Contents

Preface

The main source of inspiration for writing this book is my students. Although the growth
of microwave communication field goes beyond the horizon, students must get the
technical knowledge in easy style simple manner. Even though many pioneers who have
written books on this topic, it is our small step to meet our students need for various
examinations. This book covers the undergraduate level of engineering in this field. we
are eager to receive the comments and suggestions to the improvements of the book.

Salai Thillai Thilagam.J

Acknowledgements

Author would like to thank our honourable Director Sri Dr.P. JAYARAMI REDDY for
providing us good facility and environment for writing the book.

Author express profound thanks to Sri Dr.B.SREENIVASA REDDY, Principal of G.Pulla

Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool, for providing necessary motivation extended to
complete the publishing successfully.

Author express heartfelt thanks to Sri. Dr. K.SURESH REDDY, Head of the Department,
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, G.Pulla Reddy Engineering
college, Kurnool for permitting us to pursue and complete the book publishing
successfully.

Author wish to express deep sense of gratitude to all our professors, friends, colleagues of
ECE Department, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool, who has been a source of
inspiration throughout the period and for the valuable advice at every stage of this work.

Author thank Thangapasumai, for typesetting the handwritten materials, without her this
work won't be realized and the publishers for their valuable assistance and
encouragement towards bringing the book.
Microwave Engineering

Syllabus

Unit-I

Introduction to Microwave Engