropes, as well as its picturesqueness and the
pragmatic orientation/toning of the original sonet, nothing to say about
its main content.

MACHINE TRANSLATION

Rendering of information from a foreign language with the help

of electronic devices represents the latest development in modern
translation practice. Due to the fundamental research in the systems
of algorithms and in the establishment of lexical equivalence in differ-
ent layers of lexicon, machine translating has made considerable
progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains re-
stricted in the main to scientific and technological information and to
the sphere of lexicographic work. That is because machine transla-
tion can be performed only on the basis of programmes elaborated by
linguistically trained operators. Besides, preparing programmes for
any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time,
whereas the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory
even at the lexical level, i.e., at the level of words, which have direct
equivalent lexemes in the target language. Considerably greater
difficulties, which are insurmountable for machine translators, present
morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.). No smaller
obstacles for machine translation are also syntactic units (word-
combinations and sentences) with various means of connection
between their components/parts. Besides, no present-day electronic
devices performing translation possess the necessary lexical,
grammatical and stylistic memory to provide the required standard of

26
correct literary translation. Hence, the frequent violations of syntactic
agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in
machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select
in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and
sentences in the target language. As a result, any machine translation
of present days needs a thorough proof reading and editing. Very often
it takes no less time and effort and may be as tiresome as the usual
hand-made translation of the same passage/work.1 A vivid illustration
to the above-said may be the machine translated passage below. It
was accomplished most recently in an electronic translation centre
and reflects the latest achievement in this sphere of «mental» activity.
The attentive student will not fail to notice in the italicized components
of Ukrainian sentences several lexical, morphological and syntactic/
structural irregularities, which have naturally to be corrected in the
process of the final elaboration of the passage by the editing translator.
Compare the texts below and find the inexactitudes in all sentences
of the Ukrainian translation.

1. Communications and the EC 1. Ïîâ³äîìëåííÿ ³ EC

2. Public relations and telecom- 2. Ñóñï³ëüíà ³íôîðìàö³ÿ ³
munications must work hand in òåëåêîìóí³êàö³ÿ ïîâèíí³
hand to enable Europe really to ïðàöþâàòè ðóêà â ðóö³, ùîá
become one community. Martin äîçâîëèòè Åâðîïó ä³éñíî
Bangemann looks to the 21st ñòàòè îäíîþ ñï³âäðóæí³ñòþ.
century. Ìàðò³í Áàíãåìàí äèâèòüñÿ äî
21st ñòîë³òòÿ.
3. «Communications have been 3. «Êîìóí³êàö³¿ áóëè ðóø³éíà
the driving force behind the ñèëà ççàäó ñòâîðåííÿ ³ ð³ñò
creation and growth of global ãëîáàëüíèõ êîìïàí³é».
companies.»
4. The European Commission 4. Åâðîïåéñüêà Êîì³ñ³ÿ (EC)
(EC) has expressed one vision âèñëîâèëà îäíå áà÷åííÿ íà
for the future of Europe in its ìàéáóòí³é ÷àñ Åâðîïè â Á³ë³é
White Paper on Growth Com- Êíèç³ íà ð³ñò, êîíêóðåíòî-
petitiveness and Employment – çäàòíîñò³ é Çàéíÿò³ñòü
the Challenges and Ways Âèêëèêè ³ Øëÿõè Âïåðåä ó
forward into the 21st Century. 21-ãî ñòîë³òòÿ.
5. This document addresses the 5. Öåé äîêóìåíò àäðåñóº
1
Ìàð÷óê Þ.Í. Ïðîáëåìû ìàøèííîãî ïåðåâîäà. − Ì.: Íàóêà, 1983.

27
facts that, in the last 20 years, ôàêòè, ùî â îñòàíí³ 20 ðîê³â
the European economy’s rate of íîðìà (ðîçðÿä) Åâðîïåéñüêî¿
growth has declined from 4% to åêîíîì³êè (åêîíî쳿) ðîñòó
2,5 % per year; unemployment çíèçèëîñÿ â³ä 4% äî 2,5% çà
has steadily risen; the ð³ê; áåçðîá³òòÿ ïîñò³éíî
investment ratio has fallen by çðîñëà; ³íâåñòèö³éíå
5%; and Europe’s competitive â³äíîøåííÿ âïàëî íà 5%; ³
position in relation to USA and êîíêóðåíòîçäàòíå ñòàíîâèùå
Japan has worsened in regard to (ïîçèö³ÿ) Åâðîïè â³äíîñíî ÑØÀ
employment, export market ³ ßïîí³¿ ïîã³ðøóâàëîñÿ ó
share, research and â³äíîøåíí³ çàéíÿòîñò³,
development innovation and åêñïîðòíî¿ ðèíêîâî¿ ÷àñòêè,
development of new products. äîñë³äæåííÿ ³ íîâîââåäåííÿ
ðîçâèòêó ³ ðîçâèòêó íîâèõ
âèðîá³â.

KINDS OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

As has been noted, the sense of a language unit (the content of

a whole matter) can be conveyed in the target language either in writing
or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/
content, the following kinds or types of translating/interpreting are to
be distinguished:
1. The written from a written matter translating, which rep-
resents a literary/literary artistic or any other faithful sense-to-sense
translating from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free
interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may be
a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or technical/
newspaper passage / article, etc.
2. The oral from an oral matter interpreting, which is a
regular oral sense-to-sense rendering of a speech/radio or TV interview,
or recording which can proceed either in succession (after the whole
matter or part of it is heard) or simultaneously with its sounding. This
consecutive interpreting is a piecemeal performance and the inter-
preter can make use of the time, while the speech/recording is pro-
ceeding, for grasping its content and selecting the necessary means
of expression for some language units of the original matter. There is
also a possibility to interrupt (stop) the speaker/recording in order to
clarify some obscure place. As a result, consecutive interpreting can
take more or a little less time than the source language speech/
recording lasts. When it takes quite the same amount of time as the

28
source language matter flows and the interpreter faithfully conveys its
content, it is referred to as simultaneous interpreting/translating.
Otherwise it remains only a consecutive interpreting. That can be well
observed when interpreting a film, each still of which in the process of
the simultaneous interpretation takes the time, allotted to it in the
source language. In Ukrainian this kind of interpreting is called
ñèíõðîííèé ïåðåêëàä. Therefore, simultaneous interpreting is per-
formed within the same time limit , i.e., takes the same amount of
time or a little more/less, than the source matter lasts.
3. The oral from a written matter interpreting is nothing
else than interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultane-
ously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the
written matter, or in succession (after each part of it is first read through
and comprehended). The former way of interpreting, if carried out
faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the
matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually, however, it is a
regular prepared beforehand kind of interpreting.
4. The written translating from an orally presented matter is,
as L.S.Barkhudarov points out1 , a rare occurrence. This is because a
natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the target lan-
guage (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a
regular translation, i.e. interpretation from a written matter). Translat-
ing from an oral speech/recording is now and then resorted to for
training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a
slower speed than the written translation, this matter/speech can
naturally be performed (and put down) in the target language.

DECRIPTIVE AND ANTONYMIC TRANSLATING

Descriptive translating. One must bear in mind that it is the

notional meaning of the source language unit and not always its
morphological nature or structural form that is to be rendered in the
target language. As a result, the target language unit, which equiva-
lently/faithfully conveys the denotative/connotative meaning of the
corresponding source language unit may not necessarily belong to
the same language stratification level. Depending on the notion ex-
pressed by the source language word/lexeme, it may be conveyed in
the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even
1
See: Áàðõóäàðîâ Ë.Ñ. ßçûê è ïåðåâîä. – Ì.: Ìåæäóíàð. îòíîøåíèÿ, 1975, p. 46–48.

29
through a sentence, i.e., descriptively: indulge ðîáèòè ñîá³ ïðèºìí³ñòü
ó ÷îìóñü, â³ääàâàòèñÿ âò³õàì; infamous òîé (òà, òå), ùî ìຠãàíåáíó
ñëàâó; inessentials ïðåäìåòè íå ïåðøî¿ íåîáõ³äíîñò³, ïðåäìåòè
ðîçêîø³â; âùåðòü up to the brim, full to the brim; â’ÿçè the nape of
one’s head, the back of the head; îêðàºöü crust of a loaf, hunk of a
bread; îêðèâ³òè (îñë³ïíóòè) to become lame (grow blind). Therefore,
the descriptive way of conveying the sense of language units implies
their structural transformation which is necessary to explicate their
meaning with the help of hierarchically different target language units.
Descriptive translating/interpreting is very often employed to
render the sense/meaning of idioms/phraseologisms, which have no
equivalents in the target language. Cf. in English: (as) mad as a
hatter ö³ëêîì/ãåòü áîæåâ³ëüíèé; all my eye and Betty Martin!
í³ñåí³òíèö³! (äóðíèö³!); like one (twelve) o’clock ìèòòþ, âìèòü,
ïðîæîãîì. In Ukrainian: çóá íà çóá íå ïîïàäàòè to feel very cold
(to feel freezing); íàâ÷èòü á³äà êîðæ³ ç ìàêîì ¿ñòè hard times make
one inventive; íàãîâîðèòè ñ³ì ê³ï/ì³øê³â ãðå÷àíî¿ âîâíè to say much
nonsense.
No less often is descriptive translation employed when dealing
with the notions of specific national lexicon: haggis ãå´´³ñ (çâàðåíèé
ó æèð³ îâå÷èé êåíäþõ, íà÷èíåíèé â³âñÿíèìè êðóïàìè ³ ñïåö³ÿìè
âïåðåì³ø ³ç ñ³÷åíèì îâå÷èì ïîòðóõîì); porridge ïîð³äæ (ãóñòà
â³âñÿíà êàøà çâàðåíà íà âîä³ ÷è ìîëîö³); Senate ñåíàò (ðàäà
óí³âåðñèòåòó â Àíã볿, ñêëàäàºòüñÿ ïåðåâàæíî ç ïðîôåñîð³â); sweet-
meat ñîëîäêà ñòðàâà, ïðèãîòîâëåíà íà öóêð³ ÷è ìåäîâ³.
Alongside the literal translating some explications of the mean-
ing of specific national notions becomes sometimes necessary:
âàðåíèêè varenyky, middle-sized dumplings filled with curd, cherries,
etc.; äóìà duma, Ukrainian historic epic song; êîáçàð kobzar, a
performer of dumas to the accompaniment of the kobza (a mandoline-
like four string musical instrument), the bandore (a flat multistringed
Ukrainian musical instrument).
Descriptive translation is also employed in foot-notes to ex-
plain obscure places in narration. Cf. midland ì³äëåíä, ä³àëåêò
öåíòðàëüíî¿ Àíã볿, a spiritual ðåë³ã³éíà ï³ñíÿ àìåðèê. íåãð³â.
Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving
faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of
sense units. It represents a way of rendering when an affirmative in
structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is con-

30
veyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content
language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense
unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit. Cf.: to have quite a few
friends ìàòè áàãàòî (íåìàëî) äðóç³â; mind your own business
íå âòðó÷àéñÿ íå â ñâî¿ ñïðàâè; take it easy íå õâèëþéñÿ, íå
ïåðåæèâàé; not infrequently ÷àñòî; no time like the present ëîâè
ìîìåíò (âèêîðèñòîâóé íàãîäó); ÿ íå íåçäóæaþ, í³âðîêó (Ò.Ø.)
² feel/am perfectly well; íå ñïèòàâøè áðîäó, íå ë³çü ó âîäó look
before you leap; íåìຠëèõà áåç äîáðà, every dark cloud has a
silver lining, etc.
The antonymic device is empolyed in the following cases:
1) when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for
the sense unit of the source language. For example, the noun «inferi-
ority» and the adjective «inferior» (like the verb phrase «to be inferior»)
have no single-word equivalents in Ukrainian. So their lexical meaning
can be conveyed either in a descriptive way or with the help of their
antonyms «superiority», «superior»: The defeat of the Notts in last
season’s cup semi-finals was certainly the result of their physical and
tactical inferiority… (The Kyiv Post) Ïîðàçêà êëóáó «Íîòò³í´åì
Ôîðåñò» ó òîð³øíüîìó ï³âô³íàëüíîìó ìàò÷³ íà êóáîê êðà¿íè áóëà
íàñë³äêîì ïåðåâàãè ¿õí³õ ñóïðîòèâíèê³â ó ô³çè÷í³é ³ òàêòè÷í³é
ï³äãîòîâö³ (...áóëà íàñë³äêîì òîãî, ùî ãðàâö³ ïîñòóïàëèñÿ
ñóïðîòèâíèêîâ³ ó ô³çè÷í³é ³ òàêòè÷í³é ï³äãîòîâö³).1
The meaning of some English word-groups can also be con-
veyed in Ukrainian antonymically only: Baines was reading a newspa-
per in his shirt-sleeves. (Gr. Greene) Áåéíç ñèä³â áåç ï³äæàêà ³ ÷èòàâ
ãàçåòó. Do you mind this? (M.Wilson) Âè íå çàïåðå÷óºòå?
2) When the sense unit of the source language has two
negations of its own which create an affirmation: In those clothes she
was by no means non-elegant. (S.Maugham) Ó öüîìó âáðàíí³ âîíà
áóëà äîñèòü åëå´àíòíà.
3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narra-
tion: I don’t think it will hurt you, baby. (E.Hemingway) Äóìàþ, âàì
âîíî íå çàøêîäèòü, ëþáà. A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Íåïîäàë³ê
âèáóõíóâ ñíàðÿä. Íå lurched away like a frightened horse barely
missing the piano stool. (J.London) ³í ñàõíóâñÿ âá³ê, ìîâ
ñïîëîõàíèé ê³íü, ìàëî íå ïåðåêèíóâøè ñò³ëüöÿ êîëî ï³àí³íî (ëåäü
îáìèíàþ÷è ñò³ëüöÿ á³ëÿ ï³àí³íî).
1
See more about transformations of the kind in part IV of this work.

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4. In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures
close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means):
Mrs. Strickland was a woman of character. (S.Maugham)
̳ñ³ñ Ñòð³êëåíä áóëà æ³íêîþ íå áåç õàðàêòåðó (òîáòî, áóëà æ³íêà
ç õàðàêòåðîì). Most of the staff is not away. (M.Wilson) Á³ëüø³ñòü
ñï³âðîá³òíèê³â ùå íà ðîáîò³ (ùå íå ðîç³éøëèñÿ). Savina said
nothing. (Ibid.) Ñàâ³íà ïðîìîâ÷àëà (òîáòî í³÷îãî íå â³äïîâ³ëà).

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-CONTROL

AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The main terms and notions of the theory of translation/inter-

pretation.
2. Ambiguity of some terms concerning translation (free trans-
lation vs. free adaptation/free interpretation, etc.).
3. Social and political significance of translating/interpreting.
4. Translating as a successful means of enriching national lan-
guages, literatures, and cultures.
5. Translating/interpreting in establishing, maintaining, and
strengthening diplomatic, political, economic, scientific, cultural and
other relations between different nations in the world.
6. The role of translating/interpreting in providing the successful
proceedings of international conferences, congresses, symposia, meet-
ings, etc.
7. Translating/interpreting and the progress of world science,
technology and dissemination of new ideas/doctrines.
8. Translating/interpreting while teaching and learning foreign
languages.
9. Literal, verbal, word-for-word translation and restrictions in
their use out of a contextual environment (cf. revolution îáåðò but
not ðåâîëþö³ÿ).
10. The main difference between the interlinear and literary/
literary artistic kinds of translating.
11.The requirements to faithful prose and poetic translation/ver-
sification.
12. The machine translation, its progress, present-day potenti-
alities and spheres of employment.
13. Kinds of translating/interpreting: a) the written from a writ-
ten matter translating; b) the oral from an oral matter interpreting; c) the

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