Guennadi E. Miram, Valentyna V. Daineko, Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.

Тарануха,
Lyubov A. Taranukha, Maryna V. Gryschenko, М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон
Oleksandr M. Gon
BASIC TRANSLATION ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ
A course of lectures on translation theory Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу
and practice for institutes and departments для факультетів та інститутів
of international relations міжнародних відносин

Редактор англійського тексту Н. Брешко

English text editor: Nina Breshko Рекомендовано Міністерством освіти і науки України
як навчальний посібник для студентів факультетів
та інститутів міжнародних відносин
Kyiv Київ
Elga Ельга
Nika-Center Ніка-Центр
2002 2002
УДК 81(075.8)
ББК81я73

Рецензенти: PREFACE
Доктор філологічних наук, професор В.І.Карабан (Київський
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка)
Кандидат філологічних наук, доцент К.С.Серажим (Київський When a language is taught to students of non-linguistic specialities -
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка) so-called Language for Special Purpose (LSP) - this fact is usually taken
into account by the authors of language manuals and results in special
Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною manuals either intended for a particular profession (for example, English
курсу лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу, призначеного для for Law Students) or covering a range of similar occupations (e. g.,
стедентської аудиторії відповідних факультетів вищих навчальних Technical English, Financial English, etc.). As a rule, LSP Manuals focus
закладів, враховує мовну та комунікативну специфіку підготовки students' attention on peculiar professional vocabulary and phrasing,
спеціалістів широкого гуманітарного профілю, зокрема, comprise training text materials pertaining to particular profession and
міжнародних відносин, міжнародного права, міжнародної explain grammar rules and stylistic patterns conspicuous for certain pro-
інформації, міжнародних економічних відносин. fessional speech variety. Also, LSP Manuals include numerous transla-
Посібник підготовлено кафедрою іноземних мов Інституту tion exercises involving texts of specific professional orientation.
міжнародних відносин Київського національного університету імені Although translation is part and parcel of any LSP Manual, however,
Тараса Шевченка. Колектив авторів: д.ф.н., проф. Мірам Г.Е., к.ф.н. with several rare exceptions (e. g., Military Translation Manual by L. Ne-
доц. Дайнеко В.В., викл. Тарануха Л .А., викл. Грищенко М.В., к.ф.н., lyubin et al.) there are no translation manuals specifically intended for
доц. Гон О.М. students of non-linguistic specialties and this Manual is an attempt to fill
the gap. We think that there are several reasons that might justify our
Гриф надано Міністерством освіти і науки України. venture. First and most of all, translation is an effective tool that assists in
Лист№ 14/11.2-81 від 14.01.2002 matching language communication patterns of the speakers of different
languages in a specific professional field, especially such communication-
dependent one as international relations. This aspect of translation
teaching becomes even more important under the language development
situation typical of New Independent States such as Ukraine. Besides,
general linguistic subjects related to translation are not in the curriculum
of the international relations students and we included in our Manual
several lectures that would improve general linguistic awareness of the
students, moreover that we consider this information a necessary pre-
© Г.Е.Мірам, В.В. Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха, requisite for proper understanding of translation. Last, but not the least
ISBN 966-521-160-9 М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон, 2002 the Manual comprises in its training part (exercises after each lecture and
© Оригінал-макет. Видавництво "Ніка- the Appendix) English vocabulary and speech patterns with their
Центр", 2002 Ukrainian equivalents which are in standard circulation in diplomatic
practice, international law and international finance areas.
4
5
The theoretical approaches to translation that we use in our Manual are
based on the most widely accepted modern translation theories, both Western
and of the former Soviet Union. An attempt was made, however, to present them
to the readers in a concise and simplified form, which in our opinion is justified Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC
by the purpose and target audience of the Manual. Special accent is made, WORLD
however, on communicational theory since it highlights those aspects of
translation process which are of vital significance for translation teaching. The
Manual discusses both translation and interpretation since both skills are desired This Lecture:
from international relations specialists. • introduces the notions of a linguistic sign, a concept and a denotatum;
The Manual is targeted to the audience of translation teachers and students • establishes relations between the above sets of elements;
of non-linguistic higher educational establishments and international relations • shows the difference between the denotative and connotative meanings of
institutes and faculties, in particular. a linguistic sign;
• describes the mental concept of a linguistic sign;
• describes the relations of polysemy and synonymy, and
• explains some causes of ambiguity of translation equivalents.

Acknowledgments
It is worthwhile to begin lectures on translation with a short introduction to
the phenomenon of language, since not knowing the relationship between
We are grateful to the Foreign Languages Chair of the language and extralinguistic world one can hardly properly understand
Institute of International Relations (Kyiv Taras Shevchenko translation.
National University) for discussions and valuable comments on
the Manual. We are thankful to Mr. A. Kobzarenko for style-
editing of Ukrainian translations.
Ш* The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves three
We would like to thank Prof. V. Karaban and Ass.
basic sets of elements: language signs, mental concepts and parts of the
Prof. K. Serazhim for reading and suggesting valuable
extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really
comments on the Manual.
existing) which are usually called denotata (Singular: denotatum).
We highly appreciate and gratefully acknowledge the
support of the Administration of the Institute of Inter-
national Relations.
The language sign is a sequence of sounds (in spoken language) or
symbols (in written language) which is associated with a single concept in the
Authors minds of speakers of that or another language.
It should be noted that sequences smaller than a word (i.e. morphemes) and
those bigger than a word (i.e. word combinations) are also language signs rather
than only words. Word combinations are regarded as individual language signs
6 if they are related to a single mental concept

7
which is different from the concepts of its individual components (e. g. best The relationship between similar concepts and their relevant language signs
man).1 may be different also in different languages. For example, among the words of
The signs of language are associated with particular mental concepts only in different languages corresponding to the concept of a women mentioned above:
the minds of the speakers of this language. Thus, vrouw, Frau, femeie, and vrouw, Frau, femei, and kobieta, the first two will include in the concept of a
kobieta are the language signs related to the concept of a woman in Dutch, woman that of a wife whereas the last two will not.
German, Romanian and Polish, respectively. It is important to note that one can The differences in the relationship between language signs and concepts
relate these signs to the concept of a woman if and only if he or she is a speaker (i.e. similar concepts appearing different to the speakers of different languages
of the relevant language or knows these words otherwise, say, from a dictionary. and even to different speakers of the same language) may explain many of the
One may say that language signs are a kind of construction elements translation difficulties.
(bricks) of which a language is built. To prove the necessity of knowing the
language sign system in order to understand a language it is sufficient to run the
following test: read with a dictionary a text in a completely unknown language Ш* The mental concept of a word (and word combination) usually
with complex declination system and rich inflexions (say, Hungarian or consists of lexical meanings, connotations, associations and
grammatical meanings. The lexical meanings, connotations, and
Turkish). Most probably your venture will end in failure because not knowing
associations relate a word to the extralinguistic world, whereas the
the word-changing morphemes (language signs) of this language you won't find
grammatical meanings relate it to the system of the language.
many of the words in a dictionary.
The mental concept is an array of mental images and associations related
to a particular part of the extralinguistic world (both really existing and
imaginary), on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on For example, the German word haben possesses the lexical meaning of to
the other. have with similar connotations and associations and in its grammatical meaning
The relationship between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is it belongs as an element to the German grammatical system of the Perfect
often different even in the minds of different people, speaking the same Tense. One may note similar division of the meanings in the English verb to
language, though it has much in common and, hence, is recognizable by all the have or in the French verb avoir.
members of the language speakers community. As an example of such ambiguity Thus, a lexical meaning is the general mental concept corresponding to a
consider possible variations of the concepts (mental images and associations) word or a combination of words.2 To get a better idea of lexical meanings lets
corresponding to the English word engineer in the minds of English-speaking take a look at some definitions in a dictionary3. For practical pur-
people when this word is used, say, in a simple introductory phrase Meet Mr. X.
He is an engineer.
In this as well as in many other instances we make use of definitions which It is, of course, a simplified definition but we think it serves the purpose of
seem the most suitable for the explanation of translation but might be considered this Manual. In order to read more on this complex subject you may refer to:
oversimplified should they be kept to in a comprehensive semantic analysis. Salomon L.B. Semantics and Common Sense. - New-York, 1966; Chafe W.L.
8 Meaning and the Structure of Language. - Chicago; London, 1971.
Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. -
Oxford, 1982.
9
poses they may be regarded as descriptions of the lexical meanings of the The concepts being strongly subjective and largely different in dif-
words shown below: ferent languages for similar denotata give rise to one of the most difficult
mercy - 1. (capacity for) holding oneself back from punishing, or problems of translation, the problem of ambiguity of translation
from causing suffering to, somebody whom one has the right or power to equivalents.
punish; 2. piece of good fortune, something to be thankful for, relief; 3.
exclamation of surprise or (often pretended) terror.
noodle - 1. type of paste of flour and water or flour and eggs pre- Ш* Another source of translation ambiguity is the polysemantic
pared in long, narrow strips and used in soups, with a sauce, etc.; 2. fool. nature of the language signs: the relationship between the signs and
blinkers (US = blinders) - leather squares to prevent a horse from concepts is very seldom one-to-one, most frequently it is one-to-
seeing sideways. many or many-to-one, i.e. one word has several meanings or several
A connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually words have similar meanings.
designative function of the lexical meaning. As an example, let us compare
the words to die and to peg out. It is easy to note that the former has no
connotation, whereas the latter has a definite connotation of vulgarity.
An association is a more or less regular connection established between These relations are called polysemy (homonymy) and synonymy,
the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers. accordingly. For example, one and the same language sign bay corre-
As an evident example, one may choose red which is usually associated sponds to the concepts of a tree or shrub, a part of the sea, a compartment
with revolution, communism and the like. A rather regular association is in a building, room, etc., deep barking of dogs, and reddish-brown color of a
established between green and fresh (young) and (mostly in the last dec- horse and one and the same concept of high speed corresponds to several
ade) between green and environment protection. language signs: rapid, quick, fast.
Naturally, the number of regular, well-established associations ac- The peculiarities of conceptual fragmentation of the world by the
cepted by the entire language speakers' community is rather limited - the
language speakers are manifested by the range of application of the lexi-
majority of them are rather individual, but what is more important for
translation is that the relatively regular set of associations is sometimes dif- cal meanings (reflected in limitations in the combination of words and
ferent in different languages. The latter fact might affect the choice of trans- stylistic peculiarities). This is yet another problem having direct relation
lation equivalents. to translation - a translator is to observe the compatibility rules of the lan-
guage signs (e. g. make mistakes, but do business).
The relationship of language signs with the well-organized material
Ы The most important fact, however, to be always born in mind in world and mostly logically arranged mental images suggests that a lan-
translation is that the relation between words (language signs) and guage is an orderly system rather than a disarray of random objects. The
parts of the extralinguistic world (denotata) is only indirect and language system and its basic rules are the subject of the next lecture.
going through the mental concepts4.
For more information see, for example, a classical work of Ogden C.K.,
Ivor A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. - London, 1949.
10 11
(??| QUESTIONS Ex. 3. Consider regular associations between English words (concepts) in the
word combinations given below, suggest Ukrainian equivalents of the latter.
1. What are the basic elements of the relationship between a language Observe similarity or difference of the associations in the Ukrainian equiva-
and extralinguistic world? lents.
2. What is a language sign, a concept and a denotatum? Give defini- white knight; white heat; yellow press; common sense; die hard; soft
tions. Show the relation between them? (hard) figures; pipe dream; red tape
3. What is a lexical meaning, a connotation and an association? Give
definitions and examples. Ex. 4. Suggest the missing parts of the expressions below; say where the
4. What is the range of application of a word? Give examples. associations are similar in English and Ukrainian.
5. What are the main sources of translation ambiguity stemming from .... Tom, ... Tom; ... Rouges, ... Rouge; ... sky, .... sky; .... apple; ...
the sign-concept relationship? Apple, apple ..., apple ...., Apple ....Apple, apple ..., apple ...

Ex. 5. Take three homonyms and synonyms in Ukrainian, translate them

into English, point to the cases of similar and different use.
[Э EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Using a dictionary define the lexical meanings of the following words
and word combinations. Find Ukrainian or English equivalents. Compare
the lexical meanings of the English words and their Ukrainian equivalents
and vice versa.
a) anticlimax; arms; bottom; bout; concert; concoct; date; detail;
end; engineer; fulcrum; fun; the gist; give and take; world; worldly; peer
pressure; peer-bonded; rapport; task force; track record; power broker;
odds; home; war.
b) аматор - любитель - дилетант; аналізувати - розглядати -
розбирати; банкір - фінансист; засновник - основоположник -
фундатор - батько; малий - невеликий - нечисленний - обмежений
- мізерний - нікчемний; неймовірний - неправдоподібний - дикий
- парадоксальний - анекдотичний; простий - щирий - простодушний
- грубий - звичайний.

Ех. 2. Describe connotations of the following words and word combinations.

Suggest Ukrainian translations with similar connotations.
malady - disease - illness; unusual - off-beat; efforts - travails; work
- toil, gun - piece; corpse - stiff; rich - well-to-do; quit - buzz off; liqui
date - iron out.

12
13
Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS •* In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the
formal plane, comprising spoken or written language signs (words and
AND SYNTAGMAS word combinations as well as minor elements, morphemes) and the
semantic, comprising mental concepts (meanings) the language signs stand
for.
This Lecture:
• introduces the concepts of a system;
• introduces the notion of language as a system existing in formal and se- As a simplified example one may again take words from a dictionary
mantic planes;
(formalplane) and their definitions (semantic plane):
• attributes linguistic signs to morphological, lexical or syntactic levels;
corps - 1. one of the technical branches of an army; 2. - military force made
• depending on meaning or function, defines what paradigm a unit be-
longs; up of two or more divisions
• analyzes syntactic and semantic valence; correct - 1. true, right; 2. - proper, in accord with good taste and
• shows how different syntagmas are activated in English and Ukrainian in conventions.
the course of translation; This example is, of course, simplified since the real semantic content
• gives a definition of translation as a specific coding-encoding process. corresponding to a word is much more complex and not that easy to define. The
general relationship between these planes has been described in the previous
lecture.
So, there is a system underlying seemingly random signs of a language.
One may note, for instance, that not all the words are compatible with each
other, their range of application has certain limitations, and through their lexical Ы A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels:
meanings and associations they may be united into individual groups. morphological (including morphs and morphemes as objects), lexical
For example, to take an extreme case, in English speech one will never find (including words as objects) and syntactic (comprising such objects as
two articles in a row or in an official obituary an English speaker will never say elements of the sentence syntax such as Subject, Predicate, etc.)
that the minister pegged out. An evident example of grouping by meaning and
association gives the group of colors in which even a little child will easily
include black, red, blue, etc.
Thus, one may conclude that there is some order organizing hundreds of For example, -tion, -sion are the English word-building morphemes and
thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in belong to objects of the morphological level, book, student, desk as well as any
speech. This order is called the system of a language. Any system is an other word belong to objects of the lexical level, and the same words (nouns)
organized set of objects and relations between them, but before discussing book, student, desk in a sentence may become Subjects or Objects and thus
objects and relations in the system of a language it is worthwhile to describe the belong to the set of syntactic level objects of the language.
traditional approach to language system descriptions.
14 15
•► At each language level its objects may be grouped according to The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the
their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms. following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their
formation (viz. Table below)
Names of Paradigms Used Elements Activated in the Sentence
For example, the English morphemes s and es enter the paradigm of to Form the Sentences English Ukrainian
Number (Plural). Words spring, summer, autumn, and winter enter the Personal Pronouns Paradigm he він
lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons. All verbs may be grouped into the Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense used, come приїздив
syntactic (functional) paradigm of Predicates. Paradigm Particles Paradigm Past Indef. минулий нас
One may note that one and the same word may belong to different Prepositions Paradigm Noun to none
levels and different paradigms, i.e. the language paradigms are fuzzy sets Paradigm Adjectives to до
with common elements. As an example, consider the lexico-semantic Paradigm Adverbs Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна
paradigm of colors the elements of which (black, white, etc.) also belong Noun Cases Paradigm each кожний
to the syntactic paradigms of Attributes and Nouns.
Adjective Cases Paradigm none зазвичай
It is important to note that the elements of language paradigms are
united and organized according to their potential roles in speech (text) for- Common Case род. відм.
mation. These roles are called valences. Thus, words black, white, red, etc. none род. відм.
have a potential to define colors of the objects (semantic valence) and a
potential capacity to serve as Attributes in a sentence (syntactic valence). Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily note that both the sets used and the set
Ы The paradigms of the language brought together form the system elements activated are often different.
of the language which may be regarded as a kind of construction They are different because English and Ukrainian possess different
material to build sentences and texts. Language paradigms are vir- language systems. It goes without saying, that this fact is very important
tual elements of the language which are activated in syntactically in- for translation and explains many translation problems.
terdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagmas.
In simple language a syntagma is a pair of words connected by the •► Any language has a particular multi-level organization: its ele-
master-servant relationship5 ments are organized in sets (paradigms) at various levels and a lan-
As an example, consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian: He guage speaker is using the elements of these sets to generate a mes-
used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай кожної весни він приїздив sage intended for communication with other speakers of this lan-
до Італії. guage and entirely incomprehensible for those who have no com-
mand of this language.
5
This is an approach typical for Immediate Constituents (1С) Grammar.
16 17
The latter fact is easy to illustrate by a sentence in a language pre- (?£) QUESTIONS
sumably unfamiliar to the readers of this Manual. Consider Dutch sen-
tence: Datvat ik niet. One will understand it if he knows that: 1. What are the two main planes of a language? What is the
relationship between them?
ik is a Personal Pronoun, first person singular (English I);
2. What levels are traditionally distinguished in a language? Give ex-
vat is the first person singular of the verb vatten (English catch, get);
amples of the objects of each level.
niet is the negation (English not, no);
3. What is a language paradigm? Give examples of lexico-semantic and
dat is a Pronoun (English it, this).
grammatical paradigms.
Then being aware of the relevant English words (paradigm ele- 4. What is a syntagma? Give a definition.
ments) one may render this sentence in English as / do not get it. 5. What is the language system? Give a definition.
From the above one may conclude that a language is a code under-
stood only by its users (speakers)6. Then, may be, translation is a process
of decoding a message in one code and encoding it in another which is
{§} EXERCISES
understood by another group of users using a different code. However,
this is the subject of the next lecture. Ex. 1. Give the elements of the following lexico-semantic paradigms.
a) furniture, colors, time, times of the day, seasons
b) вибори; судова система; переговори; фінанси

Ех. 2. Compare the grammatical paradigms which enter the following Eng-
lish words and their Ukrainian equivalents.
house, man, easy, do-little, easy-going, white

Ex. 3. In the text below, name as many lexico-semantic and grammatical

paradigms as you can find.

BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICAS CULTURE WARS

CONTINUE The Internaitonal
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler.
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro-
tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam
of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just
6
This viewpoint is widely accepted by computational linguistics (viz., e. g.: petered out.
Grishman R. Computational Linguistics: An Introduction - Cambridge, 1987).
19
18
Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have
accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a
new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS
gunfire is now increasingly distant.» OF COMMUNICATION
It makes you wonder what country they're living in.

Ex. 4. Compare the paradigm sets used to form the following English and
This Lecture
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these
• introduces the concepts of:
sentences.
• (a) communication;
Jack is an early riser. Джек рано встає.
• (b) components communication consists of (message, message
sender, message recipient);
• (c) ways of communicating;
• shows the difference between bilingual communication and translation;
• shows which tools are helpful in coping with ambiguity of messages and
gives their definitions.

Thus, a language may be regarded as a specific code intended for in-

formation exchange between its users (language speakers). Indeed, any
language resembles a code being a system of interrelated material signs
(sounds or letters), various combinations of which stand for various messages.
Language grammars and dictionaries may be considered as a kind of Code
Books, indicating both the meaningful combinations of signs for a particular
language and their meanings.
For example, if one looks up the words (sign combinations) elect and
college in a dictionary he will find that they are meaningful for English (as
opposed, say, to combinations ele or oil), moreover, in an English grammar he
will find that, at least, one combination of these words: elect college is also
meaningful and forms a message.

•* The process of language communication involves sending a message by

a message sender to a message recipient - the sender encodes his mental
message into the code of a particular language and the recipient decodes it
using the same code (language).
20 21
The communication variety with one common language is called the
the Bible, a code,a book, etc. as a noun) but one will easily and without
monolingual communication.
any doubt understand this message:
If, however, the communication process involves two languages
1. as Book tickets! in a situation involving reservation of tickets or
(codes) this variety is called the bilingual communication.
1. as Give that book! in a situation involving sudden and urgent
Bilingual communication is a rather typical occurrence in countries
necessity to be given the book in question
with two languages in use (e. g. in Ukraine or Canada). In Ukraine one
may rather often observe a conversation where one speaker speaks So, one of the means clarifying the meaning of ambiguous messages
Ukrainian and another one speaks Russian. The peculiarity of this com- is the fragment of the real world that surrounds the speaker which is
munication type lies in the fact that decoding and encoding of mental usually called extralinguistic situation.
messages is performed simultaneously in two different codes. For exam- Another possibility to clarify the meaning of the word book is pro-
ple, in a Ukrainian-Russian pair one speaker encodes his message in vided by the context which may be as short as one more word a (a book)
Ukrainian and decodes the message he received in Russian. or several words (e.g., the book I pave you).
In simple words a context may be defined as a length of speech (text)
necessary to clarify the meaning of a given word.
•* Translation is a specific type of bilingual communication since
(as opposed to bilingual communication proper) it obligatory in- Ш* The ambiguity of a language makes it necessary to use situation
volves a third actor (translator) and for the message sender and re- and context to properly generate and understand a message (i. e. en-
cipient the communication is, in fact, monolingual. code and decode it) Since translation according to communicational
approach is decoding and encoding in two languages the significance
of situation and context for translation cannot be overestimated.
Translation as a specific communication process is treated by the
communicational theory of translation discussed in more detail elsewhere
in this Manual7. There is another factor also to be taken into account in communica-
Thus, a language is a code used by language speakers for communi- tion and, naturally, in translation. This factor is background information,
cation. However, a language is a specific code unlike any other and its i. e. general awareness of the subject of communication.
peculiarity as a code lies in its ambiguity - as opposed to a code proper a To take an example the word combination electoral college will mean
language produces originally ambiguous messages which are specified nothing unless one is aware of the presidential election system in the
against context, situation and background information. USA.
Let us take an example. Let the original message in English be an in- Apart from being a code strongly dependent on the context, situa-
struction or order Book!. It is evidently ambiguous having at least two tion and background information a language is also a code of codes.
grammatical meanings (a noun and a verb) and many lexical ones (e. g., There are codes within codes in specific areas of communication (scien-
tific, technical, military, etc.) and so called sub-languages (of profes-
See also: Kade O. Kommunikationswissenschaftliche Probleme der sional, age groups, etc.). This applies mostly to specific vocabulary used
Translation // Grundfragen der Uebersetzungwissenschaft. - Leipzig, 1968. by these groups though there are differences in grammar rules as well.
22
23
As an example of the elements of such in-house languages 8 one may Qj?| QUESTIONS
take words and word combinations from financial sphere (chart of ac-
counts, value added, listing), diplomatic practice (credentials, charge 1. What is language communication? What actors does it involve?
d'affaires, framework agreement) or legal language (bail, disbar, plaintiff). 2. What is monolingual communication? What is bilingual communi-
All said above is undoubtedly important for translation and will be cation? Kive examples.
discussed in more detail elsewhere during this lecture course, however, it 3. Describe translation as a special kind of bilingual communication.
is high time to answer the seemingly simple question «What is transla- Why is it called special?
tion?». And this is the subject of the next lecture. 4. What is peculiar about a language as a code? Which factors specify
the meaning of a message?
5. What is context, situation and background information? fiive defi-
nition of context, fiive examples of extralinguistic situations and
items of background information that would clarify a message.
(§J EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Suggest the elements of the context that clarify the meanings of the
italicized words in the following phrases (messages).Translate into Ukrain-
ian and English, accordingly.
a) You are doing well\ Water is deep down the well. Top-to-bottom
structure. The submarine lies on the sea bottom. College vote. University
college. Drugs plague modern society. The drug is to be taken with meals.
b) Він пишався своєю рідною землею, що дала світу так багато
видатних людей. У цій частині країни всі землі придатні для
вирощування пшениці. На чорній землі біла пшениця родить. На
чиїй землі живеш, того й воду п'єш. Колос плідний до землі гнеться,
а пустий - вгору дереться. Земля багата - народ багатий.

Ех. 2. Describe situations and/or items of background information that clar-

ify the meanings of the italicized words in the following phrases (messages).
Translate into Ukrainian.
Bottoms up! Her Majesty man-o'-war 'Invincible'. Bugs in the room.
Global net.
The term used by some scholars for sub-languages.
25
24
Ex. 3. Describe situations and/or items of background information that clar-
ify the meanings of the following Ukrainian words. Suggest English equiva- gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the
lents. double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been
презентація, КВН, бомж, зачистка, прем'єріада, ЖЕК. to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the economic
calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks
Ех. 4. Translate the text into Ukrainian. Suggest items of background in- countries.
formation necessary for its proper translation. The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year. conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax
demonstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny. or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reasonably adept at ruling,
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun- governments.
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its
is time now to do'. 'Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 promises. Generally, the so-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov- the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a
ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is
performance of New Labour. appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea- office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hurdle, just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur- from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes - realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close electorate may be terrible.
to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari- Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Qov- on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
ernment teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel protests. would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov-
It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer credit ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged
for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did
eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors. not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have that historic goal of Labour.
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench- must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re- government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
26
27.
devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern- Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy
ments dating back to Gladstone. Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds.
One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers
the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold
by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre- and innovatory ideas.
mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour goal This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding
when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been compelled to governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to
accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence for the secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation
Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop today - and has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting
would leave enduring legacies. system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his
There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe
because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
have been enacted by a Labour government. more aggressively hostile than ever.
Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan-
altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed. cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but
With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The
Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his
swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate
making Labour'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation by the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner
Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister. in Europe?
But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal- The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history.
lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to
often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful change the future.
about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re-
mains coy of full candour.
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are
enough of them, can take you on a long journey.
Baby bonds are an eyecatching device to give the poor an asset stake
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David
28 29
In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify
the information they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and con-
Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION cepts) we should consider extralinguistic situation, and background in-
formation.
Having considered all this, we shall come to understand that as an
In this Lecture the reader will: object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the
• find the definition of translation as an object of linguistic study in terms of following interrelated components:
process and outcome;
• find the definitions of languages translated from and into. The a. elements and structures of the source text;
lecture also describes: b. elements and structures of the target language;
. • stages of the translation process; с transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of
• the role of verification process. the source text into those of the target text; systems of the languages involved
in translation;
e. conceptual content and organization of the source text;
Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it
f conceptual content and organization of the target text;
in special literature they are seldom specific about the meaning. The pre-
g. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target
sumption is quite natural - everybody understands the meaning of the
word. However, to describe translation intuitive understanding is not texts.
sufficient - what one needs is a definition.
In short, translation is functional interaction of languages9 and to
Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining
study this process we should study both the interacting elements and the
translation we are interested in both its aspects. First of all, we are inter-
rules of interaction.
ested in the process because it is the process we are going to define.
Among interacting elements we must distinguish between the ob-
But at the same time we need the result of translation since along-
servable and those deducible from the observables. The observable ele-
side with the source the translated text is one of the two sets of observed
ments in translation are parts of words, words, and word combinations of
events we have at our disposal if we intend to describe the process. In
the source text.
order to explain translation we need to compare the original (source) text
However, translation process involves parts of words, words, and
and the resulting (target) one.
word combinations of the target language (not of the target text, because
However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by
when we start translating or, to be more exact, when we begin to build a
the rules characteristic of the source and target languages. Hence the
model of future translation, the target text is yet to be generated). These
systems of the two languages are also included in our sphere of interest.
translation components are deducible from observable elements of the
These systems consist of grammar units and rules, morphological and
source text.
word-building elements and rules, stylistical variations, and lexical dis-
In other words, one may draw the following conclusion:
tribution patterns (lexico-semantic paradigms).
Moreover, when describing a language one should never forget that
language itself is a formal model of thinking, i.e. of mental concepts we
use when thinking. 9
The definition suggested by V.Komissarov. See: Комиссаров В.Н.
Лингвистика перевода. - M., 1981.
30 31
•► During translation one intuitively fulfills the following operations: standing the way translation is done. In the case we have just discussed
a. deduces the target language elements and rules of equivalent the translation model is verified against the relevance of the concepts
selection and substitution on the basis of observed source text corresponding to the word chips in all its meanings to the concept of the
elements; word frying (Is it usually fried? or Is it worth frying?).
b. builds a model consisting of the target language elements se
lected for substitution;
с verifies the model of the target text against context, situation Ш* Verification against semantic and grammatical contexts is per-
and background information; d. generates the target text on formed either simultaneously (if the grammatical and semantic ref-
the basis of the verified model. erences are available within a syntagma) or the verification against
semantic context is delayed until the availability of a relevant seman-
tic reference which may be available in one of the following rather
than in one and the same sentence. Cases when the grammatical, se-
Thus, the process of translation may be represented as consisting of mantic or situational references are delayed or missing present serious
three stages:
problems for translation.
1. analysis of the source text, situation and background informa-
tion,
2. synthesis of the translation model, and
3. verification of the model against the source and target context The examples of specifying contexts are given in Table below.
(semantic, grammatical, stylistic), situation, and background information long stick - long run grammatical and semantic context
resulting in the generation of the final target text. in one syntagma
Let us illustrate this process using a simple assumption that you re-
The results are shown in the table - grammatical and semantic context
ceive for translation one sentence at a time (by the way this assumption is
Put this book on the table in one sentence
a reality of consecutive translation).
The tanks were positioned in spe- semantic context in different sen-
For example, if you received:
cially built shelters and the tank tences
«At the first stage the chips are put on the conveyer» as the source
operation proved successful. The
sentence. Unless you observe or know the situation your model of the
enemy could not detect them from
target text will be:
the air.
«На першому етапі стружку (щебінку) (смажену картоплю)
(нарізану сиру картоплю) (чіпи) кладуть на конвеєр». With these simple examples we want to stress a very important fact
Having verified this model against the context provided in the next for translation: the co-occurring words or the words situated close to each
sentence (verification against semantic context): other in a source text have invisible pointers indicating various kinds of
«Then they are transferred to the frying oven» you will obtain: «На grammatical, semantic, and stylistic information. This information is stored
першому етапі нарізану сиру картоплю кладуть на конвеєр». in human memory, and the principal task of a translator is to visualize all
It looks easy and self-evident, but it is important, indeed, for under- of this information.
In the examples with chips that were just discussed we used so called
deduction modeling, that is we built our translation on the basis of our
knowledge about the languages involved in translation and the knowl-
32 33
edge of «the way things are in life» (e.g. that it is hardly reasonable to fry
fried potatoes or fragmented stones). We intuitively formulated hy- J??l QUESTIONS
potheses about translation of certain words and phrases and then verified
them. 1. What interrelated components does translation include as an object of
So, speaking very generally, when we translate the first thing we do is linguistic study?
analyze the source text trying to extract from it all available information 2. Give short definition of translation (after Komissarov).
necessary for generating the target text (build the intermediate model of the 3. What are the interacting elements in translation? What elements are
target text), then verify this information against situation and background observable? What elements are deducible?
knowledge and generate the target text. 4. What interrelated operations does one fulfill in the process of trans-
For example, let the source text be: lation?
Europe's leaders trust that these criticisms will pale into insignificance 5. What three stages does one distinguish in translation?
when the full import of expansion begins to grip the public mind
Then, omitting the grammatical context which seems evident (§J EXERCISES
(though, of course, we have already analyzed it intuitively) we may sug-
gest the following intermediate model of the target text that takes into Ex. 1. Suggest situation and/or background information necessary to clarify
account only semantic ambiguities: the meanings of the italicized words in the following sentences. Suggest
Європейські лідери/лідери європейської інтеграції/ вважають/ Ukrainian equivalents for the italicized words and explain your choice.
вірять/, що ця критика вщухне/поступово зійде нанівець/, коли Translate the texts into Ukrainian and English, respectively.
важливість поширення (Євросоюзу) почне завойовувати громадську 1. He stopped for gas at an all-night Texaco with a clerk who seemed
думку/, коли суспільство почне краще усвідомлювати важливість uncommonly friendly.
розширення Євросоюзу/. 2. Here was the most powerful country on earth in suspended anima-
On the basis of this model we may already suggest a final target text tion: in the age of Internet, the age of instant information, the race be-
alternative10: tween Al Gore and George W. Bush was frozen by a laborious manual
Лідери європейської інтеграції вважають, що ця критика recount.
поступово зійде нанівець, коли суспільство почне краще усвідомлю- 3. All that the unsuspecting Bilbo saw that morning was an old man
вати важливість розширення Євросоюзу. with a staff.
It is important to bear in mind that in human translation (unlike «Good morningl» said Bilbo, and he meant it. The sun is shining, and
automatic) the intermediate representation of the target text will comprise the grass was very green. But Gandall looked at him from under his long
on the conscious level only the most problematic variations of translation bushy eyebrows that stuck out further than the brim of his shady hat.
which one cannot resolve immediately. «What do you mean?» he said. «Do you wish me a good morning, or
We seldom notice this mental work of ours but always do it when mean that it is a good morning whether I want it or not; or that you feel
translating. However, the way we do it is very much dependent on gen- good this morning; or that it is a morning to be good on?
eral approach, i.e. on translation theories which are our next subject. «All of them at once,» said Bilbo. And a very fine morning for a pipe
of tobacco out of doors, into the bargain. (Tolkien)
4. Як поет, він вперше серйозно заявив про себе під час
10
It goes without saying that this target text alternative is not the only one - «відлиги». Час минає, гласність стала асоціюватися з конкретним
many other alternatives are possible. історичним періодом перебудови, на зміну їй прийшов термін про-
34 35
зарість. Спілкуючись з іноземцями, дізнаєшся, що для багатьох із it houses the National Archives, the Departments of State and Com-
них Україна - це Чорнобиль і Шевченко, зробимо паузу ... фут- merce, and the Internal Revenue Service. The grand neo-classical faces of
боліст. these huge, foursquare buildings hark back to a time before federal bu-
reaucracy became a term of contempt.
Ех. 2. Build an intermediate model of translation and suggest final target The project began with an idealistic vision. The concept was to pull
text for the source text below. together beneath one roof a cultural center and agencies for international
He could almost feel the campfire glow of the screen, an interna- trade. What a wonderful idea: a government building dedicated to the
tional sameness of news that must accompany businessmen everywhere. historical and continuing interaction between global trade and cultural
exchange. Sadly, the cultural components, mainly performance spaces,
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest elements of the context that helped were largely eliminated from the project in 1992. As realized, the Reagan
you choose the Ukrainian equivalents. Building houses some small government agencies, private business of-
fices, shops, restaurants and the Woodrow Wilson Center. Essentially, it
WASHINGTONS NEW SALUTE TO COMPROMISE is a speculative real estate venture built on public land. The major disap-
New York Times September 6, 1998, by Herbert Muschamp pointment is that the building itself makes no cultural contribution.
Bad things happen to good architects. James Ingo Freed is the man The site is a vast irregular space, just south of the Post Office Build-
who designed the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, one of the ing, left vacant when work on the Triangle was halted in the late 1930s.
most powerful buildings of our time. It gives me no pleasure to report For decades, the lot was used for parking. In plan, it looks something like
that Freed's most recent project, the Ronald Reagan Building, is a a guitar after a mad rock star has smashed off part of the handle. Like the
disappointing piece of work. The building has intermittent merit. It is an Holocaust Museum, this building has a dual personality. Its neo-classical
impressive feat of urban planning. It also offers some fine interiors and limestone exterior belies the modern spaces within. At the Holocaust
an excellent outdoor space. Its flaws are mostly the result of the design Museum, however, Freed subverted the classical vocabulary to create a
constraints under which Freed was compelled to operate. He was ex- gaunt, hauntingly sinister facade, an image that evokes the official face of
pected to design a neo-classical edifice of stone, as if in 1998 that concept a totalitarian regime.
were still able to fill anything larger than a Bart Simpson frame of values. Here, he gives us neo-classicism straight, without even a whiff of
As someone once said, the scariest sentence in the language is, «Everyone postmodern irony. There are rusticated stone bases, ionic columns,
has their reasons.» This building is such an overwhelming monument to arches both round and square, two little round tempietti, windows with
compromise that one comes away resenting the talent, intelligence, ma- triple-layered stone reveals. This overwrought classicism is the kind that
terials, time and space absorbed by its creation. Louis Sullivan, in 1893, predicted would set American architecture back
Officially called the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade by 50 years. Do I hear 100? Inside the building, Freed has attempted to
Center, this edifice is second in size only to the Pentagon among federal realize the modernist ideals of structure and clarity that have guided most
buildings. It fills in the last empty plot of ground in the Federal Triangle, of his work. Beyond the main entrance, on 14th Street, is the building's
the 70-acre urban slice that fans out between the Mall and Pennsylvania main public space, a vast atrium with an exposed metal framework that
Avenue. Physically and symbolically, the Triangle both joins and sepa- rises toward a glass roof in the form of a half-cone.
rates the executive and legislative branches of government. The arrangement is similar to Cesar Pelli's Winter Garden at Battery
The area is slightly larger than Vatican City, though its turn-of-the- Park City: glazed atrium; palatial staircase; a ring of shops and restau-
century image did not occupy high moral ground. A century ago, the rants; art gallery. But instead of looking out toward the Hudson River,
Triangle was called the Hooker District for the many brothels there. Now
36 37
ceptance. The city has been denied the knowledge Freed has gained in a
this atrium faces an imposing mezzanine adorned with a brilliant neon lifetime of distinguished work, integrity and intellect. As a former dean
sculpture by Keith Sonnier. of the Illinois Institute of Technology, once headed by Mies van der
Freed's other major departure from beaux arts precedent is the inte- Rohe, Freed needs no architecture critic to remind him that Mies was the
rior circulation. Instead of axial symmetry, the organization of halls and heir to neo-classicism in this century, and that the Reagan Building was
corridors reflects the site's irregular shape. Imagine the diagonal criss- an opportunity to rethink neo-classicism in the light of that history. All
cross of an airports runways and you gain some impression of the effect. those pilasters and cornices are just so much fireworks, easy applause.
The plan is mildly disorienting but never boring. This is not a bureau- This should have been a glass building, a literal and metaphoric
cratic Kafkaland. What remains of the buildings initial program of per- reflection on Classicism and the City Beautiful movement. It would have
forming arts is a small but exquisite auditorium, its walls festooned with taken courage to insist on a modern building - or maybe just a serious
swags of copper-colored fabric, acoustically functional and visually rav- phone call to Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose influence on public
ishing. A large illuminated grid of white opaque glass - an Adolf Loos works is potent. What is most deplorable about this building is that it
marquee - rises two stories in the hall outside the theater. pitches Classicism back into exhausted debates over Traditional vs. Mod-
Behind the building is a large plaza, the most successful element of ern, Conservative vs. Progressive, debates that debased esthetic currency
the design. Fronting upon the grand hemicycle of the Post Office Build- in the 19th century and have certainly not created architectural value in
ing, the design counters this curve with a long diagonal wall to create a the comic post-modern mimicry of historical styles.
dynamic public space. The Reagan Building reaches out toward the As Freed must know, his design for the Javits Center in New York is
hemicycle with a pavilion that will house the Woodrow Wilson Center. more authentically classical, in the principles it conveys of structure, clar-
The pavilion's attentuated curve is balanced in the center of the plaza by a ity, detail and proportions, in its relationship to context and urban history,
two-story tempietto designed for an upscale restaurant. The space offers a in its expression of personal conviction. Or if Moynihan was otherwise
grand procession toward a Metro stop and is adorned by a perfectly indisposed and a masonry building had to be the order of the day, Freed
scaled sculpture by Martin Puryear. might have modeled this structure on the radical Classicism of Boullee
The work resembles at once an exclamation point and a punching and Ledoux, and thus enriched the Federal Triangle with an architectural
bag: a fine symbol of the emotions evoked by a government of, by, for reminder of our country's roots in the Enlightenment. Those abstracted,
and against the people. Best of all is a long arcade facing out on the 18th-century designs are also among the historical sources of Freed's
courtyard, and stretching its full length. It is divided into shallow bays, architecture.
each outfitted with a lamp of exaggerated length. The spatial proportions In the Holocaust Museum, Freed, who was born in Nazi Germany,
may remind visitors of a first childhood trip to Washington. Recently, I rose to the great creative challenge of drawing upon his intense personal
listened to the recording of Maria Callas Juilliard master class in which experience of history's greatest evil. With greater fidelity to his own sense
she says good-bye to her students. Callas tells them that it makes no dif- of architectural diction, phrasing and feeling, Freed might have created a
ference whether she keeps on singing or not. They are the younger gen- building that assured modern democracy's capital city of its own place in
eration, they must keep on going in the proper way, with courage, phras- time.
ing and diction: not with fireworks, or for easy applause, but with the
expression of the words, and with feeling.
If I hear her correctly, what she is saying works to take the measure
of this building. External authority - a musical score, an urban context,
the classical tradition - can be properly grasped only by an artists coura-
geous acceptance of her internal authority. This building lacks that ac-
39
38
According to this interpretation a transformation starts at the syntactic level
when there is a change, i.e. when we alter, say, the word order during
Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES translation. Substitutions at other levels are regarded as equivalencies, for
instance, when we substitute words of the target language for those of the
source, this is considered as an equivalence.
The lecture discusses: In the transformational approach we shall distinguish three levels of
• transformational approach; substitutions: morphological equivalencies, lexical equivalencies, and syntactic
• denotative approach: equivalencies and/or transformations.
• communicational approach; In the process of translation:
and shows both the strength and limitations of each. ♦ at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-
changing) of the target language are substituted for those of the source;
In this lecture we shall discuss the most common theoretical approaches to ♦ at the lexical level words and word combinations of the target language
human translation paying special attention to their limitations and ability to are substituted for those of the source;
explain the translation process. ♦ at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the target language are
Roughly, the human translation theories may be divided into three main substituted for those of the source.
groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational approach, For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is
denotative approach, and communicational approach. transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір or French words
The transformational theories consist of many varieties which may have chambre or espace or German words Zimmer or Raum.
different names but they all have one common feature: the process of translation The syntactic transformations in translation comprise a broad range of
is regarded as transformation. structural changes in the target text, starting from the reversal of the word order
in a sentence and finishing with division of the source sentence into two and
more target ones.
Ш* According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as The most common example of structural equivalencies at the syntactic
the transformation of objects and structures of the source language into level is that of some Verb Tense patterns, e.g. English to German: (shall (will)
those of the target. go —> werde/werden/wird gehen).
The above examples of transformations and equivalencies at various levels
are the simplest and, in a way, artificial because real translation transformations
Within the group of theories which we include in the transformational are more complex and often at different levels of languages involved in
approach a dividing line is sometimes drawn between transformations and translation.
equivalencies". This kind of transformation is especially frequent when translation
involves an analytical and a synthetic language, e. g. English and Ukrainian.
" See, e. g.: Бархударов Л. С. Язык и перевод. - М., 1975; Латышев Л.К. From the above you may conclude that according to the transformational
Курс перевода. - М., 1981; Латышев Л.К. Текст и перевод. - М., 1989; Рец- approach translation is a set of multi-level replacements of a text in one
кер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974; Ширяев language by a text in another governed by specific transformation rules.
А.Ф. Синхронный перевод. - М., 1979; Марчук Ю.Н. Методы моделиро-
вания перевода. - М., 1985; Марчук Ю.Н. Проблемы машинного перевода. 41
-М., 1983.
40
However, the transformational approach is insufficient when the origi- vidual components (words and word combinations): sea - море, tonight -
nal text corresponds to one indivisible concept which is rendered by the сьогодні ввечері, is warm - тепле.
translator as a text in another language also corresponding to the relevant In the second instance, however, equivalence between the original sen-
indivisible concept. tence and its translation is occasional (i.e. worth only for this case) and the
For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be concept, pertaining to the whole sentence cannot be divided into individual
explained by simple substitution of target language words and word components.
combinations for those of source language. The indivisible nature of the concept pertaining to the second ex-
This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spo- ample may be proved by literal translation of both source and target sen-
ken, rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative tences - Тільки персонал and Service room. Service - Тільки or room -
approach is an attempt to explain such translation cases. персонал are hardly regular equivalencies (i.e. equivalencies applicable to
Though denotative approach to translation is based on the idea of other translation instances).
denotatum (see above the relationship of signs, concepts and denotata), it The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O.
has more relevance to that of a concept. Kade and is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus. So, it
is worthwhile to define the principal terms first.
Communication may be defined as an act of sending and receiving
some information, which is called a message
* According to denotative approach the process of translation is not
It should go without saying that this definition is oversimplified and
just mere substitution but consists of the following mental opera-
not all communication terms used here are standard terms of communi-
tions:
cation and information theories. Our purpose, however, is to describe the
♦ translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;
act of communication in the simplest possible terms and to show
♦ translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this translation as a part of this act.12
message; Information, which is sent and received (communicated) may be of
♦ translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to any kind (e.g. gestures, say, thumbs up), but we shall limit ourselves to
the above denotatum and concept. verbal communication only, i.e. when we send and receive information in
the form of a written or spoken text.
Naturally enough when communicating we inform others about
It should be noted that, according to this approach during translation something we know. That is in order to formulate a message, we use our
we deal with similar word forms of the matching languages and concepts system of interrelated data, which is called a thesaurus^.
deduced from these forms, however, as opposed to the transformational We shall distinguish between two kinds of thesauruses in verbal
approach, the relationship between the source and target word forms is communication: language thesaurus and subject thesaurus.
occasional rather than regular.
To illustrate this difference let us consider the following two exam- 12
See more in: Естественный язык, искусственные языки и информа-
ples: ционные процессы в современном обществе. - М.. 1988; Попов Э.В. Об-
(1) The sea is warm tonight- Сьогодні ввечері море тепле. щение с ЭВМ на естественном языке. - М.,1982.
(2) Staff only - Службове приміщення. See more on thesauruses in: Нариньяни А.С. Лингвистические про-
In the first instance the equivalencies are regular and the concept, per- цессоры и представление знаний. - Новосибирск, 1981; Никитина СЕ. Те-
taining to the whole sentence may be divided into those relating to its indi- заурус по лингвистике. - М., 1978.
43
42
Language thesaurus is a system of our knowledge about the language However, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the com-
which we use to formulate a message, whereas subject thesaurus is a sys- municational aspect in the success of translation.
tem of our knowledge about the content of the message. To understand this better let us consider an example of message
Thus, in order to communicate, the message sender formulates the formulation (encoding), message translation (encoding/decoding), and
mental content of his or her message using subject thesaurus, encodes it message receipt (decoding).
using the verbal forms of language thesaurus, and conveys it to the mes- Let the original message expressed by a native speaker of English
sage recipient, who decodes the message also using language thesaurus and (encoded using the English language as a code to convey the mental con-
interprets the message using subject thesaurus as well. This is a simple tent of the message) be:
description of monolingual communication. Several new schools appeared in the area.
It is very important to understand that the thesauruses of message Let us assume then that the message sender, being a fisherman and
sender and recipient may be different to a greater or lesser degree, and using relevant subject thesaurus, by schools meant large number of fish
that is why we sometimes do not understand each other even when we swimming together rather than institutions for educating children, and
think we are speaking one and the same language. the correct translation then had to be:
So, in regular communication there are two actors, sender and re- У районі з'явились нові косяки риби whereas the translator who
cipient, and each of them uses two thesauruses (Although they use the presumably did not have relevant information in his subject thesaurus
same language their underlying knowledge bases may differ). translated schools as institutions for educating children:
In special bilingual communication (i.e. translation), we have three У районі з'явились нові школи, which naturally lead to
actors: sender, recipient, and intermediary (translator). misunderstanding (miscommunication).
The translator has two language thesauruses (source and target one) The above example shows a case of miscommunication based on the
and performs two functions: decodes the source message and encodes the insufficiency of extralinguistic information. However, there are also cases
target one to be received by the recipient (end user of the translation). of miscommunication caused by the insufficiency of linguistic informa-
tion.
This example is, of course, an exaggeration, but it clearly illustrates a
• O. Kade's communicational theory of translation describes the dividing line between linguistic and extralinguistic information in trans-
process of translation as an act of special bilingual communication in lation as visualized by the communicational approach to translation.
which the translator acts as a special communication intermediary, Thus, the communicational approach to translation, though saying
making it possible to understand a message sent in a different lan- little about translation as such, highlights a very important aspect of
guage. translation.
*According to communicational approach translation is a
One may note that the communicational approach pays special at- message sent by a translator to a particular user and the adequacy of
tention to the aspects of translation relating to the act of communication, translation depends on similarity of their background information
whereas the translation process as such remains unspecified, and one rather than only on linguistic correctness.
may only presume that it proceeds either by a transformational or deno-
tative path (see their relevant descriptions above).
44 45
03 QUESTIONS Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian using both transformational and denotative
approaches. Suggest reasons for your choice of a particular approach.
1. What are the basic theoretical approaches to translation?
2. What is translation according to the transformational approach? SPRING-CLEAN
3. What are the steps involved in translation according to the denotative The Times, March 162001
approach? The Clinton foreign policy is in for an overhaul For a President who
4. What are the principal differences between transformational and took office with the reputation of being almost exclusively interested in
denotative equivalencies? domestic policy, George W. Bush has moved with remarkable speed and
5. What is translation according to the communicational approach?
concentration to distance his Administration's foreign and security poli-
What is the key to successful translation according to this approach?
cies from those of the Clinton era. Almost every major aspect of Amer-
ica's international profile is under intensive scrutiny. Even on missile
defence, where there is no doubting President Bush's determination to
(§J EXERCISES press ahead, if possible with the assent and co-operation of America's
Ex. 1. Compare the Ukrainian text and its English translation, find mis- allies and of Russia but if need be without, analysts have been sent back
matching text elements. Suggest the approach used by the translator. to the technical and diplomatic drawing boards. But it is already clear
how different will be the priorities and style of this Administration.
Слово може обманути. Очі, руки, ритм серця - ніколи... Задля It will be scrupulously polite, as Tony Blair found, but on substance
цієї правди якась дитина сьогодні вперше одягне пуанти і стане до it will be a good deal less emollient than the Clinton White House. It will
станка... І з тої миті, якщо вистачить їй волі і бажання, кожен день have a preference for the bilateral over the multilateral; and it is deeply
власним різцем на власному тілі буде годинами «відсікати все зай- sceptical of the Clintonite mantra of «constructive engagement» with
ве»... governments, such as China's, North Korea's or even Russia's, which in
Words deceive, while the eyes, hands and heart never do... Learning the words of the Secretary of State, Colin Powell, «do not follow interna-
this simple truth, another youngster dons her toe shoes and approaches tional standards of behaviour». The new Administration may also, al-
the bar for the first time... From this very moment, if she has enough will though the Bush team does not yet, and may not in future, speak with
and desire, she will start shaping her body several hours a day... one voice, be more reliable to deal with than the Clinton White House,
which was disconcertingly prone to abrupt policy shifts.
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using the transformational approach and
This is no «new look» team. Mr Bush has drawn his biggest hitters
observing syntactical transformations of the italicized text fragments.
from his fathers generation, and in so doing has created a novel variation
No bail for South African police. on the tensions, familiar from the days of Henry Kissinger, between the
Bail should be denied for six white police officers arrested after a State Department, Defence and the National Security Adviser. Both Gen-
videotape showed them setting dogs on alleged illegal immigrants, beating eral Powell at State and, to a lesser extent, Condoleezza Rice at National
them and shouting racial slurs, Justice Minister said Wednesday
Security are finding themselves outpaced by the formidable duo of Don-
ald Rumsfeld at Defence and Richard Cheney, who shows no sign of set-
tling into the conventional near-anonymity of the vice-presidency. Both
46 47
men view the present through the prism of the Cold War and its immediate
aftermath and are more at home assessing «the true threats facing America» than
they are with the rhetoric of opportunity. Those threats are, in the new Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING
conspectus, heavily concentrated in Asia, where China is seen not as a «partner»
but a potential strategic challenge and North Korea - with which Mr Bush has
cancelled plans for talks and in effect told Pyongyang that the road to The lecture deals with:
Washington lies through Seoul - as an unpredictable, unreformed menace. • various ranks of translation;
• means to ensure adequate translation which have been suggested by dif-
Chinas conciliatory reaction goes some way towards proving the wisdom of
ferent scholars and translation ranks;
this more sceptical approach. Time was when Beijing would have taken loud • fields of application and hierarchy of transformational, denotative and
offence at being told that its Foreign Minister must wait in the White House communicational approaches depending on type of translation;
queue behind Japans lame duck Prime Minister; instead, yesterday, it hastened to • priorities in training translators;
issue its own invitation to Mr Bush. Its chief arms negotiator, Sha Zukang, has • meaning, equivalence and extralinguistic information as three basic com-
even announced that China will not contest US plans to deploy a missile defence ponents of translation;
system in Asia to protect US troops there - a with its hitherto shrill opposition to • the use of different approaches depending on translation variety.
missile defence in any form. With Russia showing interest in missile defence
and European Union resistance slackening, China fears being left out in the cold.
Even in routine translation practice one can see that there are different
Above all, it wants to dissuade the US from equipping Taiwan, as it is inclined
ranks of translation, that one rank of translation consists of rather simple
to do, with anti-missile defence systems. substitutions whereas another involves relatively sophisticated and not just
There is some risk that Europeans will misinterpret Washington's purely linguistic analysis.
intentions. On European defence, a muted tone should not be mistaken for assent Several attempts have been made to develop a translation theory based on
to EU plans for a rival military structure to Nato; the US will accept no such different translation ranks or levels as they are sometimes called. Among those
thing. A second mistake would be to see «realism» towards Russia as any; there one of the most popular in the former Soviet Union was the «theory of
is more intense US scrutiny of Moscow in Washington than there has been for translation equivalence level (TEL)» developed by V. Komissarov14.
some time. US foreign policy is undergoing a thorough spring-cleaning. According to this theory the translation process fluctuates passing from
Foreign governments would do well to turn out their own attics. formal inter-language transformations to the domain of conceptual
interrelations.
V. Komissarov's approach seems to be a realistic interpretation of the
translation process, however, this approach fails to demonstrate when and why
one translation equivalence level becomes no longer appropriate and why, to get
a correct translation, you have to pass to a higher TEL.
48 See: Комиссаров B.H. Слово о переводе. - M., 1973; Комиссаров В.Н.
Лингвистика перевода. - М., 1981.
49
Ideas similar to TEL are expressed by Y. Retsker 15 who maintains Besides, you may observe evident similarity between the transforma-
that any two languages are related by «regular» correspondences (words, tional approach and primary translation ranks within theories suggesting
word-building patterns, syntactical structures) and «irregular» ones. The the ranking of translation (Komissarov, Retsker, Catford and others).
irregular correspondences cannot be formally represented and only the As you will note later, the transformational approach forms the basis
translators knowledge and intuition can help to find the matching formal of machine translation design - almost any machine translation system
expression in the target language for a concept expressed in the source uses the principle of matching forms of the languages involved in trans-
language. lation. The difference is only in the forms that are matched and the rules
According to J. Firth16, in order to bridge languages in the process of of matching18.
translation, one must use the whole complex of linguistic and extralin-
guistic information rather than limit oneself to purely linguistic objects
and structures. * The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems
J. Catford'7, similar to V. Komissarov and J. Firth, interprets transla- with specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects,
tion as a multi-level process. He distinguishes between «total» and «re- hence in the process of translation links between the forms of
stricted» translation - in «total» translation all levels of the source text are different languages are established via conceptual equivalence.
replaced by those of the target text, whereas in «restricted» translation
the substitution occurs at only one level.
According to J. Catford a certain set of translation tools characteris-
tic of a certain level constitutes a rank of translation and a translation per- This is also true, especially in such cases where language expressions
formed using that or another set of tools is called rank bound. We have correspond to unique indivisible concepts. Here one can also observe
borrowed this terminology and call the theories that divide the translation similarity with higher ranks within the theories suggesting the ranking of
process into different levels theories with translation ranking. translation.
Generally speaking, all theories of human translation discussed
above try to explain the process of translation to a degree of precision The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of
required for practical application, but no explanation is complete so far. translation - the matching of thesauruses. Translation may achieve its
ultimate target of rendering a piece of information only if the
translator knows the users' language and the subject matter of the
• The transformational approach quite convincingly suggests that in translation well enough (i.e. if the translator's language and subject
any language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological, and thesauruses are sufficiently complete). This may seem self-evident,
word-building structures which may be successfully matched with but should always be kept in mind, because all translation mistakes
their analogies in another language during translation. result from the insufficiencies of the thesauruses.
15
Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974. See, e. g. Staples Ch. The LOGOS Intelligent Translation System //
16
Firth J.R. Linguistic Analysis and Translation // For Roman Jakobson. Proceedings of Joint Conference on AI. - Karlsruhe, 1983; SYSTRAN
The Hague. - 1956. Linguistische Beschreibung. - Berlin, 1990; Hiroaki Kitano. Speech-to-speech
17
Catford J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. - London, 1967. Translation: A massively parallel memory-based approach. - Boston, 1994.
50 51
Moreover, wholly complete thesauruses are the ideal case. No translator So, to put it differently, what you can do in translation is either match
knows the source and target languages equally well (even a native speaker of individual words and combinations of the two languages directly
both) and even if he or she does, it is still virtually impossible to know (transformational approach), or understand the content of the source message
everything about any possible subject matter related to the translation. and render it using the formal means of the target language (denotative
Scientists and translators have been arguing and still do about the» priorities approach) with due regard of the translation recipient and background
in a translators education. Some of them give priority to the linguistic knowledge information (communicational approach).
of translators, others keep saying that a knowledgeable specialist in the given area The hierarchy of these methods may be different depending on the type of
with even a relatively poor command of the language will be able to provide a translation20. Approach priorities depending on the type of translation are given
more adequate translation than a good scholar of the language with no special in Table below.
technical or natural science background.
In our opinion this argument is counter-productive - even if one or another Translation Type Translation Method Priorities
viewpoint is proved, say, statistically, this will not add anything of value to the Oral Consecutive Denotative, Communicational
understanding of translation. However, the very existence of this argument Oral Simultaneous Transformational, Communica
underscores the significance of extralinguistic information for translation19. tional _____
Summing up this short overview of theoretical treatments of translation we Written (general & technical) Transformational
would again like to draw your attention to the general conclusion that any theory Denotative
Written (fiction & poetry)
recognizes these three basic components of translation, and different approaches
differ only in the accents placed on this or that component. So, the basic
Thus, in oral consecutive translation priority is given to denotative method,
components are:
because a translator is first listening to the speaker and only after some time
Meaning of a word or word combination in the source language (concept or
concepts corresponding to this word or word combination in the minds of the formulates the translation, which is very seldom a structural copy of the source
source language speakers). speech.
Equivalence of this meaning expressed in a word or word combination of In simultaneous translation as opposed to consecutive priority is given to
the target language (concept or concepts corresponding to this word or word direct transformations since a simultaneous interpreter simply has no time for
combination in the minds of the target language speakers). conceptual analysis.
Extralinguistic information pertaining to the original meaning and/or its In written translation, when you seem to have time for everything, priority
conceptual equivalent after the translation.
is also given to simple transformations (perhaps, with exception of poetic
translation). This is no contradiction, just the path of least resistance in action -
19 it is not worthwhile to resort to complex methods unless simple ones fail.
This viewpoint is also shared by, e. g.: Batori I. Paradigmen der
maschineller Sprachuebersetzung // Neue Ansaetze in maschineller It should be born in mind, however, that in any translation we observe a
Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Новиков А.И., Слюсарева Н.А. Линг- combination of different methods.
вистические и экстралингвистические аспекты семантики текста. - М.,
1982.
52 See, e. g.: Ревзин И.И., Розенцвейг В.Ю. Основы общего и машинно-
го перевода. - М., 1964.
53
From the approaches discussed one should also learn that the
(??] QUESTIONS
matching language forms and concepts are regular and irregular, that
seemingly the same concepts are interpreted differently by the speakers 1. What is the main idea of Komissarov's theory of 'translation equiva-
of different languages and different translation users. lence level'?
Now, having discussed briefly the main theoretical treatments of 2. What is translation according to Retsker, Catford and Firth?
human translation, we pass over to basic translation parameters being the 3. What is translation ranking?
subject of the following lectures. 4. What translation ranks do you know?
5. What relationship is there between the approaches to translation and
types of translation?
(§J EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Divide translation equivalents into regular
and occasional.
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about
the professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine
and winner of numerous prizes. However, the news again held quite a
surprise. The news of his tremendous success and the international rec-
ognition heaped on him this year reached us quickly and shattered all the
long established cliclms in one big bang. Bogdan Stupka won his latest
victory in the movie With Sword and Fire. Jerzy Hofman's film shown in
Poland, the United States and Australia raised the Ukrainian actor to the
level of international film star. It was indeed his finest hour.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using appropriate ranks (levels) of transla-

tion as required by the source text content and style. Comment on your deci-
sions. 1) «I am trustworthy, loyal, and helpful. But I struggle with
obedient.»
Tripp smiled faintly. «I am not looking for a boy scout,» he said.
«Next best thing,» I said.
«Well» Trip said, «Lieutenant Quirk said you could be annoying, but
you were not undependable.
«He's always admired me,» I said.
54 55
«Obviously you are independent,» Tripp said. «I understand that. Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had
I've had my moments. 'He who would be a man must be a non- traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous
conformist.'» (R.B.Parker). with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multi-
media age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-
2) ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS.
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001 stars. The orbit of Sputniks dog, Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of
There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity the worlds youth.
that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a
suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate. bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but
With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.
the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest the ranks (levels) of translation
big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and
and explain your decision.
«innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.
The first plant you will notice by the glass doors of the terminal will
People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole
be a tangerine tree with tangerines «for real». The aroma, the color of
prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier
their warm peel and even tiny dimples on the surface are so attractive
on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be
that you, sick and tired of stony winter landscapes, will feel very much
fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human.
like putting some tangerines in your pocket. This country is fun already!
Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal circum-
stances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow
That Changed History.
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily
at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or
snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the
ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become
a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming
his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The no-
blest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese
whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-
toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather
less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the
populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games.
Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment.
56 57
Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE In other words, in translation equivalent means indirectly equal, that is
AND EQUIVALENTS equal by the similarity of meanings. For example, words table and стіл are
equivalent through the similarity of the meanings of the Ukrainian word стіл
This Lecture: and one! of the meanings of the English word table. In general sense and in
• introduces the notion of equivalence and translation units; general case words table and стіл are not equal or equivalent - they are
• shows: equivalent only under specific translation conditions.
• how the notion of equivalence can be applied to translation at This simple idea is very important for the understanding of translation: the
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels; words that you find in a dictionary as translations of the given foreign language
• how dictionary equivalents can be used in translation; word are not the universal substitutes of this word in your language. These
• how translation equivalence is related to that of units of translation;
translations (equivalents) are worth for specific cases which are yet to be
• discusses:
determined by the translator.
• the optimal length of text for translation;
• to what extent the idea of full equivalence is adequate; Let us recall now the relationship between signs of the language, mental
• how and how often translators deal with partial equivalents; concepts and denotata (see Lecture 1). As you might remember the relation
• the importance of semantic and pragmatic similarity. between a language sign (word or word combination) and the fragment of the
real world it denotes is indirect and intermediated by the mental concept. You
Translation equivalence is the key idea of translation. According to A.S. might also recall that the mental concept of a given language sign is usually
Hornby21 equivalent means equal in value, amount, volume, etc. What does it rather broad and complex, consisting of a lexical meaning or meanings, a
mean if applied to translation? This lecture is an attempt to answer this question grammatical meaning or meanings, connotations and associations. It is also
which - you will see it yourself - is not so simple. worth reminding that the mental concept of a word (and word combination) is
The principle of equivalence is based on the mathematical law of almost never precisely outlined and may be different even in the minds of
transitivity that reads: if A is equal to С and В is equal to C, then В equals A. different speakers of the same language, not to mention the speakers of different
languages.
•* As applied to translation, equivalence means that if a word or word All this naturally speaks for the complexity of finding the proper and only
combination of one language (A) corresponds to certain concept (C) and a translation equivalent of the given word. Moreover, considering all just said, one
word or word combination of another language (B) corresponds to the same may conclude that translation equivalence never means the sameness of the
concept (C) these words or word combinations are considered equivalent meaning for the signs of different languages.
(connected by the equivalence relation).

•* Translation equivalents in a dictionary are just the prompts for the

translator. One may find a proper equivalent only in speech due to the
context, situation and background knowledge.
21
Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. -
Oxford, 1982.
58 59
Let's take an example. English word picture is generally considered and the clicheed expressions are commonly used in similar situations.
equivalent to Ukrainian word картина. However, already in the context The general rule of translation reads: the longer is the source text, the big-
to take pictures {фотографувати) this equivalent is no longer correct ger is a chance to find proper and correct translation equivalent1.
and the word picture seems to have here no equivalent {zero equivalent);
in another context English in pictures because of the situation (pictures in
the book are small) equivalent картина acquires a diminutive suffix • Traditionally and from practical viewpoint the optimal length of
англійська в картинках; in a different situation, that of a painters studio text for translation is a sentence.
or gallery it is полотно that becomes the Ukrainian equivalent of the
English word picture and this equivalent, as well as others, disappears
again in the context put me in the picture {введіть мене в курс справ). Being a self-sustained syntactic entity a sentence usually contains
Even in case of terms and geographical names one cannot say for enough syntactic and semantic information for translation. However,
sure that their meanings in different languages are universally equivalent. there are cases (and not so rare ones) when a broader stretch of the
source text (called discourse) is required. It supplies additional informa-
Again one can say this only in relation to a specific context, situation and
tion necessary for translation.
piece of background information. For example, such seemingly unambi-
Let's consider the sentence: Partisans do not always play to type. One
guous chemical term as zinc diethyl dithiophosphate is translated in spe- can obtain its proper Ukrainian equivalent Члени партії не завжди
cial texts as протизадирна присадка but not always as діетилдитіо- діють відповідно до типового уявлення про цю партію only having
фосфат цинку. То take another example, Africa is not always translated considered the information supplied by the discourse (that George W.
as Африка, one may also find чорний континент as its equivalent and Bush after the election might not behave as a typical Republican).
this again means that translation equivalence depends on the context, Thus, put with certain degree of simplification, equivalence is a
situation and background knowledge. similarity of meaning observed in the units of different languages and
used for translation. The units of the target language with meanings
similar to the relevant units of the source language are called
•► The idea of translation equivalence is strongly related to that of translation equivalents. Modern translation theory suggests two basic
the unit of translation, i. e. the text length required to obtain proper grades of translation equivalents.
equivalent.
a) Full Translation Equivalents
From the previous discussion (bearing in mind differences in mental
From our previous discussion we already know that one word is images standing for the equivalent words in different languages and con-
hardly a common unit of translation. It is especially true for so called text dependence of equivalents) it may be righteously presumed that one
analytical languages like English in which the words are usually polyse- can hardly find truly full and universal equivalents for a word. However,
mantic and their meaning strongly depends on the environment.
2
One is more likely to find a universal equivalent for a word combi- This makes so hard the task of a simultaneous interpreter who deals with
nation, in particular for a clicheed one (e. g. hands up, ready made, good small speech fragments.
23
riddance, etc.), because a word combination is already a small context A discourse is a text fragment united by common topic, author and style
(Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь - M., 1999).
60 61
as you all know practical translation dates back to ancient times and since then
and the pragmatic aspect of this equivalent (the message intent and target
translations are commonly regarded and used as full-pledged substitutes of the
audience reaction) coincides with that of the English word. Thus, книга is
relevant source texts. That is why despite contradicting theoretical evidence full
conventionally regarded as a full equivalent of the word book26.
equivalence is commonly accepted as a convenient makeshift.
Strictly saying, however, the Ukrainian word протестувати, for example,
is a partial equivalent of the English word protesting (say, in the sentence
Protesting is a risk - Протестувати ризиковано) because of different
•* For practical purpose full equivalence is presumed when there is complete
coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target language units 24. grammatical meanings (a Gerund and a Verb), the semantic and pragmatic
aspects being similar.
To take another example of partial equivalence consider the English saying
Carry coal to Newcastle. If one translates it as Возити вугілля до Ньюкасла it
This rule applies both to individual words and their regular combinations.
would lack the pragmatic aspect of equivalence (The intent of this message
Speaking generally, translation equivalents of all words and word combinations
one finds in a good dictionary are full because the translation practice reflected Bring something that is readily available locally would be lost, because the
in dictionaries shows them as complete substitutes universally accepted by the Ukrainian audience could be unaware of the fact that Newcastle is the center of a
speakers' community of the target language (i. e. as pragmatically equivalent). coal-mining area). If, however, one translates it їхати до Тули з власним
Of them the stylistically neutral words with reference meanings 25 (terms, самоваром' it would lose the semantic similarity, but preserve the pragmatic
geographical and proper names, words denoting physical objects and processes) intent of the message, which, in our opinion, is the first priority of translation.
are more likely to have full translation equivalents because semantic and Anyway, both suggested translation equivalents of this saying are considered
pragmatic parts of their meaning are less ambiguous. partial.

b) Partial Translation Equivalents

To understand the partiality and incompleteness of translation equivalence •► Partial equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or more of
let us consider the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of equivalence, equivalence aspects, i. e. of syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspect.
because the partiality of equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or
more of these aspects.
Let us start from examples. Книга as an equivalent of the English word It should be born in mind, however, that syntactic equivalence of translation
book is full in all equivalence aspects because it has similar syntactic functions
units longer than several words is a rare case, indeed, if one deals with two
(those of a Noun), its lexical meaning is also generally similar,
languages having different systems and structures (English and Ukrainian are a
good example). Moreover, it is hardly a translator's
By pragmatic meaning of a translation equivalent we understand the 26
It should be noted, however that the complete formal equivalence be-
reaction of the translation user to the verbal message in target language.
tween the English and Ukrainian language units is, of course, missing in this case
Reference (or direct) meaning directly refers a word to the fragment of
as well as in all other translation cases - because all paradigmatic forms in the
the reality (Zgusta L. Manual of Lexicography. - Prague: Academia, 1971).
two languages never coincide.
62
63
target to preserve the structure of the source texts and in many instances
(??| QUESTIONS
this means violation of syntactic and stylistic rules of the target language.
Semantic similarity between the source and target texts is desirable, 1. What is translation equivalence? Define it.
but again it is not an ultimate goal of a translator. More often than not 2. What helps to find proper translation equivalents?
slight differences in meaning help to adapt the idea of the original mes- 3. What is a unit of translation? What are the optimal units for practical
sage to the target audience. translation?
What is really important for translation adequacy is the pragmatic 4. What is full and partial translation equivalence? Give definitions.
5. What are syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of translation
equivalence. When the original message is lost for the target audience it is
equivalence? Which of them is the most important for adequate
a failure of the translation and translator and no semantic or syntactic
translation?
similarity will redress the damage.
Let us take several examples of semantic and/or pragmatic equiva-
lents to illustrate the idea: HJ EXERCISES
зелений - green; (недосвідчений) verdant; зелений горошок - green Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Define translation equivalence conditions
peas; зелений театр - open-air stage; зелений хлопчисько - greenhorn; (context, situation, background information) that helped you find proper
зелена вулиця - green, go; давати зелену вулицю - to give open passage, equivalents. Divide the text into translation units and prove your choice of
to give the go-ahead; туга зелена - utter boredom; зелене будівництво - units.
laying out of parks, etc.; зелений борщ - sorrel soup; потопати в зелені -
BUSH PUSHES RESEARCH ON GLOBAL WARMING
to be buried in verdure
Washington Post Service; Monday, June 11, 2001
Thus, one may suggest that translation equivalence partiality is more Europe to Get Offer of Alternative to Kyoto
a translation tool than a flaw in translator's ability to render the content
President George W. Bush plans to tell European allies this week
of the source message in its full. This evidendy does not apply to the
that he wants to spend millions of dollars on research into the causes of
pragmatic equivalence which is a universal prerequisite of good transla-
global warming and the technologies to reduce it, but he will not back
tion. down on his opposition to mandatory controls on emissions of green-
house gases, administration officials say. .The research and technology
initiatives, which the president plans to oudine in a speech on Monday
before leaving Washington for Europe, constitute the administration's
first detailed response to the criticism from Europe and Asia that fol-
lowed Mr. Bush's decision to abandon the Kyoto global warming treaty.
White House officials said Mr. Bush plans to emphasize how seriously he
regards the problem of global warming, even as he remains adamant in
his rejection of the 1997 accord reached in Kyoto, Japan..That agreement
committed the United States and 167 other nations to the first binding
limits on carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases that scientists say
may cause catastrophic changes in the planet's climate.
65
64
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Indicate missing aspects of translation work. A «Girl's World» was a ghoulish dummy's head on which to ex-
equivalence, if any. periment with make-up.
a) Chief justice; justice of the peace; court is in session; take the lead; Then came the bra-burning, banner-wielding, placenta-eating Sixties
take shape; to hold at arm's length; closed matter; harbor hopes; take a and suddenly Jane got herself some options. Wimmin needed men like
dim view; exit polls; gender gap; popular vote. fish needed, well, any form of transport, sisters were revolting and nights
b) Keep off the grass; in the exact middle; floors tiled and carpeted; were reclaimed. Everywhere was insurrection and the flap of dungaree.
for time out of mind; to throw caution with the wind; to collect one's But it took another couple of decades to realise that the next generation
wits. of Janes should be dragged to their parent's work-places to alert them to
c) He felt very weak and wobbly in the legs; a crown of leaves; to be a the professional choices before them. «Take Our Daughters to Work
little way ahead; it looks as if my dreams were coming true; there was Day» was born and today is the latest outing for these loitering Lolitas.
nothing to be done to tighten the belt round the empty stomachs, and And what dazzling monsters feminism has created. Little girls used
trudge along without any great hope of ever getting to the end before they to be made of sugar and spice. These days they are made out of an inde -
lay down and die of starvation. Dead silence fell in the middle of the structible combination of stamina and ambition. Girls outshine boys at
world. I suppose hobbits need some description nowadays, since they all stages of their development from thumb-sucking to number-crunching.
have become rare and shy of the Big People, as they call us. They are in- And at last these Amazons are reaching adulthood ready set to head butt
clined to be fat in the stomach; they dress in bright colours (chiefly green the glass ceiling. Backlash was inevitable. An American academic called
and yellow) wear no shoes because their feet grow natural leathery soles Christina Hoff Sommers has published a polemic entitled «The War
and thick warm brown hair like the stuff on their heads (which is curly); Against Boys» in which she argues that it is males who have become the
have long clever brown fingers, good-natured faces and laugh deep fruity «second sex», while girls continue to be cosseted by positive discrimina-
laughs (especially after dinner, which they eat twice if they can get it). tion.
(Tolkien) Certainly too many boys loaf around in a state of affable fecklessness
- skate-boarding, girl-watching and navel-gazing their way through
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, suggest units of translation and types of school, pickling themselves at university and slacking through their careers.
equivalents used in translation. Pay special attention to the italicized text The only statistics in which young men consistently beat girls are those
and suggest background information required for translation. for criminality and suicide.
BOY POWER Lock up your daughters and With this in mind, forward thinking organisations might choose to
unleash your sons Leading article, The Times, APRIL 26, extend tomorrow's invitations to the less fair sex. Boys can get a taste of
2001 the feminine work ethic. Girls can stay at home to witness the one spec-
tacle that would promise them a more optimistic future - the phenome-
Life used to be so straightforward. Father made a daily trek to the of- non of fathers participating on the domestic scene in any way at all.
fice, while Mother held the fort at home, cooking, sewing and popping the
odd tranquilliser. Their 2.2 children watched and learnt. Peter wanted to
be an engine driver when he grew up, but would end up in middle man-
agement like his father. Jane wanted to be just like Mummy, but better
dressed. The only thing their upbringings had in common was a shared
affection for Pat the dog. It was a man's world and that world meant
66 67
Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE Stylistic peculiarities are rendered in translation by proper choice of the
target language translation equivalents with required stylistic coloring. This
choice will depend both on the functional style of the source text and the
This Lecture individual style of the source text author.
• deals with the style as an essential component of adequate translation; The types of texts distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication
• introduces:
are called functional styles. Modern stylistics distinguishes the following
• major styles: belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama); publicistic style;
newspaper style; scientific style; official documents style; varieties of functional styles28
• stylistic devices and expression means (metaphor, metonymy, pun, 1. belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama);
irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma, paraphrase, overt and covert 2. publicistic style;
quotations and allusion). 3. newspaper style;
4. scientific style;
5. official documents
The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the
Any comparison of the texts belonging to different stylistic varieties listed
stylistic aspect of translation - one cannot reach the required level of equivalence
if the stylistic peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation above will show that the last two of them (scientific style variety and official
adequacy includes as an obligatory component the adequacy of style, i. e. the documents) are almost entirely devoid of stylistic coloring being characterized
right choice of stylistic means and devices of the target language to substitute for by the neutrality of style whereas the first three (belles-lettres (prose, poetry,
those observed in the source text. This means that in translation one is to find drama), publicistic and newspaper style) are usually rich in stylistic devices to
proper stylistic variations of the original meaning rather than only meaning which a translator ought to pay due attention.
itself.
For example, if the text You'll see... everything will be hunky-dory 27 is
translated in neutral style (say, Побачиш...усе буде добре) the basic meaning •► Special language media securing the desirable communication effect of
will be preserved but colloquial and a bit vulgar connotation of the expression the text are called stylistic devices and expression means.
hunky-dory will be lost. Only the stylistically correct equivalent of this
expression gives the translation the required adequacy: (e. g., Побачиш...усе
буде тіп-топ).
First of all a translator is to distinguish between neutral, bookish and
colloquial words and word combinations, translating them by relevant units of
Ш* The expression of stylistic peculiarities of the source text in translation the target language. Usually it is a routine task. However, it sometimes is hard
is necessary to fully convey the communication intent of the source text. to determine the correct stylistic variety of a translation equivalent, then - as in
almost all instances of translation - final decision is taken on the basis of
context, situation and background information.
Greene G. The Captain and the Enemy. - London: Penguin Books. Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - M., 1981.
68 69
For example, it is hard to decide without further information, which
of the English words - disease, illness or sickness - corresponds to the •* Metonymy is similarity by association, usually one of the con-
stituents of an object replaces the object itself
Ukrainian words хвороба and захворювання. However, even such short
contexts as infectious disease and social disease already help to choose ap-
propriate equivalents and translate the word disease as інфекційне
захворювання and соціальна хвороба, accordingly. As a rule translators keep to literal translation when translating the
This example brings us to a very important conclusion that style is cases of metonymy. For example, crown (meaning the royal family) is
expressed in proper combination of words rather than only in stylistic usually translated as корона, hand - рука (е. g. in: He is the right hand of
the president), etc.
coloring of the individual words.
•* Stylistic devices are based on the comparison of primary (dic- Ш* Irony is expressed through words contradicting close text
tionary) meaning and that dictated by the contextual environment; on environment.
the contradiction between the meaning of the given word and the
environment; on the association between words in the minds of the
language speakers and on purposeful deviation from accepted
Cases of irony do not present serious problems for translation and
grammatical and phonetic standards.
the approaches similar to those mentioned above (semantic or pragmatic
equivalence) are commonly used. For example, the ironical expression
paper war may be translated as паперова війна or війна паперів.
The following varieties of stylistic devices and expression means are
most common and frequently dealt with even by the translators of non- Ш* Semantic and syntactic irregularities of expression used as stylis-
fiction texts. tic devices are called transferred qualifier and zeugma, respectively.
•* Metaphor is the transfer of some quality from one object to
another. A good example of a transferred qualifier is he paid his smiling atten-
tion to... - here the qualifier smiling refers to a person, but is used as an
attribute to the state (attention). Translator's task in this case consists in
rendering the idea in compliance with the lexical combination rules of
Usually the metaphors (especially trite29 ones) are rather easy for
the target language. For instance, in Ukrainian it may be expressed as
translation: they are translated either by keeping to semantic similarity
Посміхаючись, він звернув увагу...
(e. g. ray of hope - промінь надії) or by choosing an appropriate prag-
Zeugma is also a semantic irregularity, e. g. if one and the same verb
matic equivalent (e. g. flood of tears - море сліз).
is combined with two or more nouns and acquires a different meaning in
each of such combinations. For example, He has taken her picture and
Trite - commonplace, not new.
70 71
another cup of tea. Here again the translator's task is to try to render this Special attention is to be paid by a translator to overt and covert
ironical comment either by finding a similar irregularity in the target quotations. Whereas the former require only correct rendering of the
language or, failing to show a zeugma (and irony of the author), stick to source quotation in the target language (Never suggest your own home-
regular target language means (i. e. separate the two actions Він зробив її made translation for a quotation of a popular author!), the latter usually
фото і випив ще одну чашку чаю or try to render them as a zeugma as takes the shape of an allusion and the pragmatic equivalence seems the
well Він зробив її фото і ще один ковток чаю з чашки). most appropriate for the case. For example, «the Trojan horse raid» one
A pun (so called 'play of words') is righteously considered the most may translate as напад, підступний, як кінь троянців (i.e. preserving
difficult for translation. the allusion) or as підступний напад (loosing the meaning of the origi-
nal quotation).
A translator is to be ready to render dialect forms and illiterate
•* Pun is the realization in one and the same word of two lexical speech in the target language forms. It goes without saying that one can
meanings simultaneously. hardly render, say, cockney dialect using the Western Ukrainian dialect
forms. There is no universal recipe for this translation problem. In some
cases the distortions in the target grammar are used to render the dialect
A pun can be translated only by a word in the target language with forms but then again it is not 'a cure-all' and each such case requires an
similar capacity to develop two meanings in a particular context. English individual approach.
is comparatively rich in polysems and homonyms, whereas in Ukrainian v Thus, any good translation should be fulfilled with due regard of the
these word types are rather rare. Let's take an example 30 of a pun and its stylistic peculiarities of the source text and this recommendation applies
fairly good Ukrainian translation. to all text types rather than only to fiction.
- What gear were you in at the moment of impact?
- Gucci's sweats and Reebok.
- На якій передачі ви були під час зіткнення?
- «Останні новини».
Another stylistic device is a paraphrase. Its frequent use is character-
istic of the English language. Some of the paraphrases are borrowed from
classical cources (myths and the Bible); others are typically English. To
give an example, the paraphrases of the classical origin are «Beware
Greeks...», «Prodigal son» (Бійтеся данайців...», «Блудний син») whereas
«Lake Country» («Озерна країна») is a typically English paraphrase. As a
rule paraphrases do not present difficulties for translation, however, their
correct translation strongly depends on situation and appropriate
background information.
Cited from: Мирам Г. Профессия - переводчик. - К.: Ника-Центр,
1999.
72 73
(??] QUESTIONS When riches take wings, and reputation falls to pieces, he is as constant
in his love as the sun in its journey through the heavens.
1. What is the relation between translation equivalence and style? If fortune drives the master forth an outcast in the world, friendless
2. Define functional style. What functional styles are distinguished by and homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of ac-
modern linguistics? companying him, to guard him against danger, to fight against his ene-
3. What are the stylistic devices and expression means? mies. And when the last scene of all comes, and death takes his master in
4. What is metaphor, metonymy, irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma,
its embrace and his body is laid away in the cold ground, no matter if all
paraphrase, quotation? Give definitions. Suggest translation ap-
other friends pursue their way, there by the graveside will the noble dog
proaches.
be found, his head between his paws, his eyes sad, but open in alert
5. What is pun? What are the ways of translating a pun?
watchfulness, faithful and true even in death.
(Scoff not at 'Tribute to the Dog.'
The New York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999. By WILLIAM SAFIRE)
(§J EXERCISES
b) EMBASSY OF UKRAINE TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Ex. 1. Define the style of the following texts. Translate into Ukrainian 3350 M Street, NW Washington DC 20007-27 December 1998
preserving stylistic colouring. For immediate release
a) The best friend a man has in the world may turn against him and [Press Releases Home]
become his enemy. His son or daughter that he has reared with loving Statement of the Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Of Ukraine
care may prove ungrateful. Those who are nearest and dearest to us, those On December 25, 1998, the State Duma of the Russian Federation's
whom we trust with our happiness and our good name may become Federal Assembly ratified the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and
traitors to their faith. The money that a man has, he may lose. It flies Partnership between Ukraine and Russia.
away from him, perhaps when he needs it most. A man's reputation may A long-awaited-for ratification of the Treaty, the bedrock of the legal
be sacrificed in a moment of ill-considered action. The people who are basis of the relations between the two sovereign states, will permit in-
prone to fall on their knees to do us honor when success is with us may creasing relationships between Ukraine and Russia to a qualitative new
be the first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud upon level and opening up new opportunities for further comprehensive de-
our heads. velopment of Ukrainian-Russian relations. This is exactly for what lead-
The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish ers and peoples of the two fraternal nations are striving.
world, the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrate- Ratification of the Treaty by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on
ful or treacherous is his dog. A man's dog stands by him in prosperity and January 14, 1998 and its ratification by the Russian State Duma con-
in poverty, in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground, firmed that both Ukraine and the Russian Federation legally recognized
where the wintry winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only he may the inviolability of the existing between them borders, as well as their
be near his master's side. He will kiss the hand that has no food to offer; sovereignty and territorial integrity. They have also pledged to develop
he will lick the wounds and sores that come in an encounter with the their further relations on the basis of universally recognized standards of
roughness of the world. He guards the sleep of his pauper master as if he international law.
were a prince. When all other friends desert, he remains. Ratification of the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partner-
ship between Ukraine and the Russian Federation constitutes a landmark
74 75
historic event not only in their bilateral relations, but also in a broader please, on a range of issues, and if the world doesn't like it - tough. So,
context of European and global security. It testifies to the fact that both not surprisingly, when the members of this U.N. commission got a
Ukraine and Russia are well aware of their role and responsibility in chance to vote anonymously on whether the U.S. should be a member,
building up a new European security architecture and maintaining stabil- they stuck it to us. People with power often don't think about it; people
ity and security not only in Europe but also in the world as a whole. without power think about it all the time.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine expresses its satisfaction (The New York Times, May 29, 2001
with the ratification by the State Duma of the major political Treaty be- By THOMAS L. FRIEDMAN)
tween the two states, as well as its confidence that the Treaty's entering
into force will provide for further development of equal Ukrainian-
Russian cooperation for the benefit of the peoples of the two states. Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian preserving the stylistic coloring of the source
text.
a) She made an embarrassed laugh, though there was nothing funny.
Ex. 2. Define the underscored stylistic devices and means of expression in the She laughed again, an extraneous laugh, something to punctuate the
following text. Translate the text into Ukrainian preserving its stylistic silence. The word [she uttered] was almost nonexistent, squeezed out in
colouring. the smallest of voices. Her Barbie doll face, devoid of character lines,
Ever since the U.S. got voted off the island at the U.N. Human showed no sign of the adult struggle she was waging. It remained placid,
Rights Commission three weeks ago, Congress has been hopping mad hidden behind the affecdess makeup. (R.B.Parker).
and the U.N.-haters have been on a tear. So I have an idea: Let's quit the
b) It was a Babylon of glass and chrome and spandex, where per
U.N. That's right, let's just walk. Most of its members don't speak English
sonal trainers trained up people on politically correct way to tone up and
anyway. What an insult! Let's just shut it down and turn it into another be better.
Trump Tower. That Security Council table would make a perfect sushi
bar.
No? You don't want to leave the U.N. to the Europeans and Rus-
sians? Then let's stop bellyaching about the U.N., and manipulating our
dues, and start taking it seriously for what it is - a global forum that
spends 95 percent of its energy endorsing the wars and peacekeeping
missions that the U.S. wants endorsed, or taking on the thankless hu-
manitarian missions that the U.S. would like done but doesn't want to do
itself. The U.N. actually spends only 5 percent of its time annoying the
U.S. Not a bad deal.
The vote that got the U.S. booted off the Human Rights Commission
was to the U.N. what Senator Jim Jeffords's vote to leave the Republican
Party was to the Senate - a wake-up call, a signal that the world will push
back against radical Bush policies just as Senator Jeffords did.
When President Bush trashed the Kyoto treaty on climate change,
the message the world got was that the Bushies will do whatever they
76 77
Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION of syntactic structures is a rare (and generally hardly desirable) case, which
means that in English-Ukrainian translation we often observe transformations.
One should note, however, that the majority of syntactic transformations in
This Lecture English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the translator transforms the
• introduces the notion of: source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on
• transformation as a change of the source text at the syntactic level the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which
during translation, are unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the case are often
• discusses: intuitive.
• the conditions under which regular and occasional transformations To put it differently, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the
take place in English Verbal Complexes; overwhelming majority of such occasional transformations and one simply
• Pluralia and Singularia Tantum; cannot list all occasional transformations that are observed in English-Ukrainian
• Gender Forms; translation.
• Sequence of Tenses.

Ш* In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the

Speaking about translation equivalence we mentioned that there were three matter of translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on
basic types of it - syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The students might stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.
remember that syntactic equivalence meant the structural similarity of the source
and target texts. If the syntactic similarity is missing we observe a
transformation^.
•► Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level Yet, in English-Ukrainian translation there are also cases of regular
during translation. syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain
transformation rules more or less strictly.32
On the one hand, even for the languages of different structure general •* Regular syntactic (grammatical) transformations are the matching rules
structural similarity in translation is common enough. Just compare any English for the grammars of the two languages involved in translation
text and its translation into Ukrainian and you will see much in common at the
syntactic level (e. g. Subject-Predicate-Object sequences, Attribute-Noun
structures, etc.). On the other, total similarity
31
It is worth saying that any formal identity of the signs of different lan- Even in case of regular trasformations certain deviations from regular
guages is out of the question and one may speak only about similarity or differ- transformation patterns are possible. For example, in certain situation and/or
ence of certain modeling representation, e. g. of syntactic models. context one may translate 7 saw him running' as 'Я подивився і побачив:
78 біжить' rather than ' Я бачив, як він біг ' as required by the rule
79
Detailed description of regular English-Ukrainian grammatical (syn- Gerund
tactic) transformations one can find in any English manual for Ukrainian
Gerund is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in
audience (for example, the matching system of English and Ukrainian
Ukrainian. As a rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or
Verb Tenses, Noun Numbers and Cases, Adjectives, Pronouns, etc.)33.
Verbal Nouns (see more below).
We think that the readers and users of this Manual are generally
aware of these matching rules and that it is hardly a goal of a translation
manual to duplicate the information of the language manuals for the Pluralia and Singularia Tantum
beginners. Moreover, we consider that the goal of a translation manual is
to show (where possible) how and why the matching rules (regular trans- In English-Ukrainian translation the cases of missing Plural or Sin-
formations) of the grammatical systems of the two languages involved in gular Noun Forms are also worth paying attention to because of their
translation are violated. frequent mismatch with the corresponding Ukrainian words. These cases
However, there are certain unique elements of the English and are, of course, shown in the dictionaries that is why several examples
Ukrainian grammar systems which, because of their uniqueness deserve seem to be sufficient to illustrate this minor translation problem: oats -
special attention as translation problems. The most common of those are овес, onions - цибуля.
mentioned below.
Gender Forms
English Verbal Complexes The category of Noun Gender is known to be expressed in English
A verbal complex is a unique structure of the English language sys- indirectly: either through pronouns or by lexical means. This information
tem missing in Ukrainian. The complex includes a predicate verb, an is to be born in mind by translators when translating from Ukrainian into
object and an object predicate comprising either Infinitive or Participle I English. Again an example will do to illustrate the problem: кіт - tom-
(e. g. I saw him run or I saw him running). cat, he-cat
Depending on the predicate verb and type of the object predicate
there may be several alternatives of the verbal complex translation into
Ukrainian, the most important thing for translation into Ukrainian, Sequence of Tenses
however, is the necessity of the inner partitioning of the source sentence.
Usually, the object subordinate clauses with що and як are the Ukrainian As the readers of this Manual might know from their language
substitutes of the verbal complexes in the target sentence. course the Sequence of Tenses is a peculiar system of correlation between
For example, the Verb Tenses in the main and subordinate clauses. Since similar sys-
John watched Larry jump over the rails and disappear - Джон tem is missing in Ukrainian it may present a problem for translation,
дивився, як Ларрі перестрибнув через паркан і зник. especially from Ukrainian into English.
Speaking generally, however, this problem hardly belongs to the
33
It is worth reminding that the grammatical transformations in translation most critical problems of translation similar to all other regular trans-
are, as a matter of fact, the matching patterns of the paradigm systems of two formations including those mentioned above in this lecture.
languages described in Lecture 3 of this Manual.
80 81
Ъ¥ Regular transformations do not present a serious problem for 0 QUESTIONS
translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is
needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice, 1. What is a transformation?
unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require in- 2. What types of transformations do you know?
dividual and sometimes unique solutions 3. What is an occasional transformation? Give examples.
4. What regular transformations are typical for English-Ukrainian
translation?
5. Which type of transformations presents major translation problems
The issue of regular and occasional transformations is related to dif- and why?
ferent translation devices and variations which are dealt with in the lec-
tures that follow. Besides, regular grammatical transformations in trans-
HJ EXERCISES
lation of official documents (diplomatic, legal, and economic) are ex-
plained in more detail below in this Manual. Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular transformations in trans-
lation.
KING OF THE STAGE
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about the
professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine and
winner of numerous prizes. However, the news again held quite a
surprise. The news of his tremendous success and the international rec-
ognition heaped on him this year reached us quickly and shattered all the
long established clichfts in one big bang. Bogdan Stupka won his latest
victory in the movie «With Sword and Fire». Jerzy Hofman's film shown
in Poland, the United States and Australia raised the Ukrainian actor to
the level of international film star. It was indeed his finest hour.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular and occasional transfor-

mations in translation.
THE TROUBLE WITH THE SONS OF ENGLAND IS THEY HAVE NO
FOUNDING FATHERS
The Times, July 6, 2001. PHILIP HOWARD
We are the people of England that never have spoken yet. Accord-
ingly, after this water(slurry?)shed of an election it behoves us to speak
82 83
up for our nation. But it is difficult to decide what our nation is. We lack tion of his poems reminds us that Longfellow was technically jolly good,
a foundation myth that defines what it means to be English. in spite of having missed the modernist boat and the Ark of the Cove-
In the Middle Ages King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table nant. My grandfather used to adore Hiawatha in the Albert Hall, with a
were described as the Matter of Britain. But they are improbably cosmo- feathered cast of thousands chanting, «By the shores of Gitche Gumee,/
politan heroes for the British National Party or the UK Idiots' Party. At a By the shining Big-Sea-Water».
literary level, they are anachronistic medieval freelances from an EU elite Longfellow was a skilful versifier when poems still rhymed and
of bullies. On a historical level (if they existed), their descendants survive scanned. «This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
in the wild west of Wales. «Lancelot» came from Brittany, and Tristram hemlocks,/ Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
from Celtic Atlantis in the West. If he is more than legend, you can imag- twilight...» Not even Tennyson wrote such good English hexameters.
ine Arthur leading the last stand of the armoured cavalry of the legions And as many of Longfellow's tags have entered the American quotation
against the alien English asylum-seekers. In other words, he was a Ro- bank as Tennyson's have the English. «Under a spreading chestnut-tree,/
man. St George was a Levantine?/ Roman?/ Jew?/ Peculant pork butcher? The village smithy stands». «I shot an arrow into the air,/ It fell to earth, I
Definitely not British. knew not where.» «Ships that pass in the night.» «Footprints on the sands
Other nations have less problematic foundation myths. Italians can of time.» «When she was good, she was very, very good.» «Life is but an
choose Horace or Garibaldi as their national hero, according to taste. The empty dream.»
French have Charlemagne, Joan of Arc or Asterix. The Germans, Longfellow spoke up against slavery long before Emerson and Tho-
Hermann or Arminius. The Dutch, snatching a living on land from the reau. From youth he was a Unitarian, a follower of William Ellery Chan-
sea, make the most of the references in Tacitus to the Batavians, who ning, who believed that human beings are basically good. Longfellow's
splashed a living in their watery world. Their cavalry were good at narrative poetry and visionary preaching are unfashionable. But he is still
swimming across rivers with their horses. But the Old Testament is an a ghost in the background of American identity. Kipling and Tennyson
even more powerful foundation myth for the Dutch. Their Calvinist pas- are not so influential for English nationalism. Shakespeare is too elusive.
tors taught them that they were the Chosen People, saved from the Flood, Perhaps the nationalists of our old and mongrel race should follow the
threatened on all sides by monarchs, Papists, and the other hosts of foundation myths of the Dutch and the Americans by adopting the Old
Midian, who prowl and prowl around. Testament as their manifesto.
Foundation myths come more easily to nations that sprang from Come to think of it, we have. The lost ten tribes of Israel were car-
revolution, like the Dutch. Or the Americans, who left the Old World to ried away into Assyria in 721 ВС, about 140 years before the Babylonian
seek religious and political liberty in the West. Their New England captivity exiled the tribes of Judah. Since at least 1649 various religious
preachers also used the Old Testament as a myth to validate their Chosen and nationalist nutters have suggested that the English are the lost tribes.
People. This is as dotty as the first verse of Blake's Jerusalem, which opens with
Political correctness has censored the Western movie, the founda- three questions, the answer to each of which is, «Certainly not: don't be
tion myth and art form of the past century. Dim drums can no longer silly.» But that does not stop Jerusalem being a battle hymn of True Eng-
throb in the hills half heard, as the Comanche appear over the crest. The lish nationalism. Just as Gideon, Joshua and Noah were once seen as
heroic latter-day Joshuas and Davids no longer stand silent in the white Dutch or New England patriots.
sunlight of their empty midday streets, waiting for the enemies of Zion.
The American bard of the noble savage and the last frontier is even
more rubbished man McGonagall as national prophet. But the new edi-
84 85
Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or The Convention on Biological Diversity (also called the «Conven-
infinitive constructions. tion on Life») is not only a legal instrument to protect and manage en-
The Security Council is so organised as to be able to function con- dangered species and habitats, but it also includes the far-reaching con-
tinuously. sequences of modern biotechnology.

The Trusteeship Council is composed of members of the United Na- Recently the Conference of the Parties agreed to start negotiations
tions administering Trust Territories, permanent members of the Security on a protocol on biosafety.
Council which do not administer Trust Territories and enough members
to make an equal division between countries which administer Trust We urge the United States to ratify the Basel Convention that regu-
Territories and countries which do not. lates the export and import of dangerous waste.

The function of the Trusteeship Council is to supervise the admini- In so doing, we are simply trying to shoulder the responsibility that
stration of Trust Territories. we all share for our common future.

Subsidiary and ad-hoc bodies are set up to fulfill a special task and
are dissolved after completion of the job. Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
gerundial constructions:
The increasing population of the world creates unprecedented waste Should the president falter in these races, some politicians speculate,
and the methods used to dispose of it - burying it, burning it, or dis- he might step aside as Lyndon Johnson did after running into trouble in
charging it into streams or lakes - have further polluted the environment. early 1968.

Members of the Organisation, whether developed or developing, If a business cannot make a profit, the government cannot prevent it
should undertake to lend their assistance towards the success in settling from declaring bankruptcy.
economic difficulties.
The result is a complicated interaction of business and society, and
United Nations efforts to rectify this issue have been ineffective be- the key to understanding this interaction is the systems theory.
cause some nations disregard its decisions.
Disregarding feedback has led to the demise of many once-powerful
In the Charter of the United Nations, the peoples express their de- companies.
termination to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war
which has brought untold sorrow to mankind. Basic research is aimed at discovering new knowledge. Applied re-
search is aimed at discovering new knowledge that has some specific po-
In 1957 the Assembly called for collective action to inform and tential use. Development is aimed at putting new or existing knowledge
enlighten the peoples of the world to the dangers of the armament race, to use in producing goods or services.
and particularly to the destructive effects of modern weapons.
The poison pill describes a situation in which the target-company
86 adds large amounts of corporate debt through borrowing.
87
None the less, the professor does not present legal theory as a given Ex. 6. Divide the words below into two groups: those having the same form for
at the beginning of the course; the students must themselves construct the singular and plural; and those having '-s' ending but singular in their
legal theory by working from the texts or from concrete problems. meaning. Can you find any similar examples in Ukrainian?
Barracks, news, crossroads, statistics, mathematics, physics
The Constitution provides for the protection of works of authorship headquarters, means, series, species, works, Swiss, draughts, measles,
in these terms: 'Congress shall have Power... to promote the Progress of politics
Science... by securing to Authors... for limited Times the exclusive Right
to their... Writings.'
Ex. 7. Translate the sentences paying special attention to the pronouns.
Authors may use parts of the work (e.g., tables, figures) in subse- God send everyone their heart's desire (Sheakspear). Sufficient unto
quent works without requesting permission from the AHA. If a joint the day is the evil thereof. (Bible) If anyone wants my umbrella they can
work, all co-authors must transfer rights in said work to the AHA by exe- take it. Nobody called me, did they? Whoever is late tell them to wait till
cuting this Agreement. the break. Everybody in this group thinks they are cleverer than the other
group. If a person does not know what they want from life they find it
hard to be a success.
Ex. 5.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
participial constructions.
I wasn't looking for any more difficult jobs in this world, but the
near possibility of one coming along allowed me to enjoy my slippered
days with a quieter conscience.

In developing rules and regulations, care must be taken to insure that

the conditions are not changed.

It is next to impossible to convey here even an approximate impres-

sion of the essence and range of this brilliant, content-packed volume.

It is not possible for contamination to occur here.

Much more stringent constraints than the requirement of formal

consistency associated with formalist philosophies are posed here.

My father was watching them with mild blue eyed interest.

Numerous articles have appeared dealing with this intricate prob-

lem.
88 89
Partitioning

Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source
sentence by two or more target ones or converting a simple
source sentence into a compound or complex target one.
This Lecture:
• introduces basic translators' devices:
• partitioning; One is to distinguish between inner partitioning (conversion of
• integration; a simple sentence into a compound or complex one) and outer
• transposition; partitioning (division of a sentence into two or more). For
• replacement;
example, inner partitioning is used when translating English verbal
• addition;
complexes into Ukrainian:
• omission and
• antonymous translation; Come along and see me play one evening. - Приходь коли-
• shows where and how these devices are applied as tools to небудь увечері - побачиш, як я граю.
ensure More often than not inner partitioning is a regular translation
adequate translation. transformation accounted for by the differences in the Ukrainian
and English syntactic structures, although it may be also used on
individual occasions as required by the text genre and style and
You might have already guessed from previous discussion that communication variety of the source sentence.
translation was a rather individual matter brinking on art and When translating from English into Ukrainian outer
almost in any case requiring unique and unprecedented decisions. partitioning (unlike inner) is more a matter of personal translator's
And yet even in translation of poetry, which undoubtedly demands choice based, of course, on the proper account of stylistic and
the most individual approach, a translator is bound to use a more or genre peculiarities and communication intent of both the source
less standard set of devices which helps to convey the ideas of the text and its translation.
source text in the best possible way and, generally speaking, makes Outer partitioning is out of the question in case of translating
it possible to translate. official legal or diplomatic documents (laws, contracts, memos,
etc.) but it becomes a totally justified translation option, say, in
Although the choice of particular devices depends on the text consecutive translation of a long and complex sentence.
type, genre and style as well as on the translation variety (oral, The following example from Graham Greene34 is one of the
written, consecutive, simultaneous) and translation direction (into cases where outer partitioning seems a proper translation device
or from a foreign language), the basic set of translation devices (a (although, of course, not a universal recipe):
kind of'translator's tool kit') usually comprises partitioning and There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old
integration of sentences, transposition of sentence parts, school hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was
replacement, addition and omission of words and word always of an adventurous character until he was changed by the
combinations as well as a special type of transformations called continual and sometimes shameful failures of his adult life.
antonymous translation.
90 Greene G. A Sort of Life. - London: Vintage
Classics, 1999.
91
Була і справжня, а не салонна гра, у яку ми грали в The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes,'
актовому галі старої ніколи. Цю гру вигадав мій старший the girl added with a smile35 - «Приблизно за п'ятнадцять
брат Герберт - людина винахідлива і схильна до всіляких хвилин на цей рейс буде посадка біля виходу номер 17», -
пригод, доки постійні і часом ганебні негаразди дорослого посміхаючись, додала дівчина.
життя не змінили його вдачу.

Integration Replacement
Ы Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies Ы Replacement is any change in the target text at the
combining two or (seldom) more source sentences into one morphological, lexical and syntactic levels of the language
target sentence. when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by
different elements of target paradigms36.
Generally, integration is a translation device wholly depending
on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the text being It seems worth to discuss again the example from our previous
translated. In oral translation, however, integration may be a text
lecture on language paradigms. Let us consider sentences in
compression tool (see below), when an interpreter (consecutive or
simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant elements of the source English and in Ukrainian: He used to come to Italy each spring
text to keep in pace with the speaker. and Зазвичай він приїздив до Італії кожної весни.
The following paradigms were used to form these sentences
An example will do to illustrate the idea of integration:
and the following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas
Олена Філіп'єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них during their formation (viz. Table below).
довго не
танцює - починає сумувати. Names of Paradigms Used Elements
Olena Filip'eva loves all her roles and even misses them to Form the Sentences Activated in
should too the Sentence
Personal Pronouns Paradigm
much time pass without performing them. Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense
Paradigm Particles Paradigm
Transposition
*
Ы Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in English Ukrainian
translation meaning a change in the order of the target sentence he він
syntactic elements (Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as used, come приїздив
compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by Past Indef минулий час
peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the to none
communication intent.
35
Archer J. Honour Among Thieves. - London: Harper Collins,
1994.
36
Our definition of replacements somewhat differs from the
An example will suffice to illustrate the idea of transposition. viewpoints of
92 other scholars the reason being the specific target audience of this
Manual. The
Manual is targeted to the students of non-linguistic disciplines with
only basic
linguistic awareness that is why we try to make our explanations
simple and
practical rather than present a detailed linguistic classification of
translation pa
rameters.
93
Prepositions Paradigm to do one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means
Noun Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed
Adjectives Paradigm each кожний in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15 Interpreta-
Adverbs Paradigm none зазвичай tion: Professional Skills and Training)
Noun Cases Paradigm Common Case pod. відм. Replacements of all kinds are so common in English-Ukrainian
Adjective Cases Paradigm none pod. відм. translation that even a beginner is sure to use this device more than once,
so to save space we shall give examples in the attached exercises.
Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements. Addition
Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex
Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their •► Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation
mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the follow- of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or
ing example: paradigm forms missing in the target language
No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted. -
He встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.
The replacements are necessary because English and Ukrainian pos- Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the
sess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In
very important for translation and explains many translation problems. English, being an analytical language the syntactic and semantic relations
Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device. are often implicitly expressed through order of syntactic elements and
One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed context environment whereas in predominantly synthetic Ukrainian these
in any translation from English into Ukrainian and even more so - from relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words). When translating
Ukrainian into English. from English into Ukrainian a translator is to visualize the implicit
objects and relations through additions. So-called 'noun clusters' fre-
The following basic types of replacements are observed in English- quently encountered in newspaper language are especially rich in 'hid-
Ukrainian translation: den' syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by addition in
1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice Para- translation:
digms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; re- Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених,
placement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by Pre- призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні
sent, Past by Present, etc. fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на
2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing паливо
Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною
/see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of віковою групою
English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).
3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative
94
95
Omission [??| QUESTIONS ЧОМУ НАЙКРАЩЕ?
ШЬ Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text consid-
1. What are the basic translation devices?
ered redundant from the viewpoint of targe languag structural 2. What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give exam-
patterns and stylistics the t e ples. Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning
3. What is replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replace-
ments in practical translation? Give examples.
4. What is addition? Give definition and examples.
Omission is the opposite of addition - to understand it consider the 5. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English translation.
literal translation into English of the above noun clusters from their WHY THE BEST? The «Нью-Йорк Тайме Мегезин», 1
Ukrainian translation and compare these translations with the original червня 1999 р. Автор: Френк Річ
English text. EXERCISES
Може, зараз існує більше роз-
Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених,
призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні - Green Party money in- Ex. 1. Compare the English text and its translation into Ukrainian. Com-
tended for the elections at the federal level ment on translation devices used.
fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на New York Times Magazine, June біжностей щодо тлумачення слова
паливо - protests related to the increase of the fuel tax 1, 1999 «найкращий», ніж їх було коли-
peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною There may be less agree- небудь до цього, але концепція
віковою групою - goods designed for use by certain age groups ment than ever about what it is. «найкращого» стала суттєвим засо-
Furthermore, the meaning of their constituents being the same, a But the concept has become an бом своєрідної селекції.
number of expressions do not require translation into Ukrainian in full, essential tool. The Best has be- Історик Пітер Стернз розкопав
e.g., null and void - недійсний. come a search engine. By у старих номерах «Тайме» есе, яке
So, as one can see, proper omissions are important and necessary FRANK RICH побачило світ приблизно де-
translation devices rather than translator's faults as some still tend to be- Some nine decades later, в'яносто років тому і, зауважив, що
lieve. the historian Peter N. Stearns йому не бракує глибини. Він
Thus, basic translation devices discussed in this lecture are, indeed, disinterred the old Times essay звернув увагу на відсутність у есе
the only 'tool kit' available to a translator, however, a big question re- and, while finding it not with- згадки про «дивовижну кількість
mains unanswered: Where and when to use that or another device? A out insight, noted the con- подій і фактів, які ми зараз вважа-
complete answer is hardly possible, but we shall try, at least, to give some spicuous omission of «an ємо важливими для XIX століття».
recommendations in the lectures that follow. amazing number of develop-
ments that we now consider to
have been crucial in the 19th
century.» Among the missing
Пройшли непоміченими: пова-
were the abolition of slavery, лення рабства, мистецька революціє
artistic revolution of Im- ція імпресіоністів і майже все, що
96 97
стосується Азії. А сьогодні You re continually interrupting! 5.Pay no attention to him. He is just
«Тайме» розкопує завали на го- being naughty. 6.When he was rich, he used to stay in this hotel. 7. Scien-
рищі історії і перетрушує минуле tists are on the point of making a vital breakthrough. No sooner did the
тисячоліття у пошуках Найкращо- President start his speech than he was interrupted. 8.Principal hereby
го. Ні, не десятка кращих і не сотні appoints Agent as its non-exclusive service provider. 9.This Agreement
найліпших, а саме Найкращого.
Якщо хтось помітить у цих
пошуках абсурдистську нотку, ти-
пову для XX сторіччя, то це так і
було заплановано. У 1999 році сам
цей вираз «найкращий» визначає
словесну бійку або, якщо вислови-
тись більш конструктивно, прово-
кує дебати.
pressionism and virtually the
entirety of Asia.
Now The Times is upping
the ante exponentially and ran-
sacking an entire millennium in
search of the Best. Not the 10
best, or the 100 best, but the
Best. If you detect a distinctly
20th-century absurdist grace
note in this endeavor, it's inten-
tional. In 1999, the very term
«the Best» amounts to fighting
words-or, to put it more con-
structively, a provocation to
debate.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian, using the suggested, and, if needed, other
devices:
a)partitioning:
Similar artifacts have been found at sites throughout North and
South America, indicating that life was probably well established in much
of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. One result
of these restrictions was to reduce the appeal of nativists organizations37
d) replacement:
1. Everyone was talking but stopped the moment she entered the
room. 2. The establishment of the United Nations Office in November
1992 followed the signing in New York a host agreement between
Ukraine's Foreign Minister and the United Nations Secretary-General. 3.
I hear that you have been promoted. Congratulations! 4.Please be quiet.
may not be amended or supplemented except by written agreement судочинства; у випадку рівності голосів суддів голос старшого за
signed by both parties hereto. lO.The terms used hereunder shall have the віком дає перевагу; термін повноважень п'яти суддів закінчується
following meaning. 11. Each Party may, within 20 days after receiving the через три роки.
minutes, suggest amendments thereto.
g) antonymous translation:
e) addition: Valid with diploma only. Keep off the grass. Take it easy. Take it or
Publications on Foreign Policy; the United Nations; Ministry of leave it. She was not like a bird. Staff only. It won't be long before the
Health help arrives. It wasn't until 1983 that Connor could afford a holiday
abroad. It would take these first North Americans thousands of years
f) omission:
more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to
a) The Court of Justice; null and void; rejected and omitted; as far
what is now the United States. The armed forces shall not be used save in
back as; as early as; he is head and shoulders above his comrades; prim
the common interests.
and proper; power to execute and perform the duties and responsibili
ties; continue in full force and effect; foreign policy problem; electoral
base; political scientist;
b) Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Члени Організації Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, making necessary transformations.
Об'єднаних Націй; юристи з визнаним авторитетом у галузі Primaries; academia; turnout (at the polls); caucus; Ministry of
міжнародного права; постійна Палата Третейського Суду; взяти на Health; the Exchequer; to investigate; to accommodate; airborne; breeze;
себе обов'язки; подати заяву про відставку; у порядку спрощеного refinery; publicist; body of independent judges.
Nativist organizations - організації «американців за походженням».
98 99
Г
Ex. 4. Translate into Ukrainian. Comment on translation devices used.
DICK WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT
Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE
Tales of cats that bring good fortune to their owners can be found in
cultures throughout the world. One of the most famous is the English legend of
OF EQUIVALENTS
Dick Whittington, a poor orphan in the late 1300s, whose only possession was a
cat. Dick worked in a rich traders house, but was ill-treated and ran away. A peal
This Lecture:
of bells tells him to return and he does so to find that his cat has been sold for a
• outlines basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents,
great fortune to a Moorish ruler who is plagued by rats. i.e. context, situation and background information;
The story of Dick Whittington and his cat is a familiar one to most • defines context varieties and their influence on the choice of translation
schoolchildren. A poor orphan comes to London and finds work in the kitchens equivalents;
of a rich merchant-trader called Fitzwarren. One day Dick earns a penny by • shows the role of cultural background in equivalent selection.
shining a rich man's shoes and buys a cat to keep the vermin in his room at bay.
Fitzwarren allows his employees to put one item on his ship that could be traded
abroad. The employee will then get all the profits. Dick had nothing except his From the previous lectures and your own translation experience you know
cat, and so he reluctantly gives up his pet. that the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and
background information. This lecture presents more detailed information on the
STORM AT SEA
role these and some other important factors play in the process of translation
One day, Fitzwarren's ship encounters a fierce storm and is blown into equivalent selection.
uncharted territory on the African Barbary coast. The Moorish king, dining with Thus, the main factors are context, situation and background information.
the captain, tells him that he will pay a fortune if anyone can rid him of a plague
They are well-known, but, regrettably, their definitions by various scholars
of rats. The captain, who has seen how Dick's cat has rid the ship of vermin,
substantially differ.
gives the cat to the king. The cat immediately sets about its work and then goes
To start with, let us define the context38.
to sit on the queen's lap, purring. The king is so happy that he gives the captain
gold and jewels worth ten times the value of the entire ship's cargo. Dick
becomes a rich man.
•► For the purpose of practical translation we shall call the context the
length of speech (text) necessary to specify the meaning and translation of a
given word.

Also for the purpose of practical translation we shall distinguish between

immediate and general context.
100 See also: Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь. - M., 1999.
101
ШЬ Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically потрібна, окрім релігії, щоб вижити у час, коли нове тисячоліття
related words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a летить прямо на нас; це ілюзія, що ми ще можемо зупинити
given word and forms the basis for its translation. годинник і знайти спосіб, навіть у цю останню мить, щоб
підкорити простір і час.
Perhaps, you will agree that in the first instance the immediate con-
Note the words 'forms the basis' in the above definition - these words text is all that one needs for translation whereas to translate properly the
are critical indeed, because immediate context is seldom sufficient for the text of the second example one will need broader context and, probably,
proper choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is limited to a some additional background information as well. This brings us to the
sentence, though in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is
first conclusion:
sufficient as an immediate context.
However, to get all information necessary for translation one should
take into account the general context as well. * The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immediate and
general context.
* General context is the source text as a whole.
Any source text, however, consists of words and word combinations
which you are to translate to finally end up in a target text. And to say the
least, words and word combinations are very different as to the problems
To feel the difference compare the translation of the following two they present for translation.
examples. Compare, for example, words and word combinations in the left and
After becoming involved in city politics, he was rewarded for his services right columns of the Table below.
to the King by being made Lord Mayor of London, serving four terms be-
tween 1397 and 1420. organization insider
Він став брати активну участь у політичному житті міста, і society power-broker
король відзначив його заслуги перед короною, призначивши лорд- territory mainstream
мером Лондона. На цій посаді він залишався чотири строки - з 1397 development hot button
по 1420 рік.
region marginal
The hope that we can still pare down our choices to a list of essentials is
the other faith, besides religion, that we need to survive as the new millen- It is easy to note that the entries in the left column present no prob-
nium rushes toward us — the illusion that we can stop the clock and some- lem for translation whereas to find proper equivalents for those in the
how, even at this late date, master space and time. right column one needs at least broad context and desirably also a piece
Сподівання, ніби-то ми все ще в змозі відмовитися від усього of background information.
зайвого і обрати найсуттєвіше, - це своєрідна віра, яка нам
102 103
W
The explanation lies in the fact that unlike those in the left column You will get more of such texts in the exercises after this lecture that
the right column words are relatively new language formations standing prove the final conclusion39:
for also relatively new phenomena of the American culture. Then the
next conclusion may be:
Ш* To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the
cultural background underlying the source text being translated.
•► The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and
word combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the un-
derlying cultural background.
To get a better idea of the above equivalent selection factor consider
an example:
The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Para-
dise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bohemians have in the last genera-
tion morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The long-
haired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate
boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the
business culture have largely disappeared as a result.
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian prede-
cessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products
of that culture, and they like it.
Консервативний коментатор Девід Брукс у своему есе «Бубо у
раю» стверджує, що стара буржуазія і стара богема в останньому
поколінні переродилися у те, що він називає «бубо» - буржуазна боге-
ма. Колишні патлаті носії вільного духу в сандалях та яскравих
сорочках сидять зараз у респектабельних офісах, і в результаті
зникло все те, що, здавалось би, відділяло культуру протесту від
бізнес-культури. На відміну від членів Ротаріанських клубів, місце
яких вони зараз посіли, «бубо», очевидно, менш схильні до
пуританських хрестових походів проти попкультури, бо вони самі є
продуктом цієї культури, і ця культура їм до вподоби. We purposefully include in the exercises after this lecture the texts partly
or fully shown elsewhere in this Manual. We think it is worth analyzing these
texts at a different angle.
104
105
|?Э QUESTIONS side seems especially willing to lay down arms. If anything, they seem
emboldened after an election that showed the citizenry to be evenly di-
1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation vided. No one wants to give ground for fear the tide of battle will turn.
equivalents? But while the political war over social issues rages on, what these observ-
2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of ers might have really sensed is an increasing tolerance in the popular cul-
translation equivalents? ture for things once considered unacceptably outside the mainstream.
3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of transla- Just a decade ago, there were no gays in television situation comedies.
tion equivalents? Now NBC's «Will Grace,» one of the most popular sitcoms, celebrates
4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation equiva- gay characters, and no one seems particularly lathered about it.
lents of individual words and word combinations? A decade ago, television commercials barely hinted at sex, lest they
5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation offend potential consumers. Now they hurl sexual innuendo, and no one
equivalents? bats an eye.
More than a decade ago, Madonna scandalized polite society with
(§J EXERCISES the suggestion that a new romance made her feel like a virgin. Now radio
plays the most sexually explicit music, and no one notices. One might be
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest factors that influence the choice of excused for assuming, then, that there has been a truce and that a new era
translation equivalents. of cultural coexistence has dawned. But in truth this is hardly a new state
of affairs. The popular culture has always been more tolerant than the
BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICA'S CULTURE WARS
political culture, and the tension between the two has accounted, in part,
CONTINUE The International
for the launching of the culture wars. Although it is a chicken-and-egg
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler
question, cultural conservatives raise a taboo and purveyors of popular
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America culture violate it. Then the conservatives rail against the violation, and the
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as purveyors of popular culture rise to the challenge and push the envelope.
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro- Then the conservatives howl over the latest transgression, and the
tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam popular culture transgresses once again. And so it goes. It is a dynamic
of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just and continuous process, a symbiosis not only between the so-called con-
petered out. servatives and liberals but also between both of these cohorts and society
Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, generally. Without it the culture would be directionless, which is not only
have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this why culture wars will continue but also why America need them to
has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the continue. How dull the culture would be without them. Conservatives
«crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.» might be ascendant in politics, setting the agenda since at least the days
It makes you wondenwhat country they're living in. of Ronald Reagan, but they are always the beleaguered ones in the war
If Americans don't hear the crackle, it might be because the bombs over the popular culture.
detonating overhead drown it out. If Americans look around they will see That discrepancy between political power and cultural power is
that abortion, gun control, environmental protection, gay rights and, something to which they have never quite been able to reconcile them-
lately, campaign finance reform are still hot-button issues, and neither selves. Militant conservatives simply cannot fathom how one can vote
106 Republican, profess to embrace conservative values and yet buy Eminem
107
CDs or watch NBC's «The West Wing» or go see R-rated movies. To when they attack movie blockbusters, cutting-edge television programs
them it is both inconsistent and a betrayal. and rock CDs.
The barrier, as they see it, isn't between politics and culture but be- In professing to save America from the toxin of popular culture,
tween conservative values and liberal values. They won the political war, conservatives were also saving themselves. Popular culture promoted the
so how come their troops aren't carrying the cultural one, too? Much to sort of values that further marginalized the critics and made them seem
their dismay, the answer is that there are two different sets of armies in even more old-fashioned and irrelevant. It is a war they cannot afford to
these two theaters of combat. In the political theater you have the famil- lose, so they have to keep soldiering on no matter how inexorably the
iar forces of liberalism and conservatism. In the cultural one, you have a popular culture seems to advance. They don't seem to realize that this
variegated group of pop culture consumers including political right- culture might not be a form of cultural illiteracy. It might be a form of
wingers on the one side, and a bellicose band of religious and moral con- rebellion for people who deliberately choose what is likely to infuriate
servatives on the other. The conservative commentator David Brooks cultural commissars intent on telling them what is good for them.
argues in «Bobos in Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bo- Since the days of Andrew Jackson, people embraced the «trashy» in
hemians have in the last generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos» direct proportion to the critics' hatred of it, thus asserting their cultural
- bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free independence and power. It is one of the reasons the popular culture
spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to often goes to extremes. At the extremes lies the greatest irritation value.
divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely The culture wars might ebb and flow, but they will never end. Con-
disappeared as a result. servatives cannot concede defeat, because to do so would end the hope of
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian their worldview ever prevailing.
predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are And consumers of popular culture need that opposition to give
products of that culture, and they like it. themselves a target, a boundary to transgress. Without conservatives to
Despite their heated rhetoric and noise, cultural conservatives just excoriate it, the popular culture would lose its subversive subtext and the
don't have the numbers. sneaky thrill of violation that fuels it.
When the culture wars began in America 150 years ago, it was be-
cause elites and aristocrats, a tiny faction, feared and detested the rise of a Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest items of cultural background neces-
genuinely democratic culture of almanacs, crime pamphlets, dime novels, sary for translation.
penny newspapers, theatrical melodramas, popular music, circuses. As
ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS.
the elites saw it, this new culture, appealing to the masses, threatened the
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001.
country by degrading its standards and morals. It was a culture of the
proverbial lowest common denominator. As the 19th century progressed, There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity
the elites gradually gave way to middle-class moralists and reformers, but that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when
the moralists' arguments were essentially the same as the aristocrats'. suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate.
Popular culture undermined American values. It promoted sex, violence, With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is
vulgarity and disrespect for authority. the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the
That was the argument when cultural conservatives were attacking big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and
saloon shows at the end of the 19th century, silent films, including the «innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.
films of Charlie Chaplin, early in the 20th century, and sexual comedies People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole
in the 1920s and gangster pictures in the 1930s. It is still the argument prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier
108 109
on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be
fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human.
Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal circum- Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES
stances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow
That Changed History.
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be This Lecture:
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily • introduces the classification of translation based on physical parameters;
at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or • familiarizes the students with sub-categories of translation depending on
snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the genre;
ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become • outlines approaches translators use when handling these varieties.
a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming
his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The no- Generally speaking all translation varieties have much in common -
blest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese similar approaches, similar translation means and devices. According to
whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi- physical parameters of translation process, however, translation is di-
toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather vided into written translation (or simply translation) and oral (or inter-
less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the pretation).
populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games. Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive in-
Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment. terpretation and simultaneous interpretation. Chuchotage and at-sight in-
Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had terpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive inter-
traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous
pretation despite minor differences in physical procedures.
with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multi-
media age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega- Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories de-
stars. The orbit of Sputnik's dog, Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of pending on the genre of the text being translated, such as literary transla-
the world's youth. tion (fiction, poetry and publicistic texts), translation of official docu-
The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a ments, etc.
bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but
the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.
Ы In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source
utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed
simultaneously with the original speech.
This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main
distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiari-
ties of the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.
110 Ill
In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during simul-
taneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices and Ш* Consecutive interpreter generally prefers denotative approach
approaches as well as determines the necessity of using special equip- since it is virtually impossible to memorize the entirety of the long
ment for interpretation. text passages being translated and translate close to the source text.
Simultaneous interpreter is bound to keep to transformational
approach interpreting the source text by small fragments.
•► Without special equipment simultaneous interpretation is im-
possible.

The equipment for simultaneous interpretation comprises earphones, It should be added that in translation the decisions made by the
a microphone and a sound-insulated booth which serves as the translator are the results of thorough speculation and, ideally, are con-
interpreter's work-place. Because of physical and mental strain simulta- scious, whereas in interpretation the interpreter's decisions are mainly
neous interpretation is considered the hardest and most stressing inter- subconscious and intuitive.
pretation variety that requires special skills and qualities. It is regarded as As concerns translation devices, they are basically the same for all
a top class of interpretation and demands special vocation and training. translation varieties. Moreover, it is hardly possible and feasible to ex-
Basic skills and training methods of consecutive and simultaneous inter- plain when to use which device - in many aspects translation is an art
preters are discussed below in this Manual (Lecture 15). implying constant search for unprecedented decisions. However, in this
As it has been already mentioned all translation varieties use similar Manual we attempt to file a sort of translation device inventory when it
approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and dur- seems rational (Lectures 10 and 15). For example, one of the instances
ing the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either trans- when particular devices are feasible is text compression during interpre-
formational or denotative approach.40 tation (see below in Lecture 15).
Basically, the choice of one or another approach in written transla- Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives
tion depends on the genre of the text being translated rather than on the of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter
translation variety. In interpretation practice, however, there are two in- speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user
stances when the choice of approach is determined by the working envi- can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter
ronment. who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the ap-
proach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.
At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive interpreta-
40 tion. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in a source
It is worth reminding here that according to transformational approach
translation (interpretation) is performed by relatively small and regular syntac- language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary consecutive
tico-semantic fragments of the source sentences whereas the denotative approach interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this interpretation vari-
is based on larger text fragments (at least, a sentence) with occasional equivalents ety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.
(see more above). It is stylistical discrepancy between the written document and its oral
112 interpretation: the styles of written documents (literary, official, etc.)
radically differ from the colloquial style any interpreter tends to use in
113
interpretation (the expressions used in written language are different and
ЦЗ QUESTIONS
the interpreter has to adapt to them which is not as easy as it might seem
at first sight)41. To check the truthfulness of this statement do exercises 1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?
after this lecture. 2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different translation
Completing this discussion of translation varieties it is worth dis- varieties?
cussing the translation accessories and working environments of transla- 3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and simulta-
tion and interpretation. The difference is substantial. A translator has at neous interpretation?
hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes no spe- 4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?
cific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and redone if 5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and
so required. interpreter?
An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any out-
side help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and derate (§J EXERCISES
the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation tasks are
equally hard, but different as different are the required skills and training Ex. 1. Interpret the text recording your interpretation, then translate in writ-
methods discussed below in the lectures that follow. ing. Compare the translation and interpretation, comment on the differ-
ences.
The star had made seven enormously popular horror films, five of
them talking pictures, and was being compared to the great American
actor Lon Chaney. Yet nobody knew anything about Johann Ingersoll.
There were no photographs of him except in the grotesque makeup he
invented for each picture. His biography listed only his films. He never
granted interviews and went to unusual lengths to protect his real iden-
tity. Adding further to his mystique was Ingersoll's eccentric habit of ar-
riving on the set each day in makeup and leaving the same way.

Ex. 2. Ask your fellow student to read the text for you. Interpret it in con-
secutive manner recording the interpretation. Observe the difference between
at-sight and regular consecutive translation.
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to dem-
onstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-
Similar difficulty is experienced by the interpreters when the speaker
reads his paper prepared in advance rather than speaking off-hand. 115
114
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
is time now to do.' Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov- from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
performance of New Labour. electorate may be terrible.
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea- Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hurdle, on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur- would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov-
mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes - ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged
the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did
to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari- not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved
table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Gov- that historic goal of Labour.
ernment teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel pro- Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
tests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors. their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern-
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by ments dating back to Gladstone.
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench- One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on
ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re- the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set
gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre-
double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour
to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the economic goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been com-
calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks countries. pelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence
The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day for the Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop to-
week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social day - and would leave enduring legacies.
conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts
has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they
or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reason ably adept at ruling, have been enacted by a Labour government.
the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently
governments. altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed.
With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's
The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its
Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and
promises. Generally, the soi-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled
swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of
the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a
making Labour 'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation
paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is
by Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.
appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
116
117
But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal-
lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more
often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION
about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re-
mains coy of full candour.
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer This Lecture:
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There • describes written translation subcategories;
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are • introduces the notion of hypertext;
enough of them, can take you on a long journey. • discusses challenges facing a literary translator.
Baby bonds are an eye-catching device to give the poor an asset stake
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries As mentioned in the previous Lecture, written translation is divided
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments into several subcategories depending on the genre of the texts being
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David translated. Literary translation forms one of such subcategories being,
Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy perhaps, unique and the most sophisticated of all.
Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds. This translation variety requires special skills and talents and, unlike
When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers some other varieties (e.g., translation of official documents) it cannot be
and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold formalized or standardized. The explanation of the uniqueness and un-
and innovatory ideas. precedented nature of each literary translation piece lies in the following
This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding statement.
governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to
secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation
has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting Ш* In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the
system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his source text rather than only facts like in other translation and inter-
premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe pretation varieties.
as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
more aggressively hostile than ever.
The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan-
cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but Below, to illustrate the statement, let us compare the following pas-
about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The sage from A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway with its translation
fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his into Ukrainian.
self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate
the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner I stopped at a barber shop Я зайшов до перукарні й по-
in Europe? and was shaved and went home голився, потім попростував до
The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history. to the hospital. My leg was as госпіталю. Моя нога вже так змі-
Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to well as it would get for a long цніла, що кращого й бажати було
change the future. time. I had been up for examina- годі. За три дні перед тим я був
tion three days before. There на комісії. Мені залишалось усьо-
118 119
were still some treatments to ro кілька процедур до кінця ліку- you.» кишені кілька монет.- Зробіть
take before my course at the вання в Головному госпіталі, і я «Please,» I brought out мені приємність.
Ospedale Maggiore was finished йшов бічною вулицею, намагаю- some coppers. «For pleasure.» - Ні. Мені самому було при-
and I walked along the side чись не кульгати. Під склепінчас- «No. I did them for a pleas- ємно вирізати їх. Подаруйте своїй
street practicing not limping. An тим під'їздом одного будинку ure. Give them to your girl.» дівчині.
old man was cutting silhouettes якийсь старий вирізував паперові «Many thanks until we - Дуже вам дякую. Бувайте
under an arcade. I stopped to силуети. Я зупинився подиви- meet.» здорові.
watch him. Two girls were pos- тись. Йому позували двоє дівчат, «Until I see thee.» - Ходи здоровий, синку.
ing and he cut their silhouettes і він вирізував їхні силуети вкупі,
together, snipping very fast and швидко орудуючи ножицями й I went on to the hospital. Я повернувся до госпіталю.
looking at them, his head on one раз по раз нахиляючи голову вбік, There were some letters, an offi- Там на мене чекало кілька листів,
side. The girls were giggling. He щоб позирнути на дівчат. Дівчата cial one, and some others. I was один з них - службовий. Мені
showed me the silhouettes be- хихотіли. Він показав силуети to have three weeks' convales- надавали тритижневу відпустку на
fore he pasted them on white мені, а тоді вже наклеїв їх на cent leave and then return to the одужання, а потім я мав пове-
paper and handed them to the білий папір і віддав дівчатам. front. I read it over carefully. рнутися на фронт. Я уважно пе-
girls. - Он які красуні,- сказав Well, that was that. The conva- речитав листа. Еге ж, отак воно.
«They're beautiful» he said. він.- А ви не хочете, лейтенанте? lescent leave started October Відпустка починалася з четвертого
«How about you, Tenente?» Дівчата пішли, роздивляю- fourth when my course was fin- жовтня, того самого дня, коли я
The girls went away looking чись свої силуети і сміючись. ished. Three weeks was twenty- закінчував курс лікування. Три
at their silhouettes and laughing. Обидві були гарненькі. Одна з one days. That made October тижні - це двадцять один день.
They were nice-looking girls. них працювала у кав'ярні проти twenty-fifth. I told them I would Отже, двадцять п'ятого жовтня. Я
One of them worked in the wine нашого госпіталю. not be in and went to the restau- сказав у госпіталі, що знов іду, й
shop across from the hospital. - Ну зробіть, - сказав я. rant a little way up the street подався до ресторану на тій-таки
«All right,» I said. Зніміть кашкета. from hospital for supper and read вулиці, майже поруч госпіталю,
«Take your cap off.» - Ні. В кашкеті. my letters and the Corriere della повечеряти і почитати листи й
«No. With it on.» - Буде не так гарно,- сказав Sera at the table. There was a «Corriere della Sera». Один лист
«It will not be so beautiful,» старий.- Зате,- усміхнувся він, - letter from my grandfather, був від мого діда: родинні новини,
the old man said. «But,» he дуже войовниче. containing family news, patriotic патріотичні гасла, чек на двісті
brightened, «it will be more Він заходивсь обрізувати encouragement, a draft for two доларів та кілька газетних вирізок;
military.» складений удвоє чорний папір, hundred dollars, and a few clip- ще був нудний лист від нашого
He snipped away at the потім розняв готові профілі, на- pings; a dull letter from the priest священика, лист від одного
black paper, separated the two клеїв їх на картку й подав мені. at our mess; a letter from a man I знайомого, який служив у
thicknesses and pasted the pro- - Скільки з мене? knew who was flying with the французькому авіазагоні й весело
files on a card and handed them - Пусте.- Він махнув рукою.- French and had gotten in with a проводив час у гурті відчайдуш-
to. 'How much?» Я зробив їх вам за спасибі. wild gang and was telling about it,
них гультяїв, про що й сповіщав
«That's all right». He waved - Ну будь ласка.- Я витяг з and a note from Rinaldi asking
мене; та ще коротка писулька від
his hand. «I just made them for 120 me how long I was going
Рінальді. Він запитував, чи довго
121
to skulk in Milano and what was я ще думаю огинатися в Мілані й I will lie and watch the cornfields,
all the news? He wanted me to що нового взагалі. Крім того, Listen through the years
bring him phonograph records просив привезти грамофонних To the river voices roaring,
and enclosed a list. платівок і додав до листа їх спи- Roaring in my ears.
сок.
When I hear the call
The most striking examples, however, of this unique feature of liter- Of the racing flood,
ary translation gives us poetry: Loud with hated blood,
I will leave them all,
The Testament Заповіт Fields and hills; and force my way
Тарас Шевченко Right up to the Throne
Як умру, то поховайте Where God sits alone;
Мене на могилі, Серед Clasp His feet and pray...
степу широкого На But till that day
Вкраїні милій, Щоб лани What is God to me?
широкополі, І Дніпро, і
Bury me, be done with me,
кручі Було видно, було
Rise and break your chain,
чути Як реве ревучий. Як
Water your new liberty With
понесе з України У синєє
blood for rain. Then, in the
море Кров ворожу... отоді
mighty family
я І лани,і гори -Все
покину і полину До 122
самого бога Молитися... а
до того Я не знаю бога.
Поховайте та вставайте
Кайдани порвіте І
вражою злою кров'ю
Волю окропіте. І мене в
сім'ї великій В сім'ї
вольній, новій, Не
забудьте пом'янути
Незлим тихим словом.

by Taras Shevchenko
Dig my grave and raise my barrow
By the Dnieper-side
In Ukraina, my own land,
A fair land and wide.
Of all men that are free, May That is why literary Since means and
be sometimes, very softly You translation is an artistic devices of hypertext may be
will speak of me? creation and to be suc- different in source and
Translated by E.L. Voynich cessful it must be accepted target languages, the
London, 1911 by the language speakers' translator is to find
community of the target appropriate target language
It is easy to note that in the above translation example of the well- language as a piece of substitutes for the source
known Shevchenko's «Testament» individual information items (facts) literary prose in their native hypertext elements.
are sometimes radically different or missing but the images forming in language, unlike other It is hardly possible
the translation readers' minds are virtually similar to those triggered in and desirable to give a
translation varieties which
the minds of the source text readers. The same applies to the translation universal prescription for
may be tolerated by the
of prose pieces, though, maybe, to a lesser degree.
users even in poor quality hypertext substitutions in
To fully understand the task of the literary translator it is worthwhile
(factual information translation - the grounds of
to recall the communicational scheme of translation. As you might re-
member, the author of the source text sends a message to the source lan- sometimes is more the choice are unique in
guage speakers and the translator's task is to render this message for the important for the users than each case.
speakers of the target language. For the translated message to be under- grammatical and stylistic Moreover, because of
stood properly by the target language audience it is necessary that the correctness). the unique cultural
knowledge bases (thesauruses) of the author, translator and translation Besides, there is background of each nation
users were similar. a large share of the source
another factor that makes
This task is rather easy when the translator deals with facts as in hypertext is lost in
translation of technical or official documents - one is only to match literary texts so difficult for 43
translation - it is so called translation.
grammar patterns (perform regular transformations) and properly choose Thus, in literary
the equivalents.42 hypertext.
translation an important
Should the translator manage to achieve these goals, the translation
will be a success, because facts are objective and understood in the same role is played by literary
way by all people with similar educational background. Ш* Hypertext is the images and hypertext,
The situation with literary translation, however, is radically different. collective meaning of a however, speaking about
In literary translation literary text comprising this translation variety one
♦ the translator is to render mental images and trigger emotions all associations and should also keep in mind
similar to those initiated by the source text in its readers; allusions acquired by the following.
♦ the images and emotions are known to be extremely subjective; the words and word
♦ the words causing similar images and emotions may be different combinations of this ♦ The target text of
in different languages. text in their previous literary translation is a piece
usage. of fiction belonging to the
Sometimes this is not that easy, but still easier than create a unique image. target language literature.
123 That is why the knowledge
of the target language is so
critical for this translation
type.
These associations and allusions may be acquired when words and
word combinations were used in other texts: books, popular songs, say-
ings, films, etc. For instance, word combination реве та стогне is closely •► Literary translation should be recognized by the target language
connected in the minds of Ukrainian speakers with the popular song and speakers as a literary text in their native language.
when used in a different context still preserve this connection. The same
applies to words бузина and дядько. Used together in any context they
still remain associated with the saying На городі бузина, в Києві дядько ♦ In literary translation of dialogues the translator should take exact
and this association rings a bell in the native speakers' minds, though account of the speakers' character and situation of the dialogue. This in-
often subconsciously. formation determines the style of translation.
Of course, these examples are the simplest - generally the hypertext ♦ Stylistic devices and expression means as well as connotations and
allusions are extremely subtle and often not even recognize.d at the con- shades of meaning of individual words are critical elements of 'image-
scious level. Yet, they are very important for the adequate perception of a making' in literary translation.
literary text which makes translator's task especially hard.
In order to explain possible ways to render the hypertext in transla-
tion let's recall again the communication theory. The author's text must
comply with the hypertext thesaurus of the source text readers and in a
similar way the hypertext of translation must 'ring a bell' in the minds of
the target text readers.
See also the lecture on translation into English in this Manual.
124 125
U?| QUESTIONS
1. What are the distinctive features of literary translation? Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH
2. What is hypertext? Define it. Give examples of hypertext allusions
and associations.
3. Can a translator render the whole of the source hypertext? If not, This Lecture:
then what part of the hypertext is lost? emphasizes the essential features to be remembered by the students when
4. What is the attitude of the target language audience to a piece of lit- translating into English:
erary translation? • pre-determined order of words in a sentence;
5. What is to be taken into account in translation of dialogues? • verbal style of expression;
• analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
between words;
HJ EXERCISES • the use of prepositional structures.
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Try first word-by-word translation. Ex-
plain why it fails and give literary translation. Suggest stylistic means and
devices that are used to create the images of the source text, compare them When translating into any language one is expected to treat with due
with those in your translation. regard the peculiarities of its grammatical and lexico-semantic systems.
He was struck by the realization that what had been a traumatic and Of numerous peculiarities of the system of English the following three
monumental moment in his life had been an infinitesimal part of the are, perhaps, the most important for translation into this language.
battle, by the insignificance of his part in the brutal encounter. And as
Rudman read on, the story gathered a kind of chilling energy unto itself
and Keegan began to feel its power. (William Diehl) 1. Definite (pre-determined) order of words in a sentence.
2. Predominantly verbal style of expression.
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using characters' backgrounds (a journalist 3. Analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
and a young soldier) as a basis for the selection of equivalents. between words (by positioning rather than by prepositions and case
«Hi,» Rudman had greeted him holding out his hand, «I'm Bert forms).
Rudman, Herald Tribune out of Paris.»
«Keegan,» was all the youngster had mumbled back.
«Were you at Belleau Wood?» If one compares the above features of English with
«I think so.» ♦ free word order,
«How bad is it?» Rudman asked nodding toward his leg. ♦ predominantly nominative style of expression and
«Bad enough to get me home.» He paused for a moment and then ♦ expression of semantic and syntactic relations by prepositions
asked, «Did we win?» and/or case forms
Rudman had stared at him for a moment, the significance of the typical for Ukrainian the principle objectives of Ukrainian-English
question slowly sinking in. Then he smiled. «You sure did, kiddo. Kicked translation may be phrased as follows.
the Kaiser's ass right back where it came from and then some.»
«That's good,» Keegan said.
126 127
Ш* When translating from Ukrainian into English the translator is: by the target audience. The best way to do this provides a combination of
♦ to change the word order in the source sentences in accord with denotative approach (interpretation of the content) and transformational
the English syntax; scheme (transforming Ukrainian phrases into standard English
♦ to change the source text style into predominantly verbal and expressions).
♦ to express the syntactic and semantic relations between nouns by
their proper positioning.
Ш* In English-Ukrainian translation the translator is expected to
interpret the content of the source text using standard phrasing of the
target language speakers.
Speaking of translation means and devices the most applicable ones
for Ukrainian-English translation are restructuring (rewording) of the
source sentences, replacement of noun combinations by verbal structures Let's take an example of Ukrainian English translation to illustrate
and substitution of target noun clusters for source prepositional the above recommendation.
combinations. Міцне, повите спокійною The strong face, the smile....
It should be noted, however, that all said above is valid only for the усмішкою обличчя. Вилитий The arched brows. He was the im-
Іван! Чистісінько батькова кру- age of Ivan! Ivan himself may have
general case - each particular translation case demands individual con-
тобровість. Наче той ожив, наче come to life again, risen from the
sideration. воскрес... dead.
Let's take an example to illustrate a typical Ukrainian-English trans- ...Вже викликають інших. З ...Others were called. One of
formations. числа цивільних одержує гра- the civilians was the dashing
Необхідно негайно провести голосування з цього питання. моту і той модерняга, що young fellow who had come on his
«The issue is to be voted immediately.» приїздив мотоциклом до motorcycle asking to be given the
кіношників, пропонував зіграти role of anonymous letter-writer.
Note rewording and replacement of the nominative combination by роль анонімника. Одержавши He took his certificate and as he
the verbal construction in the above example. нагороду й відходячи від столу, left the table winked at Ko-
As concerns the approaches used in Ukrainian-English translation підморгнув Колосовському: а losovsky, as though to say: And
one is to remember that the denotative approach and transformations are ви, мовляв, не хотіли брати... Не you didn't want to take me. You're
used in combination. знаєте, братці, людей... (Oles a poor judge of people...
To explain the necessity of denotative approach when translating Honchar)
into English one is to apply the communicational scheme of translation.
The matter is that the target audience of Ukrainian-English transla-
tion is foreigners having cultural and educational background which As one can see a non-native speaking translator can achieve good re-
sometimes radically differs from Ukrainian culture and ways of life. sults in Ukrainian-English translation only through using standard (cli-
Hence, in order to convey the source text content in an optimal way one cheed) English phrasing. The reason of this requirement becomes clear if
should translate it using the phrasing common to and easily understood you recall the information on hypertext discussed earlier in this Manual.
128 12
9
A non-native speaking translator simply may not know the hypertext
underlying the equivalents and only standard language cliche» (to a cer- (??] QUESTIONS
tain extent!) guarantee proper choice of equivalents with relevant conno-
1. What are the peculiarities of the English language system which are
tations. to be taken into account in Ukrainian-English translation?
2. What are the most important changes of the source text in Ukrain-
ian-English translation?
Ш* The use of standard (clicheed) phrases in translation into English 3. What is the optimal approach in Ukrainian-English translation?
is desirable since they are repeatedly tested by native speakers and 4. Why is it desirable to use standard (clicheed) expressions when
carry with them correct associations and allusions. translating into a foreign language.
5. Grade the texts according to difficulties they present for Ukrainian-
English translation.
Of course, in literary translation this aspect is more important than in
translation of technical or official documents. Generally speaking, the {§} EXERCISES
effectiveness of translation into English by a foreigner depends on the
type of the source text. The lowest level of connotations is observed in Ex. 1. Read the Ukrainian text and its translation into English. Observe the
legal texts where no ambiguity is tolerated, besides, legal texts are highly way the Ukrainian cultural idioms are translated. Describe the structural
clicheed. In a way the same is true for technical texts and official docu- changes and changes in the text content.
ments. This is where one may expect good results translating into English Місяць все щедріше обб- The moon-silver fell more lav-
by standard 'well-worn' expressions. ризкував сяйвом оброшені де- ishly on the dew-covered trees and
All said above about translation into English applies both to written рева і шлях, чіткіше обрисову- road, picking out the saddled
translation and interpretation, although some peculiarities of interpreta- вались нерозсідлані коні, а horses; and the muted voices of the
tion proper are discussed in the lecture that follows. притишені пісні козаків пори- Cossacks still sang of the rapids, the
вались і поривались на далекі bowed cherry-trees, the red guelder
дороги, до укляклих вишняків, roses and the black ashes, yearning
до червоних калин і чорних for the distant home where their
пожарищ, де б мати чи батько і father or mother, or sweetheart,
вірне кохання. Було в тих піс- perhaps, awaited them. There was
нях і степове озерце, де плава- the steppe lake, too, in those songs,
ло відеречко три дні під водою, the lake where the bucket floated
був і сердега бурлак, в якого for three days on the water; there
заболіло тіло, ще й голівонька; was the poor boatman dragging
був і кінь, що клонить голову barges up the river with aching
за козаком, була і дівчина, якій head and back; there was the horse
вгортав ноги своєю шапкою hanging his head in grief for his
молодик. Туга віків і надії віків Cossack master and there was the
130
131
сходились у молодих голосах і girl whose feet her Cossack warmed не так лічили роки. like a little brown animal in a
слалися старим шляхом, стис- with his fur cap. Ancient sorrow - А як же, тату? thicket of grey.
каючи і веселячи серце... and ancient hope blended together Батько вплів у бороду пра- «How? Have you forgotten,
in the young voices and flowed вицю, вона темним звірятком Timofi? It was the man that mat-
along the old road, wringing and заворушилась на сивині. tered, not his years. That first time I
gladdening hearts. - Як? Ніби забувся? Літа took you to the Varchuks to work,
Старий... схрестив руки на His hands gripped the top of були, Тимофію, тоді збоку, а they looked you up and they looked
палиці. Тепер сивина його бо- his stick and his grey beard fell over попереду - чоловік. От коли я you down, feeling all over you with
роди якраз колихалася над пе- them. «Couldn't they find someone повів тебе наймати до Варчу- their eyes, and then they asked me,
рехрестям рук. older, and with more sense, too? ків, там обдивилися, обмацали 'How old is your lad?' And what did
- То не можна було когось You're only a kid.» очима з усіх боків і питають: I answer them? I told them, 'He's a
знайти старшого чи розумні Timofi gave Svirid an eloquent «Скільки ж років синові?» Я й herdsboy.' So you went to the herd.
шого? Ти ж іще пуцьверінок у look and turned away from the old кажу: «Та вже пастушок». Так і And when I signed you on to work
мене. man to hide his smile. пішов ти до череди. А коли в on the estate from St.Valentine's to
Тимофій посміхнувся, ба- «In things like that, it isn't age економію, у строк, од Стрітен- St. Semyon's Day, they wanted to
гатозначно повів очима і одве- that counts, it's whether a man's ня до Семена, записував тебе, know the same-'How old is your
рнув голову від батька, щоб не straight and honest,» said Svirid, так тож в конторі допитували lad?' 'He's a teamster now,' I told
розсміятися. coming to his friend's rescue. ся: «Скільки років синові?» - them. And whenever they asked
- В такому ділі не по ста- «He's honest all right. My son «Та вже погонич»,- підказую. І your years, I told them your work.
ршинству, а по совісті виби- has never done a crooked thing in де не питали про твої роки, 'He's a ploughman,' I'd say, or 'He's
рають, - заступився за друга his life, Svirid. He's too young for говорив тільки про те, чого ти already a mower.' Some grow old
Свирид. this job though, the land likes to be по роботі вартий: «Уже й and grey and still can't be called
- Коли по совісті - нічого handled by older people who know орач» або «Уже й косар». Ін mowers, but you were taking the
не скажу: мій синаш ніколи, it through and through.» ший і до сивого волосу дожи lead with the scythe in the mead-
Свириде, в сірка очей не пози- «But Granddad, you can't say ве, а косарем не годен стати, а ows before you ever joined the
чав, але молодий він ще до he's that young, your Timofi's all of ти ще й на вулицю вечорами dancing on the village green at
цього діла, земля старіших лю- thirty-five!» не заглядав, а на лузі отамана night. And that's how your age was
бить, тих, які не тільки верх, а й «Thirty-five, indeed,» the old вів. Отака моя всюди метрика reckoned until you were called up.
глибину її чують. man snorted. «You do everything була, аж поки тобі й лоба не They've a newfangled way of reck-
-Діду, та який він молодий: mighty quick these days, and you забрили. А тепер новомодна oning age now-a lad can aim to be
вашому Тимофію вже повних count the years quick too, like you метрика почалася: не встиг an official before he's worn out his
тридцять п'ять років. were all of a rush to get somewhere, зносити першу пару штанів - і first pair of pants.... What's in your
- Тридцять п'ять, три to the devil, maybe. We didn't в начальство преться... То що mind, Timofi? After an easy life, are
дцять п'ять! - перекривив ста reckon years that way in my day.» ти собі думаєш, Тимофію? На you?»
рий.- Швидко ви все робите і «How did you do it, Dad?» легкий хліб перейти? The mirage of shimmering
швидко лічите. Спішите ку The old man thrust his right Маревом, блиском усе пе- light filled every thing. That reed!
дись до дідька. А колись у нас hand into his beard where it stirred реповнене. Все злилось, поєд- 133
132
трощило, тут поступилося мі- The river was bathed in light over all
налось в стихії сонця, в гармо- How its colours changed as the сцем іншій повені - повені, яка its great expanse. It parted the reeds
нії життя. Стоп, катер! Яка breeze rippled through it.... How не руйнує. and poured out freely, repeating the
очеретина! Як вона переблис- much plastic movement there was Плине, ущерть налита сві- breadth and blueness of the sky, and
кує, торкнута вітерцем... Скі- in that saying stem with the rhyth- тлом, ріка. Розсунула очерети, spoke to all living things in its silent
льки пластики в коливанні цієї mic play of light upon it! Reflected розлилася привільне, відтво- speech. Here I mingle with the seas
стеблини з хитливим ритміч- in the shimmering water the reed рює саму широчінь і сяйво неба, and oceans of the world. I take leave
ним переливом світла на ній! lived, talked inaudibly with the wa- з усім живим спілкується своєю of the reeds which like the
Віддзеркалена на мигтючім ter, the wind, the sun, and perhaps безмовною мовою... Тут я Egyptian papyri draw into
екрані води, вона похитується, with your friend. Photograph it, its впадаю в Світовий океан. З themselves the generous secrets of
живе, не-чутно розмовляє з movement, the light on the water, цими очеретами прощаюсь, light. I take leave of the frontier
водою, з вітром, із сонцем, з the silvery willows, their epic pen- що, як єгипетські папіруси, watch-tower rising above the reeds,
другом вашим, може, розмов- siveness. Photograph it, preserve вбирають й себе щедрі тайно-щі where a young border-guard with
ля... Вхопи, зафіксуй цей порух this great creation of nature! But for світла... Прощаюсь з при- field-glasses raised to his eyes
очеретини, і світіння вод, і срі- whom? For what? Who would кордонною вишкою, що висо- stands guard over the blinding
блястість верб, їх епічну заду- treasure it? Would anyone see this чить в очеретах, і прикордонник silence.... He is on guard over this
му... Зафільмуй, збережи цю majestic calm of the wide estuary молодий там чатує угорі з day, over the flood of light, the
велику творчість природи! Але and that reed with its trembling біноклем... Цей день чатує, за- transparent pensiveness of the
кому, навіщо? Хто дорожити- sway, as a fragment of beauty, a литий потопом світла, і маревну willows, and the uncontrolled flight
ме? Чи перед ким із прийдеш- necessity? тишу верб, і безконтрольний of birds over all frontier posts. I go to
ніх постане цей величавий спо- «Tolstoy said somewhere that політ птаха понад усі межові pour my fresh water into Ocean. It
кій гирла і ця очеретина в її people are like river,» Yaroslava знаки... Йду, зникаю своїми will absorb me, one of the many
плавкім коливанні, чи оживе said musingly. «It might have been прісними водами в Світовім rivers which like me dissolve in its
вона, як рядок гекзаметра, як said about Sergei.» океані. Він поглинає мене, одну blue infinity. But do I then vanish
скалка краси, як необхідність? «And this river is like man. It з безлічі рік, щоб уподібнити and leave no trace? Do I not
- Толстой десь сказав: лю- has reached its apotheosis, broken собі, розчинити у синіх своїх influence at least to a small degree
ди як ріки, - почувся задумли- out into a flood of light and now, безмежжях. А чи так уже й the composition of its water, its
вий голос Ярослави.- Наче про when it has taken all into itself, безслідно зникаю? Не позначусь degree of saltiness, the level of the
Сергія сказав... when it is illuminated with the light хіба - хоч певною мірою -на shores, the very character of seas? I,
«Ця ріка, вона теж як лю- of wisdom, it must complete its складі його ж власних вод, на the river of plains and mountains,
дина: сягнула свого апогею, flow, pacified, through the bound- мірі її солоності, на рівні його shall yet flow for a long time, and my
вибухла повінню світла і саме less estuary. And become the берегів, на самому характері brown water will be seen far away in
тепер, коли світлом мудрості Ocean.» Океану? Ріка рівнин і гір, ще the blue of the sea; there too it will
осяяна, в спокійних розтоках The river was unrecognisable. довго тектиму й там, серед keep its river traits, the freshness of
гирла мусить завершувати свій So recently it had roared, smashed, моря, далеко буде видно серед its sources, the yellowness of clay
плин... Вже стає Океаном». destroyed, but here there was a dif- морської блакиті течію рудої from the mountains and valleys, the
Не впізнати ріку. Те, що ferent flood, one which lay placid річкової води; вона й там ще inner rhythm of
недавно чорно ревіло, ламало, and destroyed nothing. 134
135
довго зберігатиме свою річкову life. Water amidst water - in this itself
природу - і прісноту джерел, і there is something extraordinary;
колір гірських та долинних there is something significant in the Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS
грунтів, і внутрішній рух very act of confluence, in the eternal AND TRAINING METHODS
життя... Вода серед води - вже union of the river with the Ocean.
в цьому є незвичайність; і є The world is bright with light, it
щось значне в самому акті flows everywhere, an infinite silver This Lecture compares:
впадання, в цьому одвічнім flood. • working environments of
єднанні гирла ріки з Океаном. And the power of the water is no ♦ written translators and interpreters;
Світиться світ. Всюди ро- longer dreadful. ♦ consecutive and simultaneous interpreters;
зіллялося тихе, сріблясте, без- And the sky is no longer the sky, • approaches - denotative and connotative,
крає... but the heavens. • and tools they use:
♦ text compression and text development
І повінь уже тут не повінь. ♦ note-taking and its sequence
І небо вже тут не небо, а ♦ underlines the importance of being skilful in using the tools.
небеса.

Ex. 2. Translate into English using the suggested equivalents. To tell the difference between translation and interpretation let us
Ніби виріс в очах кіногрупи to grow to greater stature compare working environments of a translator and interpreter.
Сергій. Його камера - експресивна, in the eyes of ♦ Translator has all time necessary to do and check the translation.
зухвала, різка - її ні з чиєю не сплутаєш. to have caught its master's ♦ Interpreter is limited in time and cannot check and redo the in-
Вона мовби повторювала вдачу way terpretation.
господаря; його нервову жадобу, його a professional trick to ♦ Translator has free access to dictionaries and reference material.
невситенність, навіть вади його... Раніш stare in the face absolutely ♦ Interpreter has no access to any outside information.
декому не подобалась в Сергієві, скажімо, dedicated to art
♦ Translator has no immediate contact with translation users and
ота його набута в кіно професійна манера
often is unaware of their reaction.
безцеремонно розглядати людину з ніг до голови,
грубувато зазирати незнайомому в очі, мовби ♦ Interpreter is in immediate and close contact with the audience
допитуючись: «Ану, на що ти здатен... Чи хоч reacting to interpretation mistakes
трохи ти кіногенічний?» Але зараз і ці манери
його прочитувались інакше: все ж таки славний
був хлопець, душею відданий мистецтву!.. •► Translator is dependent on supporting environment; interpreter is
entirely self-dependent.

136
There are two main varieties of interpretation, consecutive and si-
multaneous. Though they have much in common and possess all men-
137
tioned characteristics that distinguish them from translation there are
substantial differences in the working environments as well. Ш* Text compression aimed at saving interpretation time and re-
moving source text redundancy is one of the main instruments of
1. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is much more limited in
simultaneous interpretation which allows the interpreter to keep in
time.
pace with the source text not sacrificing the content.
2. In simultaneous interpretation the length of the text translated as one
'batch' is much shorter than in consecutive.44
3. Unlike consecutive interpretation where the interpreter may correct
mistakes and slips of the tongue, simultaneous interpreter has no In consecutive interpretation text compression is used as well - it al-
time for corrections and redoing. lows to get rid of the source text redundancy, but the main instrument of
consecutive interpretation is text development.
Differences in the working environment of interpreters compared
with that of translators as well as differences between working environ-
ments of simultaneous and consecutive interpreters determine the pecu- •* Ability to compress the source text and develop the target one from
liarities of interpretation approaches and methods. the core structure are the basic skills of an interpreter.
First of all, as you already know from our previous discussions, the
consecutive interpreter adheres to predominantly denotative approach in
interpretation whereas the basic approach of simultaneous interpretation Basic compression devices used in Ukrainian-English translation
is transformational. comprise:
a. transformation of the nominative structures into verbal ones;
b. converting prepositional constructions into noun clusters;
Ш* Long stretches of speech to be translated do not allow the con- с omission or transformation of words and word combinations typical
secutive interpreter to keep close to the source text, whereas the si- for Ukrainian style and considered redundant according to English
multaneous interpreter is forced by time limitation to translate by speech standards. For example:
small fragments of the source text transforming them according to
the target language grammar. Згідно з рішенням Ради наглядачів, аудит фінансової діяльності
фірм та установ з надання послуг у сфері юридичного консалтингу
буде проведено у квітні цього року.
The Supervisory Board decided to audit the books of judiciary consult-
However, both during consecutive and simultaneous interpretation ing companies in April this year.
interpreters use text compression and text development as basic translation
devices. When interpreting into Ukrainian an interpreter is using compres-
sion to a lesser degree because:
♦ limited (even with good interpreters) knowledge of the foreign
44
Although simultaneous interpretation seems continuous the flow of in- language does not permit free interpretation of the source text and
terpreter's speech may be divided into individual fragments.
138 139
♦ English way of expression is more concise and often English text 1. кореспонденти зібралися (разом)
contains no redundant words, which is explained by the analytical struc- 2. декілька (деякі, дехто) з нас, американських кореспондентів
ture of this language. 3. зібралися (разом) сьогодні ввечері
4. зібралися (щоб за традицією зустріти Новий рік)
The second basic tool of interpretation - text development - is typi 5. зібрались у бістро
cal both for English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English interpretation. It 6. бістро (наше, улюблене)
should be mentioned, however, that text development is more usable in
consecutive than in simultaneous interpretation, though simultaneous The final target text will appear then as an optimal rearrangement of
| interpreters also use it. the above parts of the text development scheme, e. g., as the one below:
I ^___________^^ Сьогодні ввечері деякі з нас, американських кореспондентів, за
традицією зібрались у нашому улюбленому бістро, щоб зустріти
•► Text development in the course of interpretation is the restora-
tion of the full composition of a source sentence starting from its Новий рік.
syntactic and semantic core accompanied by restructuring of the Text development is reflected in note-taking procedure, which usu-
source sentence in compliance with syntactic and semantic standards ally includes the following information items.
of the target language. 1. main ideas (skeleton outline) - subject, verb, object;
2. links and separations;
3. viewpoints of the speaker;
Text development is performed either with note-taking or without it. 4. tenses and modalities;
It usually starts from the Subject-Predicate pair and then other sentence 5. proper and geographical names.
elements are organized around this core.
There are also certain recommendations for the best way to take
notes. Some of them are as follows:
•► Text development is the optimal method of interpretation be- ♦ diagonal notes are preferable for skeleton outline; «
cause it allows to organize the translation in accordance with the tar-
♦ left-hand margin for links and viewpoints;
get language style and grammar standards rather than copy the
source sentence structure. ♦ short horizontal line for separations;
♦ question marks for unclear points.45
Thus, compression and development are the basic interpretation
tools and in our view they should determine the methods of interpreta-
The best way to explain text development is an example. Let the
source text be: tion training. We would recommend the following exercises.46
A few of us American correspondents got together tonight for a tradi-
tional New Year's Eve party at our favorite bistro. 45
More on note-taking see, e. g. in: Johnes R. Conference Interpreting Ex
Then the interpretation scheme with text development may be as plained. - New-York, 1999.
follows: 46
Methods recommended in this Manual may be used together with other
140
interpreters' training exercises, e. g., those suggested by A. Shiryayev.
141
Text compression exercises for Ukrainian-English interpretation of interpretation with a short resume of interpretation concept presenting
Type 1. it as a variety of martial arts.47 Here are the principles:
1. reality is whatever happening right at this moment (here and now);
In the course of interpretation of a Ukrainian text into English 1. to deal with reality you have to be totally aware;
♦ omit redundant words;
2. for this your body and mind have to be in the 'here and now';
♦ convert nominative constructions into verbal;
2. in this state of mind there is no room for thoughts: instead there is
♦ transform prepositional noun sequences into noun clusters.
The exercises are first done in writing, then follows oral training (in an instantaneous intuitive response.
terpretation).

Type 2.
Conversion of individual Ukrainian prepositional nominative con-
structions into English noun clusters.
Conversion of Ukrainian set phrases of noun-verb type into verbs.

Text development and reduction exercises (Ukrainian-English and

English- Ukrainian interpretation)
Type 1.
Develop a text from the given core (first done in one language, men
with interpretation, first - in writing, then - orally)

Type 2.
Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back.
Text development exercises improve students' knowledge of foreign
and native language vocabulary, help to develop easiness and flexibility
of vocabulary use in interpretation. Doing text development exercises
students might compete for the number of sentences developed or for a
better story developed from the given core.
Thus, unlike a translator who may always ask help from outside, an
interpreter is entirely self-supporting. In the modern world of globaliza-
47
tion the significance of translation and interpretation is ever-growing The Andrey G. Falaleyev. Video-taped lectures and personal communication
translation and interpretation quality standards are becoming more with the authors.
stringent. In this context it seems worthwhile to complete our discussion 143
142
J?\ QUESTIONS Ех. 2. Translate into English using text compression (omit redundant words,
convert nominative structures into verbal, use noun clusters, first do in writ-
1. What are the differences in the working environments of a translator ing, then orally).
and interpreter?
What are the differences in the working environments of a consecu- а) У миротворчій діяльності міжнародних організацій в останні
tive and simultaneous interpreter? роки відбулися події, які вимагають уважного вивчення і з'ясування.
3. What are the basic interpretation approaches used by consecutive Так, Статут ООН забороняє міжнародне втручання у внутрішні
and simultaneous interpreters? Explain why they keep to a particular справи держав, застосування сили, а на практиці мали місце і
approach? втручання, і застосування сили. З'явилася концепція «гуманітарних
4. What is text compression? How is it used in interpretations інтервенцій», які деякі експерти розцінили як удар по суверенітету
5. What is text development? How is it used in interpretation? держав. Назріла необхідність розібратися в сучасності цих дій, дати
їм правову оцінку, визначитися у принципово важливих питаннях:
[§J EXERCISES чи означають вказані події перекреслення принципів Статуту ООН?
Чи правомірні «гуманітарні інтервенції»?
Ex. 1. Find English equivalents of the words and word combinations
Проблема «гуманітарних інтервенцій» виникла в пошуках аде-
відповідати бути у відповідності кватних дій для усунення гуманітарних катастроф; породжених
внутрідержавними конфліктами 90-х років, що супроводжувалися
звітувати давати звіт
масовими порушення прав людини, «етнічними чистками», крово-
розпорядитися давати розпорядження пролиттям. За даними ООН, було вбито більше 5 млн. осіб, десятки
погоджуватися давати згоду мільйонів стали біженцями і переміщеними особами, що опинилися
рекомендувати давати рекомендацію на межі виживання. Трагедія в Руанді, на терені колишньої Юго-
вирішувати знаходити вирішення славії, в Сомалі порушили перед ООН питання щодо теорії та
доповнювати робити доповнення практики миротворчої діяльності.
перекладати робити переклад Складність полягає в тому, що Статут ООН передбачає не-
втручання у внутрішні справи держав, додержання їх суверенітету,
рухатися робити кроки
незастосування сили в міжнародних відносинах. Але чи може
перешкоджати створювати перешкоди міжнародна спільнота зайняти позицію спостерігача, коли в якійсь
сходити здійснювати сходження країні відбуваються масові вбивства? Чи може суверенітет бути
відкривати робити відкриття прикриттям для свавілля, кровопролиття в якійсь державі?
оголошувати робити оголошення Думається, що на сучасному історичному етапі, в умовах гло-
розцінювати давати оцінку балізації, примату загальнолюдських цінностей в основу політики
ударити завдати удару ООН та інших міжнародних організацій має бути покладено прин-
цип захисту прав людини, гуманітарне право. Принцип суверенітету
не може використовуватися в якості прикриття злочинів
144 145
проти людяності. Суверенітет не може розглядатися сьогодні як що бар'єрів на нашому шляху суверенної країни було більш ніж
абсолютний, який дозволяє урядам безкарно масово порушувати достатньо.
права людини. (Бруз B.C.) Варто згадати знов-таки 1993 рік. Тоді внаслідок рішення
російського парламенту щодо статусу Севастополя Україна опини-
b) Перше десятиріччя незалежності стало для української ди-
лася перед необхідністю на рівні ООН наголошувати на недоторка-
пломатії періодом випробувань, відлуння яких відчуваємо і сьо-
ності своїх державних кордонів. Липнева заява Голови Ради Безпеки
годні. Ми просувалися від усвідомлення азбучних істин
остудила гарячі голови тих, хто не бажав миритися з тери-
міжнародного життя до опанування нових правил гри в
торіальною цілісністю та незалежністю України. Саме здатність
міжнародних відносинах доби глобалізації та, інформаційного,
української дипломатії зайняти чітку і сміливу позицію стала тоді
суспільства. При цьому ми керувалися тим, що у зовнішній політиці
вирішальним фактором, під впливом якого проблема втратила гос-
важливо, щоб жоден крок не блокував наступні. Важливо, щоб,
троту і згасла.
зовнішня політика зразка 2001 року мала внутрішній зв'язок з
(Зленко A.M.)
кроками, здійсненими в році 91-му, 94-му чи 98-му.
Послідовність та передбачуваність - мені видається, ці риси
були властиві національній зовнішній політиці, хоча, звичайно, Ех. 3. Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back without consulting the
шлях України на міжнародній арені не був безпроблемним і безпо- text (do first in writing, then orally; first in one language, then with inter-
милковим. pretation).
Послідовність та передбачуваність є лейтмотивом всіх наших
здобутків. Хотів би зупинитися на деяких з них, які мають, на мою THE HUNDRED-YARD CREEP The International
думку, ключовий характер. За цей короткий проміжок часу нам не Olympic Committee tries to save the world. BY CLAUDIA ROSETT. The
без труднощів вдалося створити власну зовнішню політику, яка Wall Street Journal, Thursday, July 5, 2001
слугує незалежній Україні. Важливим, на моє переконання, було Mission creep is a phrase that keeps turning up in the news, and
практичне утвердження України на політичній карті світу та though not poetic, it does neatly sum up a widespread syndrome. Mis-
зовнішнє забезпечення суверенітету і територіальної цілісності на- sion creep is what's going on when an organization overreaches its man-
шої держави. Якщо пригадуєте, це завдання було Визначене першим date in order to seize new turf - usually someone else's, often with messy
із шести найважливіших завдань вітчизняної зовнішньої політики в results.
її Основних напрямах, ухвалених Верховною Радою у 1993 році. When Genghis Khan and his kin, having decided that lording it over
З точки зору 2001 року суверенітет і територіальна цілісність Mongolia was not enough, galloped forth to pillage the known world,
виглядають як природні, самі собою зрозумілі атрибути Української that was mission creep. In our more genteel era, the recent news has been
держави. Проте, так було не завжди. Як міністр закордонних справ, full of worry that everything from Balkan peacekeeping forces to faith-
якому доля дарувала високу честь бути першим главою based charities to the International Monetary Fund is suffering from
зовнішньополітичного відомства України, хотів би нагадати, mission creep. And why not? As various institutions jockey to reinvent
themselves in the post-Cold-War, new-economy global era, it pays to
146 147
make a play for bigger, fatter missions, to creep while the creeping is Dispatching the Olympics to Norilsk as a mighty Airwick might have
good. given not only the locals but certain portions of Scandinavia their first
All of which led me to an epiphany the other day while I was reading relief since the days of Stalin. If Norilsk is impractical, or not quite toxic
about the debate over where to hold the 2008 Olympic Games. There are enough, then arranging for the Olympic events simply to replace the
five cities in the running, including Osaka, Japan; Istanbul, Turkey; Paris usual traffic at just about any major roundabout in New Delhi could have
and Toronto. The fifth candidate, and apparently the one favored to win gone far to save the lungs of millions.
when the International Olympic Committee decides next Friday, is Bei- If the Olympic aim is to boost the teaching of basic English where it's
jing-Assorted pro-Beijing factions put forth many arguments. They really needed, also forget Beijing and hold the Olympics in American
speculate that the Olympics would help motivate China to clean up its public schools.
air, teach its people English, reform its repressive politics, enhance its Then there's the goal of furthering political reform. If the Olympic
national pride and build from scratch 22 of the 37 sports facilities needed organizers - despite such miscues as Berlin in 1936 and Moscow in 1980
- thereby, at least in the eyes of a few transient athletes plus the IOC, im - - have finally mastered this one, then it is raw irresponsibility to focus
proving its infrastructure. solely on Beijing. Have a heart for nearby Pyongyang, North Korea,
In the IOC's report summing up the bids, the telling factors in Bei- where the Olympic food concessions alone could provide the most excit-
jing's favor include the assertion that the Olympics would «improve the ing window on freedom in decades.
city» and «leave a unique legacy to China.» The report adds as an after- Though, to be frank, the IOC still doesn't quite seem to have a han-
thought that a Beijing win would also leave a unique though unspecified dle on this political reform business. After a four-day inspection tour, the
legacy «to sport.» committee appears to have reached the perhaps unique conclusion that
The IOC are deep in mission creep. Sure, sports still matter, at least China is already a normal democracy. The IOC states without qualifica-
to the world audience and the athletes. But with the IOC's president, Juan tion in its report on Beijing that «national and local elections will take
Antonio Samaranch, about to step down after 21 years, the real mission place in early 2003 and early 2008.»
here is to leave a legacy. Thus the Olympics are creeping into such Yet in order to justify staging the Olympics in Beijing, the IOC also
specialized tasks as air-cleaning, language-teaching, repression-easing, appears to be banking on many more years of rock-solid dictatorship,
nationalism-reinforcing and - oh yes - infrastructure-improving. noting in the same report that «there is strong central government control
Even so, what makes Beijing such an ideal candidate for these new in all sectors. This could be expected to prevail in respect to an Olympic
Olympian enterprises? Games and associated developments and activities.» Not that the IOC is
If the Olympic mission now includes inspiring large-scale air wholly insensitive to the plight of China's stifled democrats. Its report
cleanup, then Beijing, despite all its smog, is hardly the world's worthiest does note that for the beach-volleyball event, «the Commission took the
challenge. For that, a better candidate would have been, say, Norilsk, view that the Tiananmen Square site was inappropriate.»
Russia. This northern Siberian city is home to one of the largest nickel- If the committee's aim is to boost national pride, then, again, why
mining operations in the world, and for more than 60 years its smelters bother with already nationalist Beijing? The Olympics should head
have been pouring corrosive fumes into the arctic winds. straight to Minsk, capital of Belarus. Since the 1991 Soviet collapse, Bela-
148 149
rus's self-esteem has been so low that it keeps trying to give itself back to
Moscow.
As for improving infrastructure, what about holding the games in Bangkok? Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED
Clearing a site - any site - amid the midtown gridlock of the Thai capital might
TRANSLATION
give at least some of the folks caught in traffic for years a chance to finally get
home.
Of course, all this is hypothetical. The 2008 bids are already in. Any This Lecture: • gives a short review of basic machine translation
interested parties on the list above will have to wait. But the way the IOC is platforms and methods:
going, it's already encroaching on the mission of sundry development banks. • including direct or icon method;
Chief among them is the World Bank, which in recent years has itself been • transfer-based and pivot-language based engines and
encroaching on the mission of the World Health Organization, while • AI and statistical approaches.
simultaneously being encroached upon by the ever-more-aggrandized IMF,
The idea of computer use in translation (hereinafter referred to as machine
which has had its own problems with being encroached upon by the U.S.
translation) appeared almost simultaneously with computers. Already in 1949
Treasury.
only five years after the first powerful computer had been put in operation in the
There's just no end to this stuff. Can it be long before the Kyoto crowd USA mathematician and philosopher W. Weaver suggested the use of
elbows in to demand an emission-free Olympic torch? Maybe Mr. Samaranch's computers to model the process of translation.
more enduring legacy could be to give all these folks, himself included, their The pioneers of the new research area were mathematicians and
own Olympic event. Call it the mission creep. programmers and the first stage of computer translation development was
characteristic of the so-called «encoding-decoding» approach (see Lectures 2
and 3 of this Manual)48
This approach, which still remains one of the basic methods of translation
automation is usually called the direct or icon method.

ШЬ Direct or icon method of machine translation is based on establishing a

direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries.
150 See more, e. g., in: Bruderer H.E. The Present State of Machine-Assisted
Translation // 3-d European Congress on Information Systems and Networks.
Overcoming Language Barriers. - Luxemburg, 1977; Slocum J. A Survey on Ma-
chine Translation: its History, Current Status and Future Prospects // Computa-
tional Linguistics. - 1985. - V.ll, 1.
151
The target entries are regarded as regular counterparts (icon copies) Syntactic analysis. At this stage using the information from the dic-
of the source ones. According to the direct translation method the source tionary and paradigmatic data syntactic representation of the source text
and target texts are presumed to be similar both in their form and con- is formed by the syntactic analyser (called parser). A string of syntactic
ceptual content49. classes or a syntactic tree of the source sentence is passed over to the
You may validate this assumption yourself having done such word- transfer module.
for-word translation. You will see that rather more often than not such a
non-grammatical translation makes no sense at all for the end user and, Transfer. The transfer module receives the syntactic representation
therefore, it is to be somehow rearranged and smoothed. of the source text and, using relevant transfer rules, converts it into an
To improve the quality of direct translation the two following meth- intermediate representation.
ods are usually applied: Syntactic synthesis. At this stage a final syntactic representation of
• syntactic filters and the target text is formed by combining and matching the transferred
• statistical ranking of translation equivalents to select the most structures of the source syntactic representation.
probable ones for the subject matter discussed in a particular document
Morphological synthesis. Using the information from the target
being translated.
dictionary and paradigmatic data the target text (translation) is obtained.
Syntactic filters take the form of logical frames (see Lecture 17) in
which the slots are filled with syntactic patterns specifying the function of The way the syntactic representation is formed, analysed and trans-
an ambiguous syntactic term in the representation of the source text. ferred greatly depends on the grammar used. The most common ways
Usually in machine translation systems based on the direct method quite are so-called «templates», applied to the linear string of syntactic classes,
a few filters are used to «smooth down» the raw translation50. dependency grammar (DG) or immediate constituents (1С) grammar.
According to the classification we suggest in this Manual, the second Transfer-based systems rather often comprise a semantic compo-
basic method of machine translation is the transfer-based method. nent. A network of semantic descriptions and relationships is superim-
posed on syntactic structures of the source and target texts. The purpose
of the semantic component is to improve the accuracy of translation ".
•* According to the transfer-based method of translation grammars of
the source and target languages are matched in the process of Pivot language-based machine translation is the third basic
translation by a set of rules called transfer. method. In a way it is similar to the transfer-based; however, there are
several critical differences.
As opposed to transfer procedures which are applied mostly at the
In a transfer-based system the process of translation comprises the syntactic level with some corrective semantics, pivot language represen-
following processing steps: tation involves all available linguistic information.
Morphological analysis. Word-forms of the source text are analysed Besides, transfer-based translation is intended for a concrete lan-
using paradigm sets and identified with the dictionary entries. guage pair, whereas pivot language-based systems claim to be universal,
i.e. applicable to any language.
Кулагина О.С. Исследования по машинному переводу. - М., 1979. 50
Machine Translation: An Introductory Guide / D.Arnold et al. - Oxford, 1994. See more in, e. g.: Кунце Ю. Введение семантических критериев в
152 синтаксические правила // НТИ. - 1986. - 2, 6.
153
Hence, to complete the picture it is worthwhile to give a short description of
Ш* A pivot language is a formal description of morphological, syntactic and this method as well.
semantic characteristics of a language unit in the form of one-to-one The main component of the AI translation model is its so-called
relationship. Each language unit is related to a specific invariable atom in the «knowledge base». According to an AI-based translation model the results of
pivot language structure and vice versa, each atom of the pivot language linguistic analyses at all language levels are verified against extral-inguistic
structure is invariably connected with the units of various languages. information contained in the knowledge base.
Here we might want to refer back to our previous discussions. As you may
Ideally a pivot language-based machine translation will comprise the remember, we discussed three factors that help us clarify natural language
following processing steps: ambiguities and make translation possible. These are context, situation, and
Morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the source text using background information.
information of the source language dictionary and paradigms. In all three translation modelling methods that we have just discussed,
Formation of the pivot language representation of a source text by the pivot disambiguation is performed only with the help of context. It is rather simple
language module. lexical and syntactic context in direct translation model, and much more
Conversion of the source pivot language representation by the pivot complicated syntactic and semantic context representations in transfer-based and
language module into the target text using relevant semantic, syntactic, lexical, pivot language models. None of those models, however, makes use of the other
and morphological data from the target language dictionary and paradigms. two disambiguation tools, i.e. situation and background information.
Usually pivot language formalism has the form of a graphic network or its
analytical equivalent. It is, indeed, an extremely complicated system of
morphological, syntactic and semantic entities and relations. We can hardly •► In AI-based translation models disambiguation procedures are radically
show even a part of it in this Manual because of space limitations, and even different and based first and most of all on the analysis of situation and
more because such a detailed presentation is well beyond the scope of this background information (knowledge base), whereas purely linguistic
introductory course. context analysis methods serve only as secondary back-up tools.
As a rule, linguistic science accepts only the three basic methods of
machine translation mentioned above. Some scholars, however, maintain that the
artificial intelligence (Al)-based method should also be included in the
The concept of a knowledge base is very similar to that of the subject
classification despite the fact that it relies on encyclopaedic rather than linguistic
thesaurus suggested by the communicational theory of translation (see Lectures
findings52.
3 and 5). Both the knowledge base and subject thesaurus are presumed to
52
contain a specifically arranged hierarchy of the facts of real world with the
You may find more about this language and translation modelling verbal information playing a subordinate role as labels for the facts and
method, e.g., in: Schank R.C. Conceptual Dependency: A Theory of Natural situations.
Language Understanding // Cognitive Psychology. - 1972. - V.3, 4; Wilks Y. Ma-
Another important component of AI-based translation simulation is a
chine Translation and Artificial Intelligence Paradigm of Language Processing //
Computers in Language Research. - 1983. - V.2; Neue Ansatze in maschineller decision-making module, comprising a structural hierarchy of logical
Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Попов Э.В. Общение с ЭВМ на есте- productions with probability estimations.
ственном языке. - М., 1982.
154
155
The present level of sophistication of AI-based translation modelling is Besides, since we still know very little about how a translation is per-
rather ambiguous - on the one hand, results of the development of AI-models formed, statistical modelling is another attempt to learn more about
intended for translation as such are rather limited, on the other, however, the translation.
development of AI models intended for natural language interface, especially for It should be noted, however, that none of the machine translation methods
expert systems, is very efficient53. appear in real systems in pure form. Very often it is rather difficult to classify
This discussion of computer-based translation would be incomplete without unambiguously whether one or another system is a typical representative of a
mention of statistical methods. particular basic translation simulation method. For this reason it is hardly
worthwhile to analyse here any particular commercial machine translation
package.
•► In purely statistical methods of translation modelling it is presumed that To the best of our knowledge all available commercial packages use that or
with certain probability each word of the target text may be a translation of another alternative of transfer model and the quality level of their products
each word of the source text leaves much to desire. We hope that this Manual helped you to understand why
this is the case.
Thus, completing our discussion of machine translation we must conclude
that unfortunately available machine translation packages are not capable of
The various statistical models are different as to further probability providing adequate translation. However, it should be noted that such powerful
estimations. For instance, a model suggested by P. Brown and coworkers tool as computer can still be used for translation and this variety of translation is
estimates the probabilities of the word order matching in the source and target called computer-aided translation
texts54. Other models estimate the probabilities of word collocations in source
and target texts, and so on.
At present statistical method of machine translation modelling is gaining Ш* Unlike machine translation, which by definition is wholly automatic,
new popularity because of two factors: computer-aided translation is a tool to assist human translation

1. Virtually unlimited storage capacity and processing capabilities of new

generation computers.
2. Availability of large bilingual text corpora in computer-accessible formats. In the process of computer-aided translation a translator is using a machine
translation system (usually a direct translation variety) for the search of
equivalents both for individual words and small text fragments. At the present
stage of machine translation development computer-aided translation seems the
See, e.g.: Попов Э.В. Экспертные системы. - M., 1988; Инструмента-
рий для проектирования систем планирования решений. - К., 1989; Коз- most appropriate practical alternative.
ловский СВ. Лингвистический процессор для персональных экспертных
систем // Проблемы автоматического и экспериментально-фонетического
анализа текстов. - Минск, 1986.
54
A Statistical Approach to Machine Translation / P.Brown et al. // Com-
putational Linguistics. - 1990. - V.16, 2; The Matematics of Statistical Machine
Translation: Papameter Estimation / P.Brown et al. // Computational Linguistics.
- 1994. - V.19,2.
156 157
came, he ran to the center, endorsing limited research on existing stem-
ЁЭ QUESTIONS cell lines. After setting himself four-square against campaign-finance re-
1. What is direct or icon machine translation method? form last year, he indicated this summer that he might sign it into law if
2. What is transfer-based machine translation method? such legislation ever made it to his desk.
3. What is pivot-language based machine translation method? All of which paints a picture of Bush as a man who strikes tough-
4. What are artificial intelligence and statistical machine translation looking poses, then carefully uses his political leverage to bring about
methods? moderate compromises. He may have conservative principles, but none
5. What is computer-aided translation? How is it used in human trans- have proved to be unyielding.
lation? True, before Tuesday's lethal attacks on the World Trade Center and
the Pentagon, the president had to govern as a normal politician, always
keeping one eye on his agenda and the other on the ephemeral political
{§} EXERCISES calculus that rules Washington. Today, however, Bush is a war-time
president, and he is perhaps the only one whose actions will be com-
Ex. 1. Analyse the mistakes of machine translation of the text given below.
pletely unbound by political considerations. Indeed, it is difficult to con-
Suggest translation rules or information required for correct translation.
jure a scenario in which Americans would fault the president for being
THE REAL BUSH: TOUGH GUY OR SQUISHY MODERATE? too assertive. He has carte blanche to do whatever his conscience dic-
tates. So, how will he use it?
WASHINGTON - How President Bush responds to last week's ter- Last Tuesday, it seemed that Bush might rely on international law to
rorist attacks on America will not only define him for the rest of his term even the score. In his first address to the nation after the attacks, he
in office, it will also give us an unfiltered look into his soul. called the resulting death and devastation a «national tragedy,» promis-
He does not have to cultivate public support. Polls show that an ing only that he would «conduct a full-scale investigation to hunt down
overwhelming majority of Americans would back even a decision to go and to find those folks who committed this act.» His second address went
to war. Congress, furthermore, is eager to give him whatever he wants. no further, though by his third speech he referred to the day's «acts of
Yet, despite this monolithic support, it's uncertain how the president will terror.» It seemed as if the president would be satisfied to catch the
respond. Will he be aggressive, squishy or somewhere in-between? terrorists responsible and extradite them to The Hague for trial. In a cu-
During his first eight months in office, Bush inevitably took the rious turn of events, the leaders of Germany and France issued state-
moderate path. The conservative Republican base enabled him to win the ments that were much more pointed. Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder
White House, but once in the Oval Office, he staffed his administration called the attacks «a declaration of war against the civilized world,» while
with moderate Republicans like Andrew H. Card Jr., Colin L. Powell and President Jacques Chirac said «we must fight terrorism by all means.»
Christine Todd Whitman. Encouragingly, Bush's tone changed Wednesday, and he seemed
He was no less flexible on his agenda. Bush initially insisted on a headed toward a stronger course of action than international law. His
non-negotiable $1.6-trillion tax cut, then negotiated with Democrats and «acts of terror» turned into «acts of war.» He said that «The United
reduced it to $1.3 trillion. During the presidential campaign, he came out States of America will use all our resources to conquer this enemy.» He
strongly against embryonic stem-cell research, but when decision time
158 159
came close to assuring the country that a military response would even- шення поїхати до війни. Конгрес, furthermore, нетерплячим дати
tually come because, presumably, an act of war against the United States йому щоб ні він хоче. Досі, незважаючи на цю монолітну підтрим-
cannot stand unanswered. On Friday, he went further still, vowing to «rid ку, це невизначений як президент відповісти. Він буде агресивним,
the world of evil.» squishy або де-небудь проміжний?
Still, the question of what sort of response Bush will decide on is Під час його перших восьми місяців у відомстві, Кущ inevitably взяв
very much open. Former President Bill Clinton spent a few days investi- помірний шлях. Консервативна Республіканська база дозволена
gating the terrorist bombings of the two U.S. embassies in Africa, then йому щоб виграти Білий Будинок, але одного разу у Овалі Ві-
ordered up an attack of cruise missiles and laser-guided bombs on what домство, він staffed його адміністрація з помірним Republicans люб-
was believed to be Osama bin Laden's compound in Afghanistan and on лять Andrew Н. Карта Jr., Colin L. Powell та Christine Todd Whitman.
Sudan. It was the kind of retaliation that carried as little risk as possible Він знаходився ні менш гнучкий на його порядку денному. Кущ
for U.S. military personnel. Bush could similarly opt for surgical strikes, вихідно наполягав на не-negotiable трильоні $1.6 оподатковують
but extend them for a period of weeks. He could launch merely a rhe- ріжуть, тоді обговорив з Democrats та зменшив це до трильону $1.3.
torical war on terrorism, like the war on poverty or the war on drugs. Під час президентської кампанії, він вийшов сильно проти
Or, the president could lead us into a real war. He is no longer a embryonic стовбура-клітина дослідження, але коли час рішення
politician. He is the war-time leader of a great nation. He knows that both прибув, він побіг до центру, що підтримує обмеженого дослідження
the American public, the country's political leadership and most of the на існуючому стовбурі-клітина лінії. Після постановки себе чо-
civilized world will stand beside him no matter what he does, be it legal тирьох-площі проти кампанії-фінанси реформа торік, він показав
prosecution, surgical strikes or war. It will take great intestinal fortitude цей літній що він може підписати це в закон якщо таке законодав-
for the president to take a calm measure of events, declare war on nations ство колись зроблене це до його парти.
that harbor our terrorist enemies and possibly deploy U.S. troops on Весь з котрих фарбує малюнок Куща як людина котра вражає
foreign soil. міцні що -дивляться пози, тоді обережно використовує його полі-
George W. Bush's words are increasingly tough. He has resolved to тичний вплив викликати помірні компроміси. Він може мати кон-
win the «first war of the 21st century.» Will his corresponding deeds fol- сервативні принципи, але ніхто доказали unyielding.
low? Вірний, перед атаками lethal Вівторка на Світовому Торговому
Центрі та П 'ятикутникові, президент мусить був управляти як но-
рмальним політиком, завжди що держить одне око на його порядку
РЕАЛЬНИЙ КУЩ: МІЦНИЙ GUY АБО SQUISHY ПОМІРНИЙ? денному та іншому на ephemeral політичному calculus що управляє
ВАШИНГТОН - Як Кущ Президента відповідає витримати ти- Вашінгтоном. Сьогодні, однак, Кущ війною-час президент, та він
ждень terrorist атаки на America тільки не визначать йому для решти можливо єдиним чі дії будуть повністю unbound шляхом полі-
його терміну у відомстві, це також дасть нам unfiltered погляд в тичного розгляду. Дійсно, тяжко conjure сценарієм у котрому
його душу. Americans би провина президент для існування надто ствердного.
Він не мусить культивувати суспільну підтримку. Голосування Він carte blanche щоб зробити щоб ні його сумління диктує. Так, як
показ що переважна кількість Americans би підтримала навіть рі- він буде використати це?
160 161
Останній вівторок, це здавалося що Кущ може покластися на Або, президент міг привести нас в реальну війну. Він більше не
міжнародне право до навіть рахунку. У його першій адресі до нації політик. Він являє собою війну-час лідер великої нації. Він знає що
після атак, він закликав результуючу смерть та devastation «націо- обидва американська суспільна, країна політичне керівництво та
нальна трагедія,» що обіцяє тільки що він «проведе повне дослі- більшість цивілізованого світу лишиться в силі біля йому ніяка ма-
дження-шкали полювати вниз та щоб знайти ці народи котрі здій- терія який він, це правове переслідування, хірургійний удар або
снив цей акт.» Його друга адреса поїхала ніяка далі, хоч шляхом війна. Це візьме великий intestinal fortitude для президента взяти
його третьої промови він посилався на «акти дня терору.» Йому спокійну міру подій, заявляють війну на націях що гавань наші
здавався так, якби президент був би влаштований щоб спіймати terrorist вороги та можливо розгортаються США військо на інозе-
terrorists варті довіри та видають їм до Гааги для іспиту. У допитли- мному грунті.
вому обігу подій, лідери Німеччини та Франції видані твердження George W. Слова Куща все більше міцні. Він вирішив виграти
що значно більше pointed. Канцлер Gerhard Schroeder закликаний першу війну 21st віку.» Його відповідні справи Будуть прослідкува-
атакує декларацію війни проти цивілізованого світу,» в той час, як
ти?
Президент Jacques Chirac сказав «ми повинні битися терорізм усіма
засобами.»
Encouragingly, Тон Куща змінена середа, та він здавався очоле-
ний до більш сильного курсу дії ніж міжнародне право. Його «акти
терору» повернулися в «акти війни.» Він сказав що «Сполучені
Штати Америки використають всі наші ресурси перемогти цього
ворога.» Він прибув близька що запевняє країна що воєнна відпо-
відь зрештою прибуде тому, що, мабуть, акт війни проти Сполуче-
них Штатів не може стенд unanswered. У П 'ятницю, він поїхав далі
все-таки, vowing «увільнити світ зла.»
Все-таки, питання якого сорту Куща відповіді вирішить на дуже
сильно відкрите. Колишній Президент Рахунок Clinton витрачені
нечисленні дні що вивчають terrorist bombings двох США посольств
у Африці, тоді замовлена атака cruise ракети та лазерні -керовані
бомби на що знаходились повірені щоб знаходитися Osama
контейнер Навантажений складовий у Афганістані та на Sudan. Це
являло собою різновид retaliation що носило як маленький ризик як
можливий для США воєнний персонал. Кущ міг подібно opt для
хірургійного удару, але простягаються їм на період протягом
тижднів. Він міг запустити просто риторичну війну на терорізмі,
люблять війну на бідності або війні на наркотиках.
162 163
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL •► A frame is understood as a set language structure with changeable
elements
DOCUMENTS: TEXT FRAMES

This Lecture: The changeable elements within a text frame are called slots. Let us take a
• underscores differences in translating official and literary texts; preamble to a commercial agreement as an example of a frame.
• gives a brief outline of an official document framework;
• introduces the notions of: AGREEMENT
• a frame, This Agreement is made this_________day of__, 1999, by and be
• a slot, tween _________________, [a_______corporation with its principal
• and a slot filler. office at_______________________] or [an individual with an office and
mailing address at ________________________] («Agent»), and [company
name], a corporation organized and existing under the laws of
In a way translation of official documents is the opposite of literary ____________________, with its principal place of business at
translation in what concerns the freedom of translator's actions and choices.
As you may remember literary translation is more art than craft which is (__________)•
accounted for by the nature of literary texts. Translation of a literary text is
unique and unprecedented; it cannot be standardised and obeys almost no rules. Here, in the above frame of an agreement the blank spaces represent the
Unlike literary texts the texts of official documents are highly standardised: slots to be filled with slot fillers (by the date, company names, addresses etc. in
this applies both to the structure of the whole text (macrostructure) and to the this example).
arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences (microstructure). But a text frame seldom has the form of a text with blank spaces. Rather
At the macro level an official document usually consists of a preamble, often than not a frame is a standard text with stable and changeable parts, for
main text body and a finalising (concluding) part. Depending on the type of example:
document the composition and content of its individual parts may slighdy vary
(see Appendix to this Manual). In modern linguistics standard text structures 7. Intellectual Property Rights.
intended for information presentation at different language levels are called
_______by this Agreement does not grant to Agent any rights in or li
frames?5
cense to_'s trademarks, trade names or service marks._____________________
reserves all such rights to itself. Agent shall not utilize, without
________'s express, prior and written consent, any_______________trade or
service marks on trade names, and will promptly report to_________________
any apparent unauthorized use by third parties in the Territory of
________'s trade or service marks or trade names.
See more in: Минский M. Фреймы для представления знаний. - М., In the above text frame the italisized text fragments are presumed to be
1975; Нелюбин Л.Л. Перевод и прикладная лингвистика - М., 1983. changeable depending on the subject and conditions of the Agree-
164 165
ment, e. g. «prior and written consent» may be replaced by «oral consent», gress on reform, noting the im- важливість прискореної реалізації
etc. portance of accelerated imple- реформ, що посилюватиме здат-
Bearing in mind the standardised and clicheed structure of official mentation of reforms, which ність США підтримувати зусилля
documents one may formulate the main translator's task as follows: will strengthen the ability of the України у покращенні співробіт-
UNITED STATES-UKRAINE СПІЛЬНА ЗАЯВА УКРАЇНА- United States to support ництва з МВФ та іншими міжна-
JOINT STATEMENT U.S. США Президент України Л.Кучма Ukraine in its efforts to im- родними фінансовими інституці-
•* The task of a translator translating official documents is to find prove cooperation with the IMF ями. Президент У.Клінтон привітав
target language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in and other international financial оголошення Президентом
translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers institutions. President Clinton Л.Кучмою про закриття Чорно-
in compliance with the document content. welcomed the announcement by бильської атомної електростанції
President Clinton and Ukrainian та Президент СІЛА У.Клінтон в President Kuchma to close the 15 грудня 2000 року, відзначаючи
President Kuchma, during their ході зустрічі в Києві 5 червня 2000 Chornobyl nuclear power plant важливість цього рішення для
on December 15, 2000, noting зміцнення безпеки усіх європейців,
Let's take an example to illustrate this principle approach to the
the importance of this decision особливо Українського народу та
translation of official documents:
to strengthening the security of його безпосередніх сусідів.
meeting in Kiev on June 5, року підтвердили свої зобов'язання
all Europeans, especially the Президент У.Клінтон оголосив
2000, reaffirmed their забезпечувати поступальний
Ukrainian people and their рішення Сполучених Штатів виді-
commitment to advance and розвиток та поглиблювати страте-
immediate neighbors. President лити додатково 78 мільйонів до-
deepen the strategic partnership гічне партнерство між Україною та
Clinton announced the ларів США для Чорнобильського
between the United States and США у XXI столітті. Президент
Ukraine in the 21st century. Л.Кучма наголосив на відданості decision of the United States фонду «Укриття». Він зазначив
President Kuchma emphasized України демократичним та рин- to provide another $78 million to про зобов'язання Сполучених
the Chornobyl Shelter Fund. He Штатів продовжувати співпрацю з
Ukraine's commitment to a ково-економічним перетворенням.
noted the commitment of the Україною, країнами з «Великої
democratic and market eco- Президенти погодились, що ці
United States to continue to сімки» та міжнародною спільно-
nomic transformation. The перетворення є суттєвою базою
work with Ukraine, the G-7 and тою, аби забезпечити вирішення
Presidents agreed that this для реалізації європейських праг-
the international community завдань, що залишаються, пов'я-
transformation is the essential нень України. Президент У.Клін-
toward resolving the remaining заних з закриттям ЧАЕС, зокрема
basis for fulfilling Ukraine's тон високо оцінив керівну роль
tasks associated with the closure для допомоги у забезпеченні ста-
European aspirations. President Президента Л.Кучми та його но-
of Chornobyl, in particular to більного виробництва електро-
Clinton praised the leadership вого Уряду у досягненні швидкого
help provide for stable electricity енергії в Україні, чому сприяти-
of President Kuchma and his прогресу реформ, відзначаючи
generation in Ukraine supported муть необхідні реформи в енерге-
new government for early pro-
166 by necessary energy reforms. тичному секторі. Президенти ви-
The Presidents expressed their словились на підтримку успішного
support for a successful second проведення Другої конференції
pledging conference to be held in донорів, що відбудеться у липні в
July in Berlin to obtain the Берліні з метою збору решти ко-
remaining штів, необхідних для фонду
167
funds needed for the Shelter «Укриття». Президент Л.Кучма ship with NATO and agreed to та домовились працювати на по-
Fund. President Kuchma wel- привітав заяву про надання Спо- work to deepen Ukraine's co- глиблення співробітництва України
comed the announcement of an лученими Штатами додаткових 2 operation with the Atlantic Alli- з Атлантичним Альянсом. Вони
additional $2 million from the мільйонів доларів СІЛА для про- ance. They expressed support for висловили підтримку військовій
United States for nuclear safety ведення робіт з ядерної безпеки в their military cooperation in співпраці в рамках КФОР, де
work in Ukraine. The Presidents Україні. Президенти привітали KFOR, where American and американські та українські солдати
welcomed the initiation of the початок реалізації українського Ukrainian soldiers are working несуть мир та безпеку в Косово.
Ukraine Nuclear Fuel проекту кваліфікації ядерного па- to bring peace and security to Президент Л.Кучма та Президент
Qualification Project, a major лива як масштабного технологіч^ Kosovo. President Clinton and У.Клінтон високо відзначили успіх
technology project to enable ного проекту, що надасть можли- President Kuchma praised the українсько-американського
Ukraine to evaluate and certify вість Україні оцінювати та серти- success of U.S.-Ukraine coop- співробітництва в сфері комер-
the reliability and safety of new фікувати надійність та безпечність eration in the area of commercial ційних запусків космічних апаратів,
suppliers of fuel for Ukraine's нових постачальників палива для space launch services, par- зокрема в рамках консорціуму
nuclear energy sector. With an українського ядерно-енергетично- ticularly through the Sea «Морський старт». Вони оголосили
estimated value of $30 million, го сектору. Цей проект, орієнтов- Launch Consortium. They an- про припинення дії двосто-
this project will allow Ukraine ною вартістю 30 мільйонів доларів nounced that the U.S.-Ukraine ронньої Угоди щодо торгівлі в
to diversify its sources of supply США, дозволить Україні дивер- Commercial Space Launch галузі комерційних послуг із кос-
of nuclear fuel. President Clin- сифікувати свої джерела поста- Agreement of 1996 had been мічних запусків від 1996 року, від-
ton expressed support for чання ядерного палива. Президент terminated, noting that this значаючи, що завдяки цьому смі-
Ukrainian participation in the У.Клінтон висловив підтримку bold step will allow U.S. firms ливому кроку фірми США та їх
emerging east-west energy cor- участі України у створенні and their Ukrainian partners to українські партнери матимуть
ridor from the Caspian region to енергетичного коридору «Схід- enter into commercial space можливість залучатися до спільних
world markets, within the Захід» від Каспійського регіону до launch ventures unfettered by проектів у галузі комерційних
contexts of Ukraine's energy світових ринків у контекстах ре- quantity restrictions. The Presi- запусків космічних апаратів без
sector reforms and the United форм енергетичного сектору dents committed to strengthening кількісних обмежень. Президенти
States' broader Caspian energy України та ширшої енергетичної commercial relationships зобов'язались зміцнювати комер-
policy. President Kuchma reaf- політики США у Каспійському between their two countries' ційні зв'язки між аерокосмічними
firmed Ukraine's European регіоні. Президент Л.Кучма під- aerospace firms because of підприємствами своїх країн, зва-
choice and its goal of achieving твердив європейський вибір Ukraine's progress in restruc- жаючи на прогрес України у рест-
associate membership and України та мету набути статусу turing the space sector, its on- руктуризації космічної галузі, її
eventually full membership in асоційованого, а згодом і повно- going commitment to market- подальше зобов'язання стосовно
the European Union, recogniz- правного члена у Європейському based principles embodied in ринкових принципів, визначених в
ing the importance of continued Союзі, визнаючи важливість про- the Agreement, and to its strong згаданій Угоді, та її рішучу від-
reforms necessary to achieve довження реформ, необхідних для adherence to our shared non- даність спільним цілям в галузі
that end. The Presidents досягнення цієї мети. Президенти proliferation goals. The Presi- нерозповсюдження. Президенти
emphasized the importance of наголосили на важливості особли- dents affirmed their commit- підтвердили свої зобов'язання
Ukraine's distinctive partner- вого партнерства України з НАТО ment to increase support for активізувати підтримку розвитку
168 169
small and medium private en- малого та середнього приватного Ukraine Joint Action Plan to щодо боротьби з нелегальним ви-
terprise development in Ukraine. підприємництва в Україні. Прези- Combat Optical Media Piracy in робництвом оптичних носіїв ін-
President Clinton announced дент У.Клінтон оголосив про пла- Ukraine and welcomed the формації в Україні та привітали
plans to establish a new micro- ни започаткування нової програми Ukrainian Government's sus- призупинення Урядом України
enterprise credit program in мікрокредитування в Україні з pension of the operations of функціонування підприємств, що
Ukraine, which will draw upon використанням успішного досвіду pirate production facilities in випускали нелегальну продукцію в
the successful Fun-dusz Mikro програми «Фонду Мікро» в Ukraine until the conditions for Україні, до створення умов, які 6
program in Poland, and to Польщі та про початок п'ятирічної ensuring legal production are забезпечували легальність такого
initiate a five-year $25 million програми сприяння розвитку created. President Clinton wel- виробництва. Президент У.Клінтон
program to support small and малого та середнього підприєм- comed Ukraine's progress to- привітав прогрес України у
medium enterprise development. ництва, на яку виділяється 25 мі- ward achieving normal trade досягненні нормальних торгове-
President Kuchma affirmed that льйонів доларів США. Президент relations with the United States льних відносин зі Сполученими
the Ukrainian Government will Л.Кучма підтвердив, що Уряд on a permanent and uncondi- Штатами на постійній та беззасте-
ensure as soon as possible the України якомога швидше забез- tional basis. President Clinton режній основі. Президент У.Клін-
necessary legal and regulatory печить необхідні правові та регу- encouraged Ukraine to continue тон закликав Україну продовжу-
framework for the new micro- лятивні рамки для нової програми with reforms that would allow it вати реформи, що дозволить їй
credit program. The Presidents мікрокредитування. Президенти to achieve market economy набути статусу країни з ринковою
declared their continued заявили про свою рішучість й на- status. President Kuchma економікою. Президент Л.Кучма
determination to support the далі підтримувати створення та- emphasized the priority наголосив на пріоритетному зна-
creation of a business and кого ділового та інвестиційного importance for Ukraine to ченні для України боротьби з ко-
investment climate in Ukraine клімату в Україні, який сприятиме combat corruption in order to рупцією з метою зміцнення демо-
that will facilitate expanded розширенню торгівлі та інвести- strengthen a democratic society кратичного суспільства та ринко-
trade and investment ційних можливостей між двома and market-oriented economy. во-орієнтованої економіки. В
opportunities between their two країнами. Вони привітали перші In this regard, the Presidents цьому зв'язку Президенти приві-
countries. They welcomed initial кроки в напрямку приватизації welcomed the Program of U.S.- тали Програму українсько-
steps toward privatizing the енергетичного сектору України та Ukrainian Cooperation for американського співробітництва у
energy sector in Ukraine and the набуття чинності українсько- Combating Corruption and сфері боротьби з корупцією та
entry into force of the U.S.- американською Конвенцією про Organized Crime. The Presi- організованою злочинністю. Пре-
Ukraine Treaty on Double уникнення подвійного оподатку- dents recommitted themselves to зиденти підтвердили свої зобов'я-
Taxation. The Presidents вання. Президенти зобов'язались strengthening efforts between зання посилити взаємодію між
pledged to work together to діяти разом на підтримку кроків the United States and Ukraine to Україною та США у боротьбі з
support steps to advance their для наближення до їхньої спільної combat the problem of проблемою торгівлі людьми. Вони
shared goal of WTO accession мети - якнайшвидшого вступу trafficking in human beings. привітали проведення у Києві 21-
for Ukraine as soon as possible. України до СОТ. У цьому кон- They welcomed the June 21-23 23 червня відповідного семінару,
In this context, they affirmed тексті вони підтвердили свій намір workshop in Kiev, co-sponsored який спільно організовується
their intention to implement виконувати Українсько- by the two Governments. As a обома урядами. На порозі нового
the U.S.- американський план спільних дій new century begins, the століття Президенти підтвердили,
170 171
що через стратегічне партнерство
Сполучені Штати підтримувати- (??] QUESTIONS
муть зусилля України посісти на- 1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official
лежне їй місце у неподільній євро- document translation.
атлантичній спільноті вільних та 2. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?
стабільних держав. Одночасно 3. What is a text frame? Define it. What are the frame slots and slot
Україна продовжуватиме втілення fillers? Give examples of text frames with slots.
своїх демократичних та ринкових 4. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?
перетворень, таким чином роблячи 5. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of
власний внесок в євроатлантичну official documents.
безпеку.
Presidents affirmed that through
{§} EXERCISES
their strategic partnership, the
United States will support Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian observing the frame structure and terms of
Ukraine's efforts to take its the source text.
rightful place among an undi-
vided Euro-Atlantic community POWER OF ATTORNEY
of free and stable states. I, ....................................., the senior partner of
Ukraine will, at the same time ....................................... law firm, ......................................... Street, city
continue to implement its de- of.................. (country)................ regulated by the Law Society of Eng
mocratic and market transfor- land and Wales, being duly authorized representative and attorneys
mation, thus contributing to of.............................Company,......................, city of................................,
Euro-Atlantic security. by this POWER OF ATTORNEY authorize and appoint
Advocate Firm «...............................» (hereinafter - Advocate firm),
Another important task of a translator translating official documents
registered on... of......., 199....... by the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine,
is to keep to proper matching patterns of lexical and grammatical struc-
registration #............., identification code........, to act on behalf
tures within the frames. To give an example, English forms of Participle I
in the preamble of some international agreements may be rendered in of.......................................(together «the Company») on matters related
Ukrainian as «з метою...» to interests of the Company on the territory of Ukraine in all matters
Besides, translators of official documents must pay special attention arising from and/or relating to the.............................................................
to translation of standard terms and terminological word combination in
the texts.
More information on grammatical and other aspects of official
document translation are given in the lecture that follows.

The Advocate firm is authorized:

1. To conduct any negotiations concerning the purpose of this
Power of Attorney on the territory of Ukraine;
172 173
2. To approach with any applications and letters of official requests niary compensations and penalties from third parties on behalf of the
any of official boards, organizations, courts, notary offices, legal entities interest of the Company;
and physical persons in Ukraine; 8. On behalf of the Company to sign relevant documents as to the
3. To lawfully represent Company with regards to any official boards purpose of this Power of Attorney;
and organizations, including, but not limited, court, notary and admini- 9. To do any other activities to his opinion necessary for Company's
stration boards, notary offices, companies, legal entities and physical per- interests on the territory of..........................................................................
sons of Ukraine within the legal scope of herein presented Power of At-
torney; The Advocate firm has the right to define independently advocates
4. To represent Company's interests in courts of all institutions owing and collaborators for execution of above mentioned authorities and grant
all rights given to plaintiff, defendant, to the third person, as well as get to above mentioned through issuing a corresponding Power of Attorney to
know documents of case, to make extracts, to copy; to sue, to sign any advocates and collaborators working at the Advocate firm.
statements of claim and other documents that amend and supplement it, to
sign any documents related, to claim; to bring any claim; to insert any This Power of Attorney is issued on.............2001 and is valid till................
alterations in and amendments to claim; to change claim demands; to
contest a claim; to establish a claim; to abandon a claim; to counterclaim; ..............................Senior Partner
to defend a suit; to take part in court proceedings; to afford proof, to lake
part in investigation of proofs; to present petitions, to present oral and Signature
writing explanations in courts of any institutions; to afford their proofs
and present their considerations in connection with questions which can
arise in court proceedings; to raise objections against petitions and proofs Ex. 2. Translate into English observing the frame structure and terms of the
of participants of a court procedure; to participate in taking a decision; to source text.
amicable agreement; to file an appeal; to make use of all other rights for ДОВІРЕНІСТЬ
Participant under Ukrainian legislation; a use of all other rights for
Participant under the Ukrainian legislation; (населенний пункт)_____________________________________
5. To represent the Company in any and all State Bodies and institu- (число, місяць, рік словами)
tions of Ukraine in connection with execution of the decision of courts of
any institutions; Я, громадянин_____________________________________________
6. To carry out any and all actions on behalf of the Company related (прізвище, ім'я та по батькові)
to execution of the decision of courts including, but not limited to sign-
ing, presenting and receiving all documents in connection with it. що проживає за адресою:_______________________________
7. To carry out any negotiations with any third parties on any pecu- паспорт _ серія _ №______, виданий «___»_____________19____р.
niary compensations and penalties concerning the Accident, including,
but not limited to determination of sum of any pecuniary compensations __________________________________________________ і ор
and penalties, definition of dead line of payments of any pecuniary com- гану, що видав паспорт)
pensations and penalties, conclusion and signing on behalf of the interest
of the Company of any contracts or additional agreements in connection
with it; carrying out of any other actions concerning the penalty of pecu-
174 175
Уповноважую громадянина.
що проживає за адресою:______
Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL
паспорт _ серія _ №________, виданий «____»_______________19____р. DOCUMENTS: GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS
(назва органу, що видав паспорт)
бути моїм представником у всіх підприємствах, установах, ор- This Lecture:
ганізаціях незалежно від форм власності, в тому числі органах влади та • outlines official substyles;
• shows features common to all the substyles;
управління в питаннях • offers instruction in translation of certain English constructions typical of
official style.

У зв'язку з чим надаю йому такі права:

The style of official documents is represented by the following sub-styles
1. Брати участь у_________________________________________________; or variants:
♦ the language of business documents;
2. Подавати від мого імені листи, заяви, клопотання та інші документи;
♦ the language of legal documents;
3. Підписувати від мого імені листи, заяви, вимоги, клопотання, ♦ the language of diplomacy;
протоколи, скарги та інші документи; ♦ the language of military documents56.
Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim
4. Одержувати інформацію, документи та пояснення від and, accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic
, а також підприємств, установ, ор means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions
binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two
ганізацій_________________; contracting parties.
6. Здійснювати інші дії, необхідні для виконання представницьких функцій Each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases
and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and
для управління належними мені корпоративними правами. expressions of other variants of this style.
The peculiar features common to all stylistical varieties of official
Довіреність видана без права передовіри та дійсна___________років, тоб
documents are the following:
то до______________ ♦ the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contrac
tions. (There are so many of them that there are special addenda in dic
(Підпис) tionaries to decode them);

See more in: Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка: Учеб-

176 ник. - 3-е изд. - М.: Высш. школа, 1981. - С.312-318; Карабан B.I. Переклад
англійської наукової і технічної літератури. - Нова Книга, 2001. Mascull В.
Collins Cobuild. Key Words in Business. - Harper Collins, 1996.
177
♦ the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning; Президент повідомив про свою відставку після того, як влітку
♦ absence of emotiveness; минулого року його кампанія за об'єднання двох країн зазнала не-
♦ definite compositional pattern and design (see Lecture 17). вдачі.
It should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as ♦ after adjectives «the last, the only» and ordinal numerals the In
important as the vocabulary. finitive is translated as the predicate of an attributive subordinate clause,
its tense form is determined by the context, e. g.
He was the first high official to be admitted to the inner council of
•► Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business government, to the cabinet.
papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and
Він був першим високопоставленим службовцем, якого було до-
expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the пущено до закритих нарад з питань державного управління і навіть
structure of a sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical pat- до засідань кабінету.
terns, which are characteristic of this style.
♦ «if + noun + be + infinitive» can be translated as «для того
щоб», e. g.
Coming across an unknown term in the text a translator can consult In any event, members of the association should be prepared to put
a dictionary. Coming across such a phenomenon as the Nominative Ab- aside partisan interests if consensus on the abovementioned principles is to
be achieved.
solute Construction, for instance, a translator can find it time-consuming
to search for an equivalent conveying its meaning, unless he or she У будь-якому випадку, щоб дійти згоди щодо зазначених
приципів, члени асоціації повинні облишити свої партійні інтереси.
already knows the corresponding pattern.
This Manual is intended for students who are already aware of the ♦ the Complex Object with the Infinitive is translated as an object
basics and peculiarities of the grammar and syntax of the English lan- subordinate clause, e. g.
guage. That is why it offers below only some instruction in translation of Both experiments revealed the rated dimensions to be highly interre-
certain English constructions, which can cause special difficulties while lated.
translating. Обидва експерименти показали, що розрахункові параметри ду-
же тісно пов'язані між собою.
INFINITIVE
♦ the Complex Subject with passive forms of the verbs «think, ex
Depending on the function the Infinitive plays in the sentence it can pect, show, see, find, argue, know, mean, consider, regard, report, be
be translated in the following ways: lieve, hold, suppose, note, presume, claim, admit, interpret, etc.» is
♦ as an adverbial modifier of purpose the Infinitive can express an translated as a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause. Care
independent idea that adds some new information about its subject; the should be taken about non-perfect forms of the Infinitive (which are
adverb «only» is omitted in translation, e. g. translated in the Present time) and perfect forms (which are translated in
the Past time), e. g.,
The president announced his resignation after the failure of his drive to
push through the merger of the two countries last summer. Still they can hardly be said to have formulated a true scientific theory.
178 179
Розрахунок на те, що члени ради опікунів втратять витримку,
І все ж навряд чи можна стверджувати, що вони сформулювали
може виявитися невірним.
дійсно наукову теорію.
The term «model» is held to have important normative significance. ♦ an infinitive, e. g.,
Вважається, що термін «модель» має важливе нормативне зна- Under the pressure of national campaign, he showed a positive gift for
saying the wrong things in the wrong words at the wrong time.
чення. В умовах напруженої кампанії, що проводиться в країні, він ви-
♦ the Complex Subject with active forms of the verbs «happen, являв безумовний дар говорити не те, що треба, не так, як треба, і
appear, see, prove, turn out, be likely, be certain, be sure, etc.» is trans- не тоді, коли треба.
lated in two possible ways: ♦ a participle, e. g.,
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian paren-
In Washington there is quiet satisfaction that the French by joining the
thesis and the English Infinitive into a Ukrainian predicate, e. g.,
float have indirectly acknowledged that the U.S. was right all along.
So, there appear to be two choices. У Вашингтоні висловлюють задоволення з приводу того, що
Отже, виявляється, вибір існує. Франція, приєднавшись до країн з плаваючим курсом валюти, таким
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian main чином непрямо визнала, що США були повністю праві.
clause («малоймовірно», «мені здається», etc.) and the English Infini The Perfect Gerund denotes an action which is prior to the action
tive into a Ukrainian predicate in an object subordinate clause, e. g., expressed by the finite form of the verb, e. g.,
Neither proposal is likely to work.
After having been colonies for a long time, many Asian and African
Малоймовірно, щоб якась із цих пропозицій виявилася слушною.
countries have now become independent states.
♦ if the English predicate has an object «by somebody» such Багато країн Азії та Африки, що протягом тривалого часу бу-
predicate-object clusters are translated as a parenthesis «на думку», «за ли колоніями, стали тепер незалежними.
даними», «як показав (виявив, встановив, описав)», є. g.,
The results were interpreted by Brown (1989) to be insufficient to draw The priority of the action can be expressed not only by a Perfect
any substantial conclusions. Gerund, e. g.,
На думку Брауна (1989), цих результатів недостатньо для то- This African country thanked France for offering (— having offered) her
го, щоб зробити якісь вагомі висновки. a helping hand.
Ця африканська країна подякувала Франції за те, що Франція
простягла руку допомоги.
GERUND
PARTICIPLE
Depending on the function, the Gerund plays in the sentence it can
Participle I can be translated as:
be translated as:
♦ a noun • ♦ an attributive clause, e. g., In the carriage there was only
Banking on a loss of nerve within the board of trustees may turn out to
an old man reading his paper.
be misguided.
180 181
У вагоні був лише один старий чоловік, який читав газету. На питання про те, чи надають Сполучені Штати військову
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g., допомогу силам, які протистоять законному уряду цієї країни, сена-
тор дав ухильну відповідь.
Heavy artillery and mortar fire broke out again in the city last night,
virtually putting the whole population of the city under a state of siege. Some Participles I and II have fixed equivalents: conjunction pro-
Вчора в місті знову розпочалася інтенсивна артилерійська та vided; preposition given; preposition failing; conjunction granted; prepo-
мінометна стрілянина, через що все його населення фактично опи- sitions following; followed by; assuming; considering.
нилося в облозі. The Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II can
be translated in different ways depending on (1) the form of the Partici-
♦ a separate sentence, e. g., ple; (2) the position of the construction in the sentence:
The treasury announced that in August the sterling area had a gold and ♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participle I is in
dollar deficit of 44 million dollars bringing the gold and dollar reserves postposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of attending
down to the lowest level reached this year. circumstances:
Міністерство фінансів оголосило, що в серпні стерлінгова зона
мала золотий і доларовий дефіцит у розмірі 44 мільйонів доларів. The Prime Minister and the African National Council promptly lapsed
Таким чином золотий і доларовий запаси сягнули найнижчого рівня into mutual recrimination, each seeking to blame the other for deadlock.
за цей рік. Прем'єр-міністр і Африканська національна рада негайно пе-
рейшли до взаємних обвинувачень, до того ж кожна сторона намага-
As a part of the Complex Object construction Participle I and Parti- лася перекласти на іншу провину за те, що вони потрапили у без-
ciple II can be translated as: вихідь.
♦ an object clause, e. g., ♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II
At the cemetery mourners knocked over tombstones in their frantic ef- is in preposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of cause
fort to watch the body being lowered into the earth. or time:
На цвинтарі, охоплені несамовитим бажанням побачити, як That done with, the two statesmen had subsided into long and profit-
домовину опускають у землю, учасники траурної процесії перекидали able talks about other subjects.
надгробки.
Після того, як з цим питанням було закінчено, обидва державні
The country would like to see its proposals approved by the General As- діячі поринули у довгу та плідну розмову що стосувалася інших пи-
sembly. тань, (adverbial modifier of time).
Країна хотіла б, щоб її пропозиції були схвалені Генеральною
It being too late for further discussion, the session was adjourned. Засідання
Асамблеєю.
було відкладено, оскільки було занадто пізно, щоб продовжувати
Participle II at the beginning of the sentence can be translated as: дискусію, (adverbial modifier of cause)
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g., The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be
expressed by a noun or an adverb:
Asked if the United States is rendering military aid to the forces oppos-
ing the lawful government in that country the senator gave an evasive reply. The first conference a failure, another meeting at a ministerial level was
decided upon.
182
183
У зв'язку з невдачею першої конференції було прийнято рішення Such a principle, strange as it may seem, is championed in one form or
про проведення ще однієї зустрічі на рівні міністрів. another by certain scholars.
The debate over, the meeting was adjourned. Такий принцип, хоч він і може видатися досить дивним,
Дебати скінчилися, і засідання було оголошено закритим. відстоюють деякі вчені.
The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be Useful as it is, the book has two general shortcomings.
also expressed by an infinitive. It can be related to the future action: Хоча ця книга й корисна, вона все ж має два суттєвих недоліки.
With the Congress still to be elected, the Republican leadership is al-
ready moving to team up with the Southern Democrats, as it did in the
palmy days of the New Deal.
Хоча вибори до Конгресу ще попереду, керівництво
Республіканської партії вже вживає заходів щодо об'єднання з
демократами з Півдня, як це було під час розквіту Нового курсу.

INVERSION
The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate
is called inverted order or inversion. While translating the target sentence
retains the word order of the source sentence in many cases:
Of special interest should be the first article in Chapter 1.
Особливий інтерес має становити перша стаття у главі 1.
Also treated are such matters as theory construction and methodology.
Розглядаються також такі питання, як побудова теорії та
методика дослідження.
Had this material been examined from this viewpoint, the regularities
that he discovers would probably have gone unnoted.
Якби цей матеріал було досліджено з такої точки зору,
закономірності, які він встановлює, залишилися б, можливо,
непоміченими.
Subordinate clauses of concession with an inverted predicate often
serve emphatic purposes and can be translated with the help of Ukrainian
combinations хоч; хоч який би:
184 185
ш QUESTIONS
Ex 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
gerundial constructions:
1. Polls keep indicating that a majority of Americans hold strong
1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official doubts about the candidate's ability to handle his job.
document translation. 2. Each side insists on withholding its part of the bargain until the
2. What is peculiar about the text of official documents? other has acted.
3. What is a text frame? Define it. What are frame slots and slot fillers? 3. The situation in the country is a lesson in the dangers of upsetting
Give examples of text frames with slots. the delicate balance of neutralist politics.
4. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents? 4. The impossibility of disregarding established diplomatic rules
5. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of does not, however, preclude suspicious host governments from keeping a
official documents. watchful eye on diplomatic missions and diplomats suspected of abusing
their privileges and immunities.
EJ EXERCISES 5. My objection is to writing books about him before there is any-
thing serious to write, and offering accounts, which are very far from
Ex 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or objective.
infinitive constructions: 6. All this, however, has not prevented the head of the delegation
1. The United Nations principal function is to maintain peace and and his colleagues from keeping up their end of a dialogue, which reflects
prevent war. a practical approach and a real willingness to consider serious proposals.
The decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences pointed out the 7. Amnesty, often granted to student troublemakers last year, is to be
treat of militarism and aggression to the course of peace and security and a thing of the past at many colleges. Instead of being forgiven for mis-
provided a system of measures to eliminate sources of war and aggres- conduct, more students are to be suspended or expelled.
sion. 8. They are terrified of being drawn into taking over responsibility
2. Other areas of major concern relate to the seabed and ocean floor for their own security.
and mean to ensure their reservation for peaceful use. 9. The same end is not at all served, at least, not in any direct way, by
3. Disputes are to be settled by peaceful means. getting rid of the secretary of defense.
Member states undertake not to use force or the threat of force in 10. No sign exists of the president having concerned himself with the
contravention of the purposes of the UN. substance of these two important questions.
4. States not-members of the UN are required to act in accordance
with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of Ex 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
international peace and security. participial constructions:
5. The General Assembly is expressly authorised to deal with specific 1. But most (98%) of the businesses in the United States are «small»
disputes and situations brought before it and to undertake studies and businesses - independently owned and operated and having fewer than
make recommendations for promoting international co-operation in twenty employees.
political, social, cultural and educational matters for encouraging the 2. Whether a business has one employee working at home, 100
development of international law and for assisting in the realisation of working in a retail store, 10,000 working a plant or factory or 100,000
human rights and fundamental freedoms. working in branch offices nation-wide, all businesses share the same
definition and are organized for the same purpose: to earn profits.
186 187
3. There being no survivors, the exact causes which led to the acci- 17. First, a practical response: appreciation of the theoretical
dent will never be known. underpinnings of a particular domain helps the lawyer formulate an
4. Government legislation leads a company to change its hiring prac- analysis of any problem concerning that domain.
tices; technological advances convince a company to change its manufac- 18. An expensive advertising campaign can attract you to a com-
turing processes; changes in consumer tastes tell a company to alter its pany, its impressive building will make you glad you come, but if the first
marketing strategies. person you deal with is wearing a purple tank top and flared trousers, are
5. The number of working women is rising - and, as a result, the you really going to take them seriously?
number of two salary households and the number of women managers 19. Every week brings fresh outrage at tales of bosses of privatised
are also rising steadily. firms picking up huge pay rises.
6. With the new countries in, the United Nations will for the first 20. This fact cannot be stated too often and too clearly.
time include Britain's allies and associates. 21. All other things being equal, one would assume that the latter so-
7. When sole proprietors borrow money, they do so as individuals, lution is more plausible.
using their own personal assets to finance personal loans. 22. As is generally true of conference volumes, the quality of these
8. A tactical plan is specific, detailed, and current, focusing on pre- papers is uneven.
sent operations. 23. But in no way does it approach the book under review in depth,
9. The ratification debate should take place as quickly as possible, it scope, or insight of coverage.
being understood that the president of the republic should not sign the 24. But there would have to be some other mechanism for dealing
treaty until the «preconditions» are fulfilled. with the optional positions.
10. Once objectives and plans have been established, the organizing 25. He waited, standing in his room and trying to reason himself
function comes into play. into a decent temper.
11. Managers' decisions range from minor and relatively unimpor-
tant to major and potentially life-threatening to the organization.
12. UNEP in co-operation with the Specialised Agencies and other
organisations is trying to check loss of land through erosion, aridity, sa-
linity and encroaching cities.
13. The 18 riparian countries have begun research and monitoring of
the condition of the sea, most have signed the Barcelona Convention
agreeing to control pollution and over-fishing, and they have begun plans
for joint development of that sea.
14. The intellectual attractions of the law regulating literary and ar-
tistic property account only in small part for the rise of copyright law.
15. Sometimes copyright law is taught together with trademark and
patent law in a one-semester optional course dealing generally with intel-
lectual property.
16. The students prepare the texts and the questions before each
class, knowing that the professor may call upon them to explain or criti-
cize a text, or to analyse a question or a hypothetical case.
188 189
AGREEMENT WHEREAS, Agent has experience БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
in matters involving trade in the має досвід у справах, що стосу-
APPENDIX УГОДА Products and, in particular, trade ються торгівлі Продукцією, і, зо-
This Agreement is made this involving the Products крема, торгівлі Продукцією з
with and in_____________(the ___________ («Територією») і на
TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING Території; і
«Territory»); and
MATERIAL
______day of____________, 1999, Цю Угоду укладено WHEREAS,_________desires to БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що________
by and between __________ 1999 року між purchase and sell Products from бажає купувати Продукцію у
_> [a and to entities in the Territory, осіб, що знаходяться на Терито-
corporation with its principal [корпорацією, головна контора and desires to work with Agent рії, а також продавати їм Проду-
office at____________________] якої знаходиться за. адресою: concerning such trade of Prod- кцію, і бажає співпрацювати з
or [an individual with an office _____________________________] ucts to and from the Territory; Агентом у питаннях, що стосу-
and mailing address atчи [особою, контора якої знаходить and ються такої торгівлі Продукцією,
___________] («Agent»), and ся за адресою:___________] («Аген що надходить на Територію і з
[company name], a corporation том») і [назва компанії], корпорації, неї, і
organized and existing under the що заснована і діє відповідно до за
laws of ___________________, конодавства ____________, голо
вна контора якої знаходиться за ад WHEREAS, Agent is willing and БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
with its principal place of busi ресою: able to provide such services to бажає і має можливість надавати
ness at_____________________ серед іншого, займається міжна такі послуги_______.
родною торгівлею, і, зокрема,
С .)• міжнародною торгівлею NOW, THEREFORE, in consid ТОМУ, з урахуванням обопіль-
______________________________ eration of the mutual promises них зобов'язань і домовленостей,
WHEREAS, ____ викладених нижче,____________і
and covenants set forth below,
in, among other things, the busi _________(товарами, у своїй су Агент досягли взаєморозуміння і
__________and Agent under
ness of international trade, and купності іменованих «Продукці домовилися про нижченаведене:
stand and agree as follows:
in particular, international trade єю») і
1. Appointment 1. Призначення Агента
RECITALS ЗАГАЛЬНІ ПОЛОЖЕННЯ
________hereby appoints Agent Цією Угодою_____________при
is engaged БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що as its non-exclusive service pro- значає Агента для надання послуг
190 vider, on the terms and condi- на неексклюзивних умовах, за
(collectively, tions stated in this Agreement, значених у даній Угоді, щодо
and relating to_________purchase of придбання __________ Продукції
involving Products from and sale of Prod- у суб'єктів економічної діяльнос-
___________________________ ucts to entities located in the ті, що знаходяться на Території, і
the «Products»); Territory. продажу Продукції таким суб'єк-
там.
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I
2. Duties and Obligations of 2. Обов'язки Агента 2.В. Agent shall inform________ 2.Б. Агент інформує ________ про
Agent of changes in any laws, rules, зміни законодавства, нормативної
2.A. Agent shall regularly consult 2.A. Агент регулярно консульту regulations, or practices regard- і правової бази чи практики, що
with _______ on and inform ється з _________ з питань при ing the import and export of стосуються імпорту і експорту
______of any Product purchas дбання, продажу, організації збу Products into and from the Ter- Продукції на даній Території, чи з
ing, selling, marketing, trading ту Продукції, торгівлі нею і з по ritory or relating to other issues інших питань, що стосуються
and related matters in the Terri дібних питань, а також інформує involving trade, finance, politics торгівлі, фінансів, політики чи
tory, including but not limited to щодо згаданих питань про стан or business issues and events in бізнесу і подій на Території, які
providing ________ with timely справ на Території, включаючи, the Territory generally affecting можуть впливати на торгівлю
and accurate information con- але не обмежуючись, наданням the trade in Products. 2.C. Agent Продукцією взагалі.
cerning: своєчасної і точної інформації, shall, when requested 2.В. Агент, на прохання ________,
що стосується: by ________, serve as a liaison забезпечує підтримання зв'язку
(1). prevailing marketing price (1) існуючих ринкових цін і ін- between ________ and its cus між______і його клієнтом чи по
and other sale terms for Products ших умов продажу Продукції, tomer or potential customers for тенційними клієнтами, з метою
imported into the Territory; ввезеної на Територію; the receipt, transmission, pres одержання, передачі, надання
(2) prevailing market prices and (2) існуючих ринкових цін і ін- entation, and explanation пояснень (де це доречно) повід
other purchase terms for Prod- ших умов придбання Продукції, (where appropriate) of commu омлень і спілкування між________
ucts exported from the Territory; експортованої з даної Території; nications between ________ and і потенційними чи реальними
(3) the identity of any persons or potential or actual customers, клієнтами, до початку, під час і
entities which are actual or po- (3) визначенням національної both prior to, during and follow після припинення терміну дії
tential importers of Products into приналежності осіб, що є реаль ing the term of any contacts be будь-якого контракту між________
and/or exporters of Products ними чи потенційними імпорте tween ___________and such en і такими суб'єктами економічної
from the Territory and potential рами і/чи експортерами Продук tities. діяльності.
buyers from or sellers, to ції на даній Території чи потен 2 D. Agent shall solicit offers to 2.Г. Агент консультує_________з
ційними покупцями чи продав sell to or buy from potential питань продажу чи придбання у
(4) any other matters which may цями _______________; buyers or sellers of Products in потенційних покупців чи про-
be of interest to_________in or- (4) з усіх інших питань, що мо the Territory and forward such давців на Території і передає такі
der to ensure that________is at жуть становити інтерес для offers to _________ by facsimile пропозиції_______за допомогою
all times kept well informed of ________, з метою забезпечення for acceptance or rejection by факсимільного зв'язку для їх
market conditions and trade op- належного рівня його поінфор- прийняття чи відхилення________.
portunities relating to the trade of мованості про умови на ринку і 2.E. Agent shall assist_________, 2.Д. Агент надає допомогу, у ви-
Products involving the Territory, можливості торгівлі Продукцією as it may request, in performing падку звернення до нього з поді-
and with such other matters на даній Території, а також з усіх and fulfilling its obligations un- бним проханням, у виконанні
related to the foregoing as інших питань, що стосуються der its contacts to sell to or buy зобов'язань за контрактами купі-
______________may reasonably вищезгаданого, у випадку, якщо Products from exporters from or влі-продажу Продукції експорте-
request. __________звернеться з подібним importers into the Territory рів і імпортерів на Території
прийнятним проханням. (such exporters or importers (експортерів чи імпортерів, що 193
192
with contracts to sell to or buy має контракти на продаж чи under a Covered Transac відповідності з Покритою опера-
from ____________ hereinafter придбання Продукції , що tion_________________ цією;
collectively referred to as тут і далі у своїй сукупності іме- .___________________ equal to що дорівнює______%,________від
______________'s «Customers») нуються «Клієнтами»), включаю- ._____________ % of the final остаточної фактурної ціни за всю
including any________________ чи будь-які зобов'язання щодо invoice price for all Products Продукцію, придбану чи продану
obligation to arrange for and/or організації і спостереження за purchased or sold by__________ ______ у відповідності з Покри
monitor the loading and unload- навантаженням і розвантаженням under a Covered Transaction тою операцією
ing of vessels, arrange for neces- суден, організовує необхідну __________ according to the ______ згідно зі ставками, зазна
sary transport to or from ports in доставку до/з портів Території, rates set forth in the attached ченими в Додатку А на всю Про
the Territory, present to or obtain пред'являє документи Клієнтам і Schedule A for all Products pur дукцію, придбану чи продану
documents from одержує документи від Клієнтів chase or sold by_un ______ у відповідності з Покри
_________'s Customers, arrange _______, організовує одержання der a Covered Transaction. тою операцією.
for the issuance of performance гарантій виконання контрактів і 3.B. For the purposes of this З.Б. У цілях цієї Угоди, «Покрита
bonds and other related services інших, пов'язаних з виконанням Agreement, a «Covered Transac операція» означає придбання чи
in support of____________'s per контрактів, послуг, з метою на- tion» shall mean the purchase or продаж Продукції за контрактом
formance under its purchase or дання підтримки у діяльності sale of Products under a contact із Клієнтом, датованим протягом
sale contracts with its Custom ________за контрактами купівлі- with a Customer dated during терміну дії даної Угоди, де конт
ers. продажу з Клієнтами. the term of this Agreement and ракт складений або (1) між_______
2.F. Agent shall assist _________ 2.Е. Агент надає допомогу служ which contract is either (1) be і Клієнтом, представленим
employees and representatives бовцям і представникам_________, tween _________and a Customer ____________Агентом у вищезга
when they visit the Territory by коли вони прибувають на Тери introduced to_________by Agent даний період, чи (2) успішно
helping obtain, at _________'s торію, і сприяє в одержанні, за during the term hereof, or (2) укладений і виконаний у резуль
cost, entry visas, hotel rooms, рахунок________, в'їзних віз, готе successfully entered into or per- таті безпосередніх зусиль Агента і
local transport, and with related льних номерів, місцевих транс formed as a direct result of the наданих ним послуг.
logistical matters. портних засобів і у відповідному effort and services of Agent. Незважаючи на вищезгадані
матеріально-технічному забезпе Notwithstanding anything in the умови, де може йтися про проти
ченні. foregoing to the contrary, a лежне, «Покрита операція» не
«Covered Transaction» does not включає продажу товарів, що
3. Compensation 3.A. In 3. Відшкодування include sales of ______ origin походять із_______відповідно до
consideration of, and as full З.А. Як винагороду і повний роз goods under ______ government експортних програм уряду
payment for the services рахунок за послуги, надані за ці export programs which prohibit _______, за якими заборонено
provided by Agent under this єю Угодою,_______ сплачує Аген the payment of commissions, сплату комісійних, гонорарів чи
Agreement,________shall pay to ту гонорар (виберіть один із ва fees, or other similar compensa- інших подібних винагород.
Agent a fee (choose one): ріантів): tion.
equal to _____________U.S. per що дорівнює______доларів США 3.C. All payments due to Agent З.В. Усі виплати, що належать до
______________for all Products _ за_________, за всю Продукцію, under this Agreement shall be сплати Агенту відповідно до даної
purchased or sold by___________ придбану чи продану .______, payable in __________________ Угоди, виконуються в 195
у
194

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(unless otherwise prohibited) _________ (якщо це не заборо under this Agreement to any від_______за цією Угодою жод
and will be paid solely by check нено іншими угодами) і викону third party without the prior ній третій стороні без попере
or wire transfer. No payment ються винятково чеком чи теле written consent of_____________ дньої письмової згоди ________ і,
will be made by________in cash графним переказом. Жодні ви and, unless otherwise agreed by якщо інше не передбачено
or bearer instrument. All pay- плати не будуть здійснюватися _________in writing, Agent and ________ письмово, Агент і його
ments will be made solely to готівкою чи документами на its employees shall personally персонал особисто надають по
Agent and to no other person or пред'явника. Усі виплати будуть perform the services required by слуги, необхідні______. Крім того,
entity; payments made by wire здійснюватися винятково Агенту, _________. Agent further agrees Агент згоден з тим, що він не бу
transfer will be made to a bank а не будь-якій іншій особі чи су that it will not pay or transfer де сплачувати чи переказувати
account in Agent's name at a б'єкту економічної діяльності; any portion of the payments re жодну частину коштів, одержа
bank located in the country of платежі можуть бути виконані на ceived from __________ to any них від _______ нікому з інозем
Agent's principal place of busi- банківський рахунок на ім'я Аге foreign official or other person них посадових чи яких-небудь
ness. нта в країні місцезнаходження in violation of______law. інших осіб у порушення законів
головної контори Агента.
3.D. ._________ will make pay З.Г. ______ робить виплати, що 3.F. In the event the Covered З.Е. У випадку, якщо Покрита
ments due to Agent under this належать до сплати Агенту у від
Transaction is part of a barter операція є бартерною і передба
Agreement within _________ повідності з даною Угодою про
arrangement involving the ex- чає обмін товарами, ціна прода
(___) days: тягом________(____) днів:
change of commodities, the sale жу покупки чи (у залежності від
(i) for Products purchased (і) за Продукцію, придбану
or purchase price (as the case обставин) з метою визначення
by_________ from Customers, ____________ від Клієнтів, за на
may be) for purposes of calculat- розміру гонорару, що належить
the payment or delivery of other дання інших послуг
ing the fee due to Agent under Агенту за цією Угодою, повинна
consideration by or on behalf of ____________
this Agreement shall reflect the відбивати реальну ринкову вар
_________to the Customer, or чи від його імені Клієнтам, чи
than existing market value of the тість Продукції, проданої чи
(ii) for Products sold by Products sold or purchased as придбаної за взаємною згодою
__________ to Customers, the (іі) за Продукцію, продану mutually agreed between Agent Агента і_______.
actual receipt of funds for value _______ Клієнтам, фактичне оде and____________.
or other full consideration by or ржання коштів за чи еквівалент
4. Term; Termination 4. Терміни і припинення чинності
on behalf of__________from the за надання інших послуг у пов
Угоди 4.А. Дана Угода набуває
Customer; ному обсязі ________ чи від його
4.A. This Agreement will com сили з
provided, however, that prior to імені Клієнтам;
mence on ______________, and _______і залишається чинною до
making any payment under this однак, за умови, що до здійснен shall continue in effect thereafter її припинення (і) у будь-який час
Agreement ________ shall have ня будь-якого платежу відповід until terminated (i) at any time за взаємною письмовою згодою
received Agent's invoice for the но до даної Угоди ________ одер
by the mutual written consent of сторін (іі) будь-якої із сторін із
full amount due. жить рахунок-фактуру від Агента the parties or (ii) by either party зазначенням чи без зазначення
3.E. Agent shall have no right to на всю суму, що належить йому.
with or without cause, by причини, з наданням іншій сто
assign any portion of its rights to З.Д. Агент не має жодного права
providing sixty (60) days prior роні письмового попередження
receive payments from передавати яку-небудь частину
written notice to the other. про це за_____(_________) днів.
___________________________ своїх прав на одержання коштів
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196
4.B. Upon termination of this 4.Б. Після припинення дії даної persons hired by it and shall be ня контролю за найнятими ним
Agreement, Agent will have no Угоди Агент не буде мати жод- solely responsible for the pay- особами, і є єдиною особою, від-
further claim or right to for них претензій чи прав, крім як на ment of any and all related com- повідальною за виплату будь-
compensation or other payment виплату гонорарів, зароблених pensation, wages and other li- яких належних винагород, заро-
of any kind whatsoever, except ним до дати припинення дії Уго- abilities imposed upon employ- бітної плати і розрахунків за ін-
for the payment of fees earned ди, у відповідності зі Статтею З ers under labor and/or any ap- шими зобов'язаннями, що на-
prior to the termination date in даної Угоди. plicable social legislation. Agent кладаються на роботодавців згід-
accordance with Section 3 of this shall be solely responsible for но з трудовим і/чи іншим відпо-
Agreement. any and all expenses incurred in відним соціальним законодавст-
4.C. Notwithstanding anything in 4.В. Незважаючи на положення providing services to __________ вом. Агент одноосібно відповідає
Clause 4.A to the contrary, either Статті 4.А про протилежне, кож under this Agreement, including за всі і будь-які витрати, понесені
party may terminate this на зі сторін може припинити дію but not limited to the cost of rent,
ним при наданні послуг_______за
Agreement with immediate ef- даної Угоди негайно, повідоми office equipment, commu- даною Угодою, які включають,
fect upon the giving of notice in вши про це, у випадку, якщо ін nications and travel, except але не обмежуються, вартістю
the event the other violates or ша сторона діє всупереч будь- where__________has specifically оренди, офісного устаткування,
breaches any term or provision яким положенням чи умовам agreed, in writing and in ad- комунікацій і поїздок, за винят
of this Agreement. 5. даної Угоди чи порушує їх. vance, to cover or reimburse ком випадків, про які _______
Independent Contractor The 5. Незалежна сторона в договорі Agent for any such expenses. особливо застеріг, письмово і
parties expressly acknowledge Сторони особливо застерігають і завчасно, що він покриває чи
and agree that Agent is an погоджуються з тим, що Агент є відшкодовує Агенту будь-які з
independent contractor and is not незалежною стороною в договорі таких витрат. 7. Різне
a partner, joint venturer or і не є партнером, учасником спі 7. Miscellaneous 7.А. Ця Угода не підлягає змінам
employee of ____________, льного підприємства чи службо 7.A. This Agreement may not be чи доповненням, за винятком тих
Agent does not have, and will вцем _______, Агент не має і не amended or supplemented ex- випадків, коли такі виконуються
not hold itself out as having, any буде вимагати для себе повнова cept by written agreement signed письмо за згодою і підписом обох
authority to bind _________ to жень зв'язувати_________жодним by both parties hereto. сторін.
any contract, debt or other obli- контрактом, борговими чи ін 7.Б. Цю Угоду складено за по-
gation. Agent acknowledges and шими зобов'язаннями. Агент ви 7.B. This Agreement contains the вною згодою сторін щодо її зміс-
agrees that the negotiation of, знає і згоден, що переговори з entire agreement between the ту, і вона заміняє собою всі попе-
agreement to all terms and con- приводу всіх умов і положень і parties hereto with respect to the редні угоди і домовленості, дося-
ditions, and the execution of any згода на їхнє встановлення, ви contents hereof and supersedes гнуті між сторонами, письмові чи
purchase or sale contracts for конання яких-небудь контрактів all prior agreements and under- усні.
Products with Customers shall be з Клієнтами на покупку чи про standings between the parties,
sole responsibility of даж продукції є винятково пре written or oral. 7.В. Дана Угода регулюється за
___________. Agent shall have рогативою . Виключним 7.C. This Agreement shall be конам _______. Будь-який спір,
the exclusive right and obligation правом і обов'язком Агента є до subject to the laws of the що виникає між сторонами з
to select, hire and supervise all бір, прийом на роботу і здійснен- _____________. Any dispute 199
198
arising between the parties under приводу даної Угоди, що не мо the mail, postage pre-paid, and а у випадку рекомендованої коре-
this Agreement which cannot be же бути врегульований сторона addressed as follows: спонденції - за датою відправлен-
amicably resolved by the parties ми у дружній спосіб, підлягає ня на поштовому штемпелі, з пе-
shall be subject to non-binding врегулюванню за допомогою по редоплатою поштових зборів, і
mediation using the services of a середництва, що не є обов'язко надсилаються за адресою: Агенту:
sole mediator under the media вим, із залученням одного посе If to Agent:
tion rules of the редника відповідно до правил
__________________ or such проведення посередницьких
other recognized mediation ser операцій _____________чи іншої Кому:
vice or association as the parties відомої посередницької служби Attn:
may mutually agree. If the dis чи асоціації, за взаємною згодою If to.
pute cannot be resolved by me сторін. Якщо спір не може бути
diation then the dispute shall be врегульований за допомогою по Кому:________________________
referred to binding arbitration in середника, тоді він передається Attn:_____________________ 7.Д. Агент погоджується не роз
__________according to the In на обов'язковий розгляд до 7.E. Agent agrees to keep private голошувати і зберігати конфіде
ternational Commercial Arbitra ____________відповідно до Між and confidential any and all in нційність будь-якої і всієї інфор
tion Rules and Procedures of the народних правил торгового арбі formation regarding __________ мації, що стосується___________і
American Arbitration Associa тражу і регламенту Американсь and its business activities (and ведення справ (і справ його ма
tion, with each party appointing кої асоціації арбітражу, причому those of its parent affiliated com теринської і дочірньої компаній),
an arbitrator and the two party- кожна зі сторін призначає арбіт panies) that__________may dis з якими________може ознайоми
arbitrators appointing a third ра, а обидві сторони разом при close to it or that Agent may ти його, а крім того, Агент пого
arbitrator-chairman. The arbi значають третього арбітра, що otherwise obtain, and further джується не розкривати таку ін
tration award shall be final and виступає в ролі голови. Рішення agrees that it will not disclose формацію нікому з інших фізич
binding, and judgment upon the арбітражу є остаточним і обов'я any such information to any них чи юридичних осіб, або ви
arbitrators' award may be en зковим для виконання, а поста other person or entity or use it користовувати для власної виго
tered in any court of competent нова суду з приводу арбітражно for its own benefit without the ди, не одержавши на це попере
jurisdiction. го рішення може бути винесена у express prior written consent of дньо письмового підтвердження
будь-якій належній судовій ін _________. This Agreement is явно вираженої згоди_______. Да
станції. not a license and Agent has no на Угода не є ліцензійною і Агент
7.D. All notices required under 7.Ґ. Усі повідомлення, що вима- right to use any of___________'s не має права використовувати
this Agreement shall be given in гаються відповідно до даної Уго- trade names, trademarks, service жодні з фірмових назв, торгових
writing by telex and registered ди, складаються у письмовому marks or other intellectual prop марок, знаків обслуговування й
mail. Notices shall be deemed вигляді і пересилаються телексом erty except as __________ may інших прав інтелектуальної влас
effective 1 business day after be- чи у вигляді рекомендованої ко- specifically agree in writing. ності, крім випадків, коли___
ing sent, in the case of telex no- респонденції. Повідомлення вва- у письмовому вигляді дає дозвіл
tices, and, in the case of regis- жаються дійсними через один на використання подібного. 201
tered mail, after being placed in день після відправлення телексом,
200
7.F.________shall have the right 7.E ________ має право залучати
інших осіб чи об'єкти економіч- TREATY ON THE NON- ДОГОВІР
to engage other persons or enti-
ної діяльності під час терміну PROLIFERATION OF ПРО НЕРОЗПОВСЮДЖЕННЯ
ties during the term of this
Agreement to provide the same чинності цієї Угоди для надання NUCLEAR WEAPONS ЯДЕРНОЇ ЗБРОЇ
or similar types of services to _______ послуг подібного виду, The States concluding this Держави, що укладають цей
__________ relating to the trade які зв'язані з торгівлею Продук- Treaty, hereinafter referred to as Договір, поіменовані нижче
of Products involving the Terri- цією на даній Території, одноча- the «Parties to the Treaty», «Учасниками Договору»,
tory concurrently with the ser- сно з наданням послуг, що нада- Considering the devastation враховуючи спустошливі нас-
vices provided by Agent under ються Агентом за даною Угодою. that would be visited upon all лідки, що їх мала б для всього
this Agreement. mankind by a nuclear war and людства ядерна війна, і необхід-
7.G. This Agreement has been 7.Ж. Цю Угоду складено в двох the consequent need to make ність, яка випливає з цього, до-
executed in two originals, one примірниках, що є оригіналами, every effort to avert the danger класти всіх зусиль для запобіган-
being kept by ____________ and один знаходиться в________, а ін of such a war and to take meas- ня загрозі виникнення такої війни
one by Agent, but each original ший - в Агента, причому обидва ures to safeguard the security of і вжити заходів для безпеки
constituting one and the same оригінали складають той самий peoples, народів,
document. документ. Believing that the prolifera- вважаючи, що розповсюджен-
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the НА ПІДТВЕРДЖЕННЯ ЧОГО tion of nuclear weapons would ня ядерної зброї серйозно поси-
parties by their authorized repre- сторони через своїх уповноваже- seriously enhance the danger of лило б загрозу ядерної війни,
sentatives have signed this них представників підписали да- nuclear war, відповідно до резолюцій Гене-
Agreement as of the day and year ну Угоду вищевказаного числа і In conformity with resolu- ральної Асамблеї Організації Об'-
above written. року. tions of the United Nations єднаних Націй, що закликають
General Assembly calling for the укласти угоду про відвернення
AGENT АГЕНТ conclusion of an agreement on подальшого розповсюдження
the prevention of wider dis- ядерної зброї,
By:---------------------------- semination of nuclear weapons, зобов'язуючись співробітнича-
Undertaking to cooperate in ти з метою сприяння застосуван-
Title:_________________ Посада: facilitating the application of ню гарантій Міжнародного агент-
International Atomic Energy ства з атомної енергії щодо мир-
Agency safeguards on peaceful ного застосування ядерної радіо-
nuclear activities, активності,
By:_ Expressing their support for висловлюючи свою підтримку
research, development and other зусиллям по дослідженню, вдос-
Tide: Посада: efforts to further the application, коналенню та іншим зусиллям,
within the framework of the In- спрямованим на сприяння засто-
ternational Atomic Energy суванню в рамках системи гаран-
Agency safeguards system, of the тій Міжнародного агентства з
principle of safeguarding effec- атомної енергії принципу ефек-
202 203
tively the flow of source and тивних гарантій щодо руху вихі- Recalling the determination нагадуючи про рішучість, ви-
special fissionable materials by дних і спеціальних розщеплюва- expressed by the Parties to the словлену Учасниками Договору
use of instruments and other них матеріалів, шляхом викорис- 1963 Treaty banning nuclear про заборону випробувань ядер-
techniques at certain strategic тання приладів та інших техніч- weapon tests in the atmosphere, ної зброї в атмосфері, в косміч-
points, них засобів у ключових місцях, in outer space and under water ному просторі і під водою 1963
Affirming the principle that підтверджуючи той принцип, in its Preamble to seek to року в його преамбулі, прагнути
the benefits of peaceful applica- що блага мирного застосування achieve the discontinuance of all назавжди досягти припинення
tions of nuclear technology, in- ядерної технології, включаючи test explosions of nuclear weap- всіх випробувальних вибухів
cluding any technological by- будь-які технологічні побічні ons for all time and to continue ядерної зброї та продовжувати
products which may be derived продукти, які можуть одержати negotiations to this end, переговори з цією метою,
by nuclear-weapon States from держави, що мають ядерну Desiring to further the easing прагнучи сприяти пом'якшен-
the development of nuclear ex- зброю, від розвитку ядерних ви- of international tension and the ню міжнародної напруженості та
plosive devices, should be avail- бухових пристроїв, повинні бути strengthening of trust between зміцненню довіри між державами
able for peaceful purposes to all доступні для мирних цілей усім States in order to facilitate the з тим, щоб сприяти досягненню
Parties of the Treaty, whether державам-учасницям Договору, cessation of the manufacture of припинення виробництва ядерної
nuclear-weapon or non-nuclear як тим, що мають, так і тим, що nuclear weapons, the liquidation зброї, знищенню всіх існуючих її
weapon States, не мають ядерної зброї, of all their existing stockpiles, запасів і виключенню ядерної
Convinced that, in furtherance будучи переконаними, що на and the elimination from na- зброї та засобів її доставки з
of this principle, all Parties to the здійснення цього принципу всі tional arsenals of nuclear weap- національних арсеналів у
Treaty are entitled to participate Учасники цього Договору мають ons and the means of their de- відповідності з договором про
in the fullest possible exchange право брати участь у якомога livery pursuant to a Treaty on загальне і повне роззброєння під
of scientific information for, and повнішому обміні науковою ін- general and complete disarma- суворим і ефективним міжнаро-
to contribute alone or in формацією для дальшого розви- ment under strict and effective дним контролем,
cooperation with other States to, тку застосування атомної енергії international control,
the further development of the в мирних цілях і робити свій вне- Recalling that, in accordance нагадуючи, що відповідно до
applications of atomic energy for сок у цей розвиток одноосібно with the Charter of the United Статуту Організації Об'єднаних
peaceful purposes, або в співробітництві з іншими Nations, States must refrain in Націй держави повинні утримува-
Declaring their intention to державами, their international relations from тися в їхніх міжнародних відноси-
achieve at the earliest possible заявляючи про свій намір по the threat or use of force against нах від погрози силою або її засто-
date the cessation of the nuclear можливості швидше досягти the territorial integrity or сування як проти територіальної
arms race and to undertake ef- припинення гонки ядерних political independence of any недоторканності або політичної
fective measures in the direction озброєнь і вжити ефективних State, or in any other manner незалежності будь-якої держави,
of nuclear disarmament, заходів у напрямі ядерного роз- inconsistent with the Purposes так і у будь-який інший спосіб, не
Urging the cooperation of all зброєння, of the United Nations, and that сумісний з цілями Організації Об'-
States in the attainment of this настійно закликаючи до спів- the establishment and mainte- єднаних Націй, і сприяти встанов-
objective, робітництва всі держави у досяг- nance of international peace and ленню і підтриманню міжнарод-
ненні цієї мети, security are to be promoted with ного миру та безпеки з най-
204 205
the least diversion for arma- ons or other nuclear explosive рну зброю чи інші ядерні вибу-
меншим залученням світових
ments of the worlds human and людських сил і економічних ресур- devices; and not to seek or re- хові пристрої, так само як і не
economic resources, Have сів до справи озброєння, ceive any assistance in the добиватися і не приймати будь-
agreed as follows: manufacture of nuclear weapons якої допомоги у виробництві
погодилися про нижченаведе-
не: or other nuclear explosive de- ядерної зброї або інших ядерних
vices. вибухових пристроїв.
Article I Стаття І
Each nuclear-weapon State Article III Стаття III
Кожна з держав-учасниць цьо-
Party to the Treaty undertakes 1. Each non-nuclear-weapon (1) Кожна з держав-учасниць
го Договору, які мають ядерну
not to transfer to any recipient State Party to the Treaty under- Договору, що не мають ядерної
зброю, зобов'язується не переда-
whatsoever nuclear weapons or takes to accept safeguards, as set зброї, зобов'язується прийняти
вати будь-кому ядерну зброю чи
other nuclear explosive devices forth in an agreement to be ne- гарантії, як вони викладені в уго-
інші ядерні вибухові пристрої, а
or control over such weapons or gotiated and concluded with the ді, про яку провадитимуться пе-
також контроль над такою збро-
explosive devices directly, or International Atomic Energy реговори і яку буде укладено з
єю або вибуховими пристроями
indirectly; and not in any way to Agency in accordance with the Міжнародним агентством з
ні прямо, ні опосередковано, так
assist, encourage, or induce any Statute of the International атомної енергії відповідно до
само як і ніяким способом не до-
non-nuclear weapon State to Atomic Energy Agency and the Статуту Міжнародного агентства
помагати, не заохочувати і не
manufacture or otherwise ac- Agencies safeguards system, for з атомної енергії та системи га-
спонукати будь-яку державу, що
quire nuclear weapons or other the exclusive purpose of verifica- рантій Агентства, виключно з
не має ядерної зброї, до вироб-
nuclear explosive devices, or tion of the fulfilment of its obli- метою перевірки виконання його
ництва або здобуття у будь-який
control over such weapons or gations assumed under this зобов'язань, прийнятих відпові-
інший спосіб ядерної зброї чи
explosive devices. Treaty with a view to preventing дно до цього Договору, з тим щоб
інших ядерних вибухових при-
diversion of nuclear energy from не допустити переключення
строїв, а також до контролю над
peaceful uses to nuclear weapons ядерної енергії з мирного засто-
такою зброєю або вибуховими
or other nuclear explosive сування на ядерну зброю або інші
пристроями.
devices. ядерні вибухові пристрої.
Article II Procedures for the safeguards Процедури забезпечення гара-
Стаття II
required by this article shall be нтій, що вимагаються цією Стат-
Each non-nuclear-weapon Кожна з держав-учасниць цьо-
followed with respect to source тею, здійснюються щодо вихід-
State Party to the Treaty under- го Договору, яка не має ядерної
or special fissionable material ного чи спеціального розщеплю-
takes not to receive the transfer зброї, зобов'язується не приймати
whether it is being produced, ваного матеріалу, незалежно від
from any transferor whatsoever передавану ким би то не було
processed or used in any princi- того, чи виробляється він, обро-
of nuclear weapons or other nu- ядерну зброю чи вибухові при-
pal nuclear facility or is outside бляється чи використовується в
clear explosive devices or of con- строї та не здійснювати контроль
any such facility. The safeguards будь-якій основній ядерній уста-
trol over such weapons or explo- над такими зброєю чи пристро-
required by this article shall be новці або знаходиться за межами
sive devices directly, or indi- ями, як прямо так і опосередко-
applied to all source or special будь-якої такої установки. Гара-
rectly; not to manufacture or вано, не виробляти і не здобувати
fissionable material in all peace- нтії, що вимагаються цією Стат-
otherwise acquire nuclear weap- у будь-який інший спосіб яде-
207
ml nuclear activities within the тею, застосовуються до всього provisions of this article and the стосування гарантій, викладеним
territory of such State, under its вихідного чи спеціального роз- principle of safeguarding set у преамбулі Договору.
jurisdiction, or carried out under щеплюваного матеріалу, в усій forth in the Preamble of the
its control anywhere. мирній ядерній діяльності в ме- Treaty.
жах території такої держави, під 4. Non-nuclear-weapon States (4) Держави-учасниці Догово-
її юрисдикцією, чи здійснюваної Party to the Treaty shall con- ру, які не мають ядерної зброї,
під її контролем де б то не було. clude agreements with the In- укладають угоди з Міжнародним
2. Each State Party to the (2) Кожна з держав-учасниць ternational Atomic Energy агентством з атомної енергії з
Treaty undertakes not to pro Договору зобов'язується не нада- Agency to meet the requirements метою виконання вимог цієї
vide: (a) source or special fis вати: а) вихідного чи спеціального of this article either individually Статті або в індивідуальному по-
sionable material, or (b) equip розщеплюваного матеріалу, в) or together with other States in рядку, або спільно з іншими
ment or material especially de устаткування чи матеріалу, спеці- accordance with the Statute of державами відповідно до Статуту
signed or prepared for the proc ально призначеного або підготов- the International Atomic Energy Міжнародного агентства з
essing, use or production of spe леного для обробки, використання Agency. Negotiation of such атомної енергії. Переговори про
cial fissionable material, to any чи виробництва спеціального agreements shall commence такі угоди починаються протягом
non-nuclear-weapon State for розщеплюваного матеріалу, будь- within 180 days from the original 180 днів з часу первісного
peaceful purposes, unless the якій державі, що не має ядерної entry into force of this Treaty. набуття чинності цим Договором.
source or special fissionable ma зброї, для мирних цілей, якщо на For States depositing their Для держав, які здають на
terial shall be subject to the safe цей вихідний чи спеціальний instruments of ratification or зберігання свої ратифікаційні
guards required by this article. розщеплюваний матеріал не по- accession after the 180-day грамоти або документи про при-
ширюються гарантії, які вимага- period, negotiation of such єднання після закінчення періоду
ються цією Статтею. agreements shall commence not в 180 днів, переговори про такі
3. The safeguards required by (3) Гарантії, що вимагаються later than the date of such de- угоди починаються не пізніше
this article shall be implemented цією Статтею, здійснюються у posit. Such agreements shall en- дати такої здачі. Такі угоди набу-
in a manner designed to comply відповідності до Статті IV цього ter into force not later than вають чинності не пізніше вісім-
with article IV of this Treaty, Договору і уникати створення eighteen months after the date of надцяти місяців з дня початку
and to avoid hampering the перешкод для економічного або initiation of negotiations. переговорів.
economic or technological de технологічного розвитку Учас-
velopment of the Parties or in ників Договору чи міжнародного
ternational cooperation in the співробітництва в галузі мирної Article IV Стаття IV
field of peaceful nuclear activi ядерної діяльності, включаючи 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall (1) Ніяке положення цього
ties, including the international міжнародний обмін ядерним ма- be interpreted as affecting the Договору не слід тлумачити як
exchange of nuclear material теріалом і устаткуванням для об- inalienable right of all the Parties таке, що зачіпає невід'ємне право
and equipment for the process робки, використання або вироб- to the Treaty to develop re- всіх Учасників Договору розви-
ing, use or production of nu ництва ядерного матеріалу в ми- search, production and use of вати дослідження, виробництво
clear material for peaceful pur рних цілях відповідно до поло- nuclear energy for peaceful pur- та використання ядерної енергії в
poses in accordance with the жень цієї Статті і принципу за- poses without discrimination мирних цілях без дискримінації
208 209
and in conformity with articles I і відповідно до Статей І та II цьо- цього Договору, під
charge to such Parties for the
and II of this Treaty. го Договору. відповідним міжнародним
2. All the Parties to the Treaty explosive devices used will be as low
(2) Всі Учасники Договору зо- наглядом і шляхом
undertake to facilitate, and have as possible and exclude any charge
бов'язуються сприяти якомога відповідних міжнародних
the right to participate in, the for research and development.
повнішому обмінові устаткуван- процедур потенційні блага
fullest possible exchange of Non-nuclear-weapon States Party
ням, матеріалами, науковою і від будь-якого мирного
equipment, materials and scien- to the Treaty shall be able to obtain
технічною інформацією про ви- застосування ядерних вибухів
tific and technological informa- such benefits, pursuant to a special
користання ядерної енергії в ми- були доступні дер-жавам-
tion for the peaceful uses of nu- international agreement or
рних цілях і мають право брати учасницям цього Договору,
clear energy. Parties to the Treaty agreements, through an appropriate
участь у такому обміні. Учасники які не мають ядерної зброї, на
in a position to do so shall also international body with adequate
Договору, які спроможні робити недискримінаційній основі, і
cooperate in contributing alone or representation of non-nuclear-
це, також співпрацюють у справі щоб 210
together with other States or weapon States. Negotiations on this
сприяння окремо або спільно з subject shall commence as soon as
international organizations to the іншими державами чи міжнаро-
further development of the appli- possible after the Treaty enters into
дними організаціями дальшому force.
cations of nuclear energy for розвиткові застосування ядерної
peaceful purposes, especially in Non-nuclear-weapon States Party
енергії в мирних цілях, особливо to the Treaty so desiring may also
the territories of non-nuclear- на територіях держав-учасниць
weapon States Party to the obtain such benefits pursuant to
Договору, що не мають ядерної bilateral agreements.
Treaty, with due consideration зброї, з належним урахуванням
for the needs of the developing потреб регіонів світу, що розви-
areas of the world. ваються.

Article V Стаття V Article VI

Each party to the Treaty un
Each of the Parties to the Treaty
dertakes to take appropriate
undertakes to pursue negotiations in
measures to ensure that, in ac
good faith on effective measures
cordance with this Treaty, under
relating to cessation of the nuclear
appropriate international obser
arms race at an early date and to
vation and through appropriate
nuclear disarmament, and on a
international procedures, poten
Treaty on general and complete
tial benefits from any peaceful
disarmament under strict and
applications of nuclear explo
effective international control.
sions will be made available to
non-nuclear-weapon States
Party to the Treaty on a nondis-
criminatory basis and that the
Кожний з Учасників цього До-
говору зобов'язується вжити від-
повідних заходів з метою забезпе-
чення того, щоб відповідно до
Ar s o is Parties a a of all
вартість використовуваних вибу- ticl p Treaty to the p r nuclear
хових пристроїв для таких Учас- e e t . The Treaty p t -
ників Договору була такою низь- VI c h text of , the r i weapon
кою, як це тільки можливо, і не I t e any Depos o e States
включала витрат на їх дослідження
N i propos itary v s Party to
та вдосконалення.
othin v Ted Gover e the
Держави-учасниці цього До- e r amend n d t Treaty
g in
говору, які не мають ядерної зброї, e ment ments o and all
this
зможуть отримувати такі блага t a shall shall b other
Treat
відповідно до спеціальної e t be conve y t Parties
y
міжнародної угоди або угод через r y submit ne a h which,
affec
відповідний міжнародний орган, в r ted to confe a e on the
ts the
якому належно представлені i mthe r m date
right
держави, що не мають ядерної t a Depos ence, a T the
of
зброї. Переговори з цього питання o y itary to j r amend
any
почнуться так швидко, як це r Gover which o e ment is
grou
можливо, після набуття чинності i p nment they r a circulat
p of
цим Договором. e rs shall i t ed, are
State
Держави-учасниці цього До- s o which invite t y membe
s to
говору, які не мають ядерної зброї, . p shall all y , rs of
concl
коли вони побажають цього, o circula the i the
ude
можуть також отримувати такі Ar s te it to Parties o n Board
regio
блага відповідно до двосторонніх ticl e all to the f c of Gov
nal
угод. e Par Treaty t l ernors
treati
es in VI a ties to , to
h u of the
Стаття VI II mthe con e d Internat
order
Кожний Учасник цього Дого- 1 e Treaty sider v i ional
to
вору зобов'язується в дусі доброї . n. such o n Atomic
assur
волі вести переговори про ефек- d There an t g Energy
e the
тивні заходи по припиненню гонки A mupon, amend e Agency
total
ядерних озброєнь у найближчому n e if ment. s t . The
abse
майбутньому і ядерному y n reques 2. o h amend
nce
роззброєнню, а також про договір t ted to f e ment
of
про загальне і повне роззброєння P s do so Any a shall
nucle
під суворим і ефективним a by amend l v enter
ar
міжнародним контролем. weap r t one- ment l o into
ons t o third to this t t force
211 in y or Treaty h e for
their t more must e s each
re- t h of the be P Party
that ч регіона запр Д фсників учасн н о ацію
С
deposit і льні опон о е Догов иць а в попра-
т
s п догово ован г р ору цього б о 12
а
its а ри з ої о е для Догов у р
т
instru є метою попр в н розгля ору, у
т
ment п забезпе авки о ц ду що в ,
я
of р чення пода р і такої мают а я
ratifica V ється у юпо
а повної ь є к
tion of I уряд , , правк
в відсутн ядер ч и
I ам- и.
а ості ну и й
Н депо у н (2)
б ядерної зброю н
і зитар р а
у зброї , і н з
я іям, я Будь-
д на їх всіх о д
к котрі д я яка
ь відпові інших с а
е розс и к попра
- дних Учасн т є
п илаю - у вка до
я територ иків і
о ть д цьо
к іях. Догов д с
л його е в го
о ору, л в
о всім п о Догов
ї Стат що є я о
ж Учас о нору
г тя члена ю
е ника з иповин
р VIII ми к
н м и на
у (1) Прав о г
н Дого т з бути
п ління ж р
я вору. а а за
и Будь- Міжн н а
ц який Поті р птверд
ародн о м
ь Учасни м, і р жена
д ого г о
о к цього якщо ї о більш
е агент о т
г Догово цьог шістю
р ства з у
о ру о с у голосі
ж атомн У
Д може вима к юв усіх
а гати л т ої ч п
о запроп Учасн
в ме и ь енергі а р
г онуват иків
у одна к ї на с о
о и Догов
к трети а у дату
в поправ ору,
л на ю с розси н р
о ки до включ
а або т і лки и а
р цього аючи
д біль ь х такої к т
у Догово голос
а ше попра а и
н ру.
е
т
Текст Учас к Уи всіх вки. Д ф
з
и
будь- ни о ч держа Попр о і
а якої ків н а в- авка г к
the s d he to p . major the в к Дого-
amend w , Internat the r A ity of Treat к а вору,
ment h a ional Trea o t the y. и ц включ
upon i r Atomic ty v i Partie , і аючи
the c e Energy shall i n s to Ar п й ратифі
de- h Agency be s t the tic і н каційн
posit , m . held i e Treat le с и і
of o e Thereaf in o r y may IX л х грамот
such n m ter, it Gene n v obtain 1. я и всіх
instru b shall va, s a , by T г держа
ments t e enter Swit o l sub- hi з р в-
of h r into zer- f s mittin s д а учасни
ratific e s force land, t g a Tr а м ць
ation d for any in h o propo ea ч о цього
by a a o other orde e f sal to ty і т Догов
majori t f Party r to this sh н ору,
ty of e t upon revie T f effect all а б що
all the t h the w r i to the be і мають
Partie h e deposit the e v Depo op з л ядерну
s, e of its op- a e sitary en б ь зброю,
includ a B instru- erati t Gover to е ш і всіх
ing m o ment of on of y y nment р і інших
the in- e a ratificat this e s, the і с Учасн
strum n r ion of Treat a a conve г т иків
ents d d the y r r ning а ю Догов
of amend with e s of н ору,
ratific m o ment. a furthe н в які є
ation e f 3. view b t r я с члена
of all n G Five to e h Con- і ми
nuclea t o years assur i e ferenc т х Прав-
r- i v after ing n r es а ління
weapo s e the that g e with к У Міжна
n c r entry the a the и ч родног
States i n into purp r f same х а о
Party r o force oses e - object с агентс
to the c r of this of a t ive of р н тва з
Treaty u s Treaty, the l e revie а и атомн
and l a con- Prea i r wing т к ої
all a o ference mble z , the и і енергії
other t f of and e a operat ф в , на
Partie e t Parties the d ion of і дату
розси б ц Догов шля к о Дого
лки у а ору хом о ю вір.
цієї т р для пода н
попра т і розгля ння р
вки. я я ду про ф о
Надал ) того, пози е з Ст
і вона ч як діє ції з р г атт
набу- и с цей цією е л я
ває н к Догові ме- н я IX
чинно н л р, щоб тою ц - (1)
сті о и мати уряд і д Це
для с к впевне ам- й у й
будь- т а ність у депо До
якого і є тому, зита з т го
ін- ц т що ріям о ві
шого и ь цілі, , т г р
Учасн м с виклад доб і о ві
ика я ені в и- є , дк
Догов Д пре- тися ю я ри
ору о к амбулі скли к ти
після г о , та канн ж й
здачі о н полож я д дл
ним в ф ення пода м і я
на о е Догово льш е є 213
зберіг р р ру их т
ання о е здійсн
своєї м н юютьс
грамо ц я.
ти у і Через
про я кожні
ратиф Ж на-
ікаці е У ступні
ю н ч п'ять
попр е а років
авки. в с більші
(3) і н сть
Через ( и Уча-
п'ять Ш к сників
років в і Догово
після е в ру
на- й може,
І
І
all States for signature. Any State підписання всіма державами. their instruments of ratification мот або документів про приєд-
which does not sign the Treaty Будь-яка держава, яка не підпи- or accession. нання.
before its entry into force in ac- ше Договір до набуття ним чин- 5. The Depositary Govern- (5) Уряди-депозитарії безвідк-
cordance with paragraph 3 of ності, відповідно до пункту (3) ments shall prompdy inform all ладно повідомляють всі держави,
this article may accede to it at цієї Статті, може приєднатися до signatory and acceding States of які підписали цей Договір і при
any time. нього в будь-який час. the date of each signature, the єдналися до нього, про дату ко
2. This Treaty shall be subject (2) Цей Договір підлягає ра- date of deposit of each instru- жного підписання, дату здачі на
to ratification by signatory тифікації державами, які підписа- ment of ratification or of acces- зберігання кожної ратифікацій
States. Instruments of ratification ли його. Ратифікаційні грамоти і sion, the date of the entry into ної грамоти або документа про
and instruments of accession документи про приєднання зда- force of this Treaty, and the date приєднання, дату набуття чинно
shall be deposited with the ються на зберігання урядам Сою- of receipt of any requests for сті цим Договором, дату одер
Governments of the United зу Радянських Соціалістичних convening a conference or other жання будь-яких вимог щодо
States of America, the United Республік, Сполученого Королів- notices. скликання конференції, а також
Kingdom of Great Britain and ства Великої Британії та Північної про інші повідомлення.
Northern Ireland and the Union Ірландії і Сполучених Штатів 6. This Treaty shall be regis- (6) Цей Договір реєструється
of Soviet Socialist Republics, Америки, котрі цим признача- tered by the Depositary Gov- урядами-депозитаріями відпові
which are hereby designated the ються урядами-депозитаріями. ernments pursuant to article 102 дно до Статті 102 Статуту Орга
Depositary Governments. (3) Цей Договір набуває чин- of the Charter of the United Na- нізації Об'єднаних Націй.
3. This Treaty shall enter into ності після його ратифікації tions.
force after its ratification by the державами, уряди яких призна-
States, the Governments of which чені депозитаріями Договору, і Article X Стаття X
are designated Depositaries of the сорока іншими державами, що 1. Each Party shall in exercis- (1) Кожний Учасник цього До-
Treaty, and forty other States sig- підписали цей Договір, та здачі ing its national sovereignty have говору в порядку здійснення сво-
natory to this Treaty and the de- ними на зберігання ратифікацій- the right to withdraw from the го державного суверенітету має
posit of their instruments of rati- них грамот. Для цілей цього До- Treaty if it decides that extraor- право вийти з Договору, коли він
fication. For the purposes of this говору державою, що має ядерну dinary events, related to the sub- вирішить, що пов'язані зі змістом
Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is зброю, є держава, яка виробила і ject matter of this Treaty, have цього Договору виняткові обста-
one which has manufactured and підірвала ядерну зброю або ін- jeopardized the supreme inter- вини поставили під загрозу най-
exploded a nuclear weapon or ший ядерний вибуховий пристрій ests of its country. It shall give вищі інтереси його країни. Про
other nuclear explosive device до 1 січня 1967 року. notice of such withdrawal to all такий вихід він повідомляє за три
prior to January 1, 1967. (4) Для держав, ратифікаційні other Parties to the Treaty and to місяці всіх Учасників Договору і
4. For States whose instru грамоти або документи про the United Nations Security Раду Безпеки Організації Об'єд-
ments of ratification or acces приєднання яких будуть здані на Council three months in ad- наних Націй. Таке повідомлення
sion are deposited subsequent to зберігання після набуття чиннос- vance. Such notice shall include повинно містити заяву про виня-
the entry into force of this ті цим Договором, він набуває a statement of the extraordinary ткові обставини, які він розглядає
Treaty, it shall enter into force чинності в день здачі на збері- events it regards as having jeop- як такі, що поставили під загрозу
on the date of the deposit of гання їхніх ратифікаційних гра- ardized its supreme interests. його найвищі інтереси.
14 215
2. Twenty-five years after the (2) Через двадцять п'ять років TRANSLATE INTO UKRAINIAN
entry into force of the Treaty, a після набуття Договором чинно-
conference shall be convened to сті скликається конференція для
decide whether the Treaty shall того, щоб вирішити, чи повинен 1. Occasionally, I was led to conclude that shorter, clearer statements
continue in force indefinitely, or Договір далі залишатися чинним of techniques could have been provided.
shall be extended for an addi- безстроково чи його дія повинна
tional fixed period or periods. бути продовжена на додатковий 2. One can hardly object to this as a sort of first approach.
This decision shall be taken by a певний період або періоди часу.
majority of the Parties to the Це рішення приймається більші- 3. Rumour has it that some Labour insurrection was demanding for
Treaty. стю Учасників Договору. Foreign Secretary's head and that he had to return from the Hague to
quell it.
Article XI Стаття XI
This Treaty, the English, Rus- Цей Договір, російський, анг- 4. Science is a continuing process and at no stage can one say that one's
sian, French, Spanish and Chi- лійський, французький, іспансь- knowledge is complete and final.
nese texts of which are equally кий і китайський тексти якого є
authentic, shall be deposited однаково автентичними, здається 5. She shrugged an indifferent shoulder.
in the archives of the Depositary на зберігання до архівів уря-дів-
Governments. Duly certified депозитаріїв. Належним чином 6. Specifically, explaining the data in terms of these principles may
copies of this Treaty shall be завірені копії цього Договору purchase internal homogeneity and consistency in the picture at the
transmitted by the Depositary надсилаються урядами- expense of their perhaps wider significances.
Governments to the Govern- депозитаріями урядам держав, які
ments of the signatory and ac- підписали Договір та приєд- 7. The Chancellor of the Exchequer shrugged off the unemployment
ceding States. налися до нього. figures as «swollen».
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the На посвідчення чого нижче-
undersigned, duly authorized, підписані, належним чином на те 8. They were snorting out of West Bowlby now. It was the next station,
have signed this Treaty. thank Heaven.
уповноважені, підписали цей
Договір.
9. This considered, there arises the same question of whether we
DONE in triplicate, at the cit- Вчинено у трьох примірниках, should allow for one or more than one solution.
ies of Washington, London and у містах Москві, Вашингтоні і
Moscow, this first day of July Лондоні липня місяця 1 дня ти- 10. This is not to deny, of course, that he is absolutely correct in this
one thousand nine hundred sixty- сяча дев'ятсот шістдесят восьмо- respect.
eight. го року.
Верховна Рада України, Інститут 11. This test is most unreliable; it should never, I think be used as the
законодавства sole criterion for a classification, though it can support a classifica-
«Закони України», том 14. tion established on other criteria.

216 217
12. Unless he has massively misrepresented the data, his proposed solu-
24. It is unfortunate that an English translation of the monograph could
tions appear to be statistically well-grounded. not have been published instead of an uncorrected reprint of the
original.
13. We would like to think that this is one of the more fruitful potential
arenas in which this original concept could be put to work in the fu- 25. It was not until he has read for several days that he came upon a
ture. story that quickened his pulse.
14. With these methodological preliminaries out of the way, let us turn
26. It was not, in fact, until the death after a month in office of President
now to specific task of applying new techniques.
William Henry Harrison in that the constitutional system was tested,
and its ambiguities exposed.
15. A conference held at the University of New Hampshire in October
produced this book. 27. My main complaint is with the editors, who should have done more
to link the authors' contributions to questions and issues that lie at
16. «Ready?» said the old gentleman inquiringly, when his guests had the centre of the debate.
been washed, mended, brushed, and brandied.
28. Nevertheless, it will be useful to begin this survey with those proc-
17. As is obvious from the proceeding discussion, her arguments against esses that are in fact associated with the elimination of dislocations.
my approach are not only naive, but are also based on an incorrect These are of two distinct types.
interpretation of the basic fact.
29. Results strongly suggest that these observations do not match com-
18. But how adequate is this assessment? There seem to be two points monly held perceptions.
regarding this position that are worth questioning.
30. The account I have offered of this phenomenon is in some ways
19. But of course all this energy and innovation did not spring at one rather remote from traditional discussions.
kangaroo-bound out of a night at the Australian opera.
31. The auditors' report confirmed a stream of mysterious payments to
20. By intensive experiments, it is possible for a researcher to obtain
Switzerland, many after the Indian contract had been entered into.
outstanding results.
32. The author offered explanations of his methods; but they are brief
21. Grouped under this topic are very diverse questions. and one is left to figure out his conceptual methodology.
22. If Oakland office hadn't been affected by the quake, it wouldn't have
33. The new American Express Optima card will complement, rather
executed orders through the Sacramento office, which wasn't af- than replace, the existing green, gold and platinum cards.
fected by the quake.
34. The point that has just been made is often presented as if it were a
23. It is in these terms that choice is built into the argument: choice ex- damaging point of criticism against my theory.
ists in a range of alternatives in any interaction.
218
219
35. The text appears to have been prepared by non-native speakers of SHEVCHENKO'S POETRY IN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
English, which results in some linguistic oddities.

36. The Times yesterday warned editorially that the government was MY TESTAMENT
going to resign.
When I am dead, bury me
37. The value of his research is certainly not to be underestimated.
In my beloved Ukraine,
My tomb upon a grave mound high
38. There is the greatest future for the Britain people once they take their
Amid the spreading plain,
destinies into their own hands.
So that the fields, the boundless steppes,
The Dnieper's plunging shore
39. This is bound to get me a bad name as a sportsman, but let me say at
My eyes could see, my ears could hear
once that I have nothing against the killing of animals.
The mighty river roar.
When from Ukraine the Dnieper bears
40. This needs to be viewed as an inherent quality.
Into the deep blue sea
The blood of foes... then will I leave
41. Translating from one language to another has been accomplished by
These hills and fertile fields -
computer.
I'll leave them all and fly away
To the abode of God,
42. Unless they can push these corporate welfare plans through, the lib-
And then I'll pray.... But till that day
erals will be stuck for the foreseeable future with the priorities im-
I nothing know of God.
posed on them by the Reagan administration.
Oh bury me, then rise ye up
And break your heavy chains
43. Various formalizations of the vicious circle principle as well as the
And water with the tyrants' blood
point at which the continuum is impredictive are discussed.
The freedom you have gained.
And in the great new family,
44. We are confident peace can be maintained once the determination is
The family of the free,
there. With sofdy spoken, kindly word
Remember also me.
45. Working under hard conditions were all the early students of this
new field. Pereyaslav,
December 25, 1845

Translated by John Weir

Toronto, 1961
220 221
Day dawns, then comes the twilight grey, True justice, strength, and liberty!
The limit of the live-long day; For weary Gain knowledge, brothers! Think and read,
people sleep seems best And all God's And to your neighbours' gifts pay heed, -
creatures go to rest. I, only, grieve like Yet do not thus neglect your own:
one accursed, Through all the hours both For he who is forgetful shown
last and first, Sad at the crossroads, day Of his own mother, graceless elf,
and night, With no one there to see my Is punished by our God Himself.
plight; No one can see me, no one knows Strangers will turn from such as he
me; All men are deaf, no ears disclose me; And grudge him hospitality -
Men stand and trade their mutual chains Nay, his own children grow estranged;
And barter truth for filthy gains, Though one so evil may have ranged
Committing shame against the Lord By The whole wide earth, he shall not find
harnessing for black reward People in A home to give him peace of mind.
yokes and sowing evil In fields Sadly I weep when I recall
commissioned by the Devil... And what The unforgotten deeds of all
will sprout? You soon will see What kind Our ancestors: their toilsome deeds!
of harvest there will be! Come to your Could I forget their pangs and needs,
senses, ruthless ones, О stupid children, I, as my price, would than suppress
Folly's sons! And bring that peaceful Half of my own life's happiness...
paradise, Your own Ukraine, before your Such is our glory, sad and plain,
eyes; Then let your heart, in love sincere, The glory of our own Ukraine!
Embrace her mighty ruin here! Break I would advise you so to read
then your chains, in love unite, Nor seek That you may see, in very deed,
in foreign lands the sight Of things not No dream but all the wrongs of old
even found above, Still less in lands that That burial mounds might here unfold
strangers love... Then in your own house Before your eyes in martyred hosts,
you will see That you might ask those grisly ghosts:
Who were the tortured ones, in fact,
And why, and when, were they so racked?...
222 223
Then o my brothers, as a start, Come, IT MAKES NO DIFFERENCE TO ME
clasp your brothers to your heart, -So let
your mother smile with joy And dry her It makes no difference to me, If I
tears without annoy. Blest be your shall live or not in Ukraine Or
children in these lands By touch of your whether any one shall think Of me
toil-hardened hands, And, duly washed, 'mid foreign snow and rain. It makes
no difference to me. In slavery I
kissed let them be With lips that speak of
grew 'mid strangers, Unwept by any
liberty! Then all the shame of days of old,
kin of mine; In slavery I now will
Forgotten, shall no more be told; Then die And vanish without any sign. I
shall our day of hope arrive, Ukrainian shall not leave the slightest trace
glory shall revive, No twilight but the Upon our glorious Ukraine, Our
dawn shall render And break forth into land, but not as ours known. No
novel splendour.... Brother, embrace! father will remind his son Or say to
him, «Repeat one prayer, One
Your hopes possess, I beg you in all
prayer for him; for our Ukraine
eagerness!
They tortured him in their foul lair.»
It makes no difference to me, If that
Viunishcha, December 14, 1845 son says a prayer or not. It makes
great difference to me That evil folk
TransLated by С H. Andrusyshen & W. Kirkconnell
and wicked men Attack our Ukraine,
once so free, And rob and plunder it
at will. That makes great difference
to me.

St. Petersburg
Citadel Prison
May, 1847

Translated by Clarence A. Manning

Columbia University New York, 1944
224 225
I WAS THIRTEEN Not far from there, down by the path,
Heard my lament and came
I was thirteen. I herded lambs Across the field to comfort me;
Beyond the village on the lea. She spoke a soothing phrase
The magic of the sun, perhaps, And gently dried my weeping eyes
Or what was it affected me? And kissed my tear-wet face....
I felt with joy all overcome, It was as though the sun had smiled,
As though with God.... As though all things on earth were mine,
The time for lunch had long passed by, My own.... the orchards, fields and groves!...
And still among the weeds I lay And, laughing merrily the while,
And prayed to God.... I know not why The master's lambs to drink we drove.
It was so pleasant then to pray Oh, how disgusting!... Yet, when I
For me, an orphan peasant boy, Recall those days, my heart is sore
Or why such bliss so filled me there? That there my brief life's span the Lord
The sky seemed bright, the village fair, Did not grant me to live and die.
The very lambs seemed to rejoice! There, plowing, I'd have passed away,
The sun's rays warmed but did not sear! With ignorance my life-long lot,
But not for long the sun stayed kind, I'd not an outcast be today,
Not long in bliss I prayed.... I'd not be cursing Man and God!...
It turned into a ball of fire
And set the world ablaze. Orsk Fortress,
As though just wakened up, I gaze: 1847
The hamlet's drab and poor,
And God's blue heavens -even they Translated by John Weir
Are glorious no more. Toronto, 1961
I look upon the lambs I tend -
Those lambs are not my own!
I eye the hut wherein I dwell -
I do not have a home!
God gave me nothing, naught at all....
I bowed my head and wept
Such bitter tears.... And then a lass57
Who had been sorting hemp
Oksana Kovalenko to whom Shevchenko dedicated the Poem to Oksana,
May 1847 while in prison in the St. Petersburg Citadel.
226 227
SHEVCHENKO'S LAST POEM Thou, my holy bride,
And with lips unsullied we shall
Should we not then cease, my friend, Make our prayer to God,
My poor dear neighbour, make an end And then set out quietly
Of versifying useless rhymes? On that longest road,
Prepare our waggons for the time Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
When we that longest road must wend? Waters dark and swarthy,
Into the other world, my friend, Grant me then thy blessing, friend,
To God, we'll hasten to our rest... With thy holy glory.
We have grown weary, utter-tired, While this and that and all such wear on,
A little wisdom we've acquired, Straight let us go, as the crow flies,
It should suffice! To sleep is best, To Aesculapeus for advice,
Let us now go home to rest... If he can outwit old Charon
A home of gladness, you may know! And spinning Fate... And then, as long as
No, let us not depart, nor go — The old sage would change his purpose,
It is early still, We would create, reclining there,
We shall yet take walks together, An epic, soaring everywhere
Sit, and gaze our fill, Above the earth, hexameters
Gaze upon the world, my fortune, We'd twine, and up the attic stairs
See how wide it spreads, Take them for mice to gnaw. Then we
Wide and joyful, it is both Would sing prose, yet with harmony
Bright, and of great depth! And not haphazard.
We shall yet take walks my star, Holy friend,
On a hill climb high, Companion to my journey's end,
And take our rest together.....And Before the fire has ceased to glow,
Your sister-stars, meanwhile, The Let us to Charon, rather, go!
ageless ones, will start to shine, Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
Through the heavens glide... Let us Waters dark and swarthy,
linger then, my sister, Let us sail, let us bear
228 229
With us holy glory, A REFLECTION
Ageless, young for evermore...
Or -friend, let it be! The river empties to the sea,
I will do without the glory, But out it never flows;
The Cossack lad his fortune seeks,
Iftheygrantitme,
But never fortune knows.
There on the banks of Phlegethon,
The Cossack lad has left his home,
Or beside the Styx, in heaven, He's left his kith and kind;
As if by the broad Dnipro, there The blue sea's waters splash and foam,
In a grove, a grove primaeval, Sad thoughts disturb his mind:
A little house I'll build, and make «Why, heedless, did you go away?
An orchard all around it growing, For what did you forsake
And you'll fly to me in the shades, Your father old, your mother grey,
Your sweetheart, to their fate?
There, like a beauty, I'll enthrone you;
In foreign lands live foreign folks,
Dnipro and Ukraina we Their ways are not your way:
Shall recollect, gay villages There will be none to share your woes
In woodlands, gravehills in the steppes, Or pass the time of day.»
And we shall sing right merrily. Across the sea, the Cossack rests —
The choppy sea's distraught.
February 14-15, 1861 St. He thought with fortune to be blessed —
Petersburg Misfortune is his lot.
In vee-formation, 'cross the waves
Translated by Vera Rich The cranes are off for home.
London, 1961 The Cossack weeps - his beaten paths
With weeds are overgrown...

St. Petersburg, 1838

Translated by John Weir

Toronto
230 231
MYTHOUGHTS RUDYARD KIPLING РЕДЬЯРД КІПЛІНҐ
IF ЯКЩО
My thorny thoughts, my thorny thoughts, If you can keep your head when all Як вистоїш, коли всі проти тебе-
You bring me only woe! about you Упали духом і тебе кленуть, і Як
Are losing theirs and blaming it on всупереч усім ти віриш в себе, А
Why do you on the paper stand
you, з їх невіри також візьмеш суть;
So sadly row on row?... If you can trust yourself when all
Why did the winds not scatter you men doubt you,
Like dust across the steppes? But make allowance for their
Why did ill-luck not cradle you doubting too;
To sleep upon its breast?... If you can wait and not be tired by Якщо чекати зможеш ти не-
My thoughts, my melancholy thoughts, waiting, втомно,
My children, tender shoots! Or being lied about, don't deal in Оббріханий - мовчати і пройти
I nursed you, brought you up - and now lies, Під поглядом ненависті, притому
Or being hated, don't give way to Не грати цноти ані доброти;
What shall I do with you?... hating,
Go to Ukraine, my homeless waifs! And yet don't look too good, nor
Your way make to Ukraine talk too wise;
Як зможеш мріять -в
Along back roads like vagabonds, If you can dream - and not make мрійництво не впасти, І
But I'm doomed here to stay. dreams your master; думать - не творити думки
There you will find a heart that's true If you can think - and not make культ,
And words of welcome kind, thoughts your aim; Якщо Тріумф, зарівно як Не-
There honesty, unvarnished truth If you can meet with Triumph and щастя, Сприймеш як дим і вітер
Disaster на віку;
And, maybe, fame you'll find...
And treat those two imposters just
So welcome them, my Motherland, the same;
Ukraine, into your home! Якщо стерпиш, як з правди твого
Accept my guileless, simple brood If you can bear to hear the truth слова
And take them for your own! you've spoken Пройдисвіт ставить пастку на
Twisted by knaves to make a trap простих,
St. Petersburg, 1839. for fools, Якщо впаде все, чим ти жив, і
Or watch the things you gave your знову Зумієш все почати - і
Translated by John Weir life to, broken, звести;
And stoop and build 'em up with
worn-out tools;
232
If you can make one heap of all Якщо ти зможеш в пориві од- ЛІНА КОСТЕНКО LINA KOSTENKO
your winnings ному
And risk it on one turn of pitch and Поставить все на карту - і про- Затінок, сутінок, день золотий. A shady spot, twilight, a golden day.
toss, грать, Плачуть і моляться білі тро- White roses cry and pray.
And lose, and start again at your А потім - все спочатку, і нікому янди. Perhaps it's me, or someone, or you
beginnings Про втрати й слова навіть не Може це я, або хто, або ти ось over there sitting in a corner of the
And never breathe a word about сказать; там сидить у куточку веранди. veranda.
your loss; Може, він плаче, а може, він Perhaps he's crying, or waiting -
жде- he heard footsteps, or the wicket gate
If you can force your heart and Якщо ти змусиш Серце, Нерви,
кроки почулись чи скрипнула squeaked.
nerve and sinew Жили
хвіртка. Perhaps he'll get up, hang his head,
To serve your turn long after they Служити ще, коли уже в тобі
Може, він встане, чолом при- there, on the veranda, pressed to the
are gone, Усе згоріло, вигасло - лишилась
паде, door.
And so hold on when there is noth- Одна лиш Воля - встоять в бо-
там, на веранді, чолом до Where are you, people, who used to
ing in you ротьбі;
одвірка. live in this house?
Except the Will which says to them:
Де ж ви, ті люди, що в хаті My wide world, what flat lands lie
«Hold on!»
жили? here all around!
If you can talk with crowds and Як зможеш гідно річ вести з юр- Світку мій білий, яке тут роз- The sadness of posterity - like the
keep your virtue, бою долля! dance of a bee,
Or walk with kings - nor lose the І з Королем не втратиш просто- Смуток нащадків - як танець the dance of the bee to the immortal
common touch, ти, бджоли, field.
If neither foes nor loving friends Якщо усі рахуються з тобою -На танець бджоли до безсмертно- Perhaps after a thousand years -
can hurt you, відстані, яку відміриш ти; го поля. Може, це вже через I will not be me, but awakened in
If all men count with you, but none тисячу літ genes,
too much; here on the earth I will seek out the
If you can fill the unforgiving min- я і не я вже, розбуджена в ге- trace
Якщо ущерть наповниш біг хви-
ute нах, of my lineage at least in laments and
лини
With sixty seconds' worth of dis- тут на землі я шукаю хоч слід legends!
Снагою дум, енергією дій, Тоді
tance run, роду мого у плачах та леген- Voice of the well, why have you gone
весь світ тобі належить, сину, І
Yours is the Earth and everything дах! silent?
більше: ти - Людина, сину мій.
that's in it, Голос криниці, чого ж ти за- Arms of mulberry trees, why have
And - which is more - you'll be a мовк? you
Man, my son! Руки шовковиць, чого ж ви grown stiff with cold?
Переклад Євгена Сверстюка
заклякли? Вікна забиті, і Windows nailed shut, and the lock
висить замок - hanging -
a rusty ring above the claw of the
234 knob.
235
ржава сережка над кігтиком Rainy weather beats the white side of
клямки. the building. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Білий причілок оббила сльота. Who wails there in this house in the
Хто там квилить у цій хаті но- nights? PREFACE..............................................................................................................5
чами? Perhaps loneliness lives there alone, Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC WORLD..............................7
Може, живе там сама самота, stuffing the empty house in the oven Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS AND SYNTAGMAS............14
соває пустку у піч рогачами. with tongs. Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.....................21
Може, це біль наш, а може, вина, Perhaps this is our pain, perhaps our Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION..........................................................30
може, бальзам на занедбані душі- guilt,
Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES..................................................40
спогад криниці і спогад вікна, perhaps a balsam for neglected souls -
спогад стежини і дикої груші... Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING..............................................................49
memory of a well and memory of a
window, Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE AND EQUIVALENTS...............58
memory of a path and a wild pear... Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE............................................................68
Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION.....................................78
Translated by Michael M. Naydan Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES..................................................90
Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF
EQUIVALENTS.......................................................................................101
Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES.........................................................Ill
Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION..........................................................119
Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH.................................................127
Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS AND TRAINING
METHODS...............................................................................................137
Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION............151
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS: TEXT
FRAMES...................................................................................................164
Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS:
GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS....................................................................177
APPENDIX. TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING
MATERIAL..............................................................................................190
236 237
Навчальне видання

Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха,

М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон

ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ
Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу для
факультетів та інститутів міжнародних відносин
Мірам Г.Е. та ін. М63 Основи перекладу: Курс лекцій; Навчальний
посібник - К.: Ельга, Ніка-Центр, 2002. - 240 с ISBN 966-521-160-9
Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною ку-
рсу лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу, призначеного для студентсь-
Редактор англіїського тексту Н. Брешко кої аудиторії відповідних факультетів вищих навчальних закладів, вра-
ховує мовну та комунікативну специфіку підготовки спеціалістів ши-
рокого гуманітарного профіля, зокрема, міжнародних відносин, між-
Оригінал-макет О.В.Гашенко народного права, міжнародної інформації, міжнародних економічних
відносин.
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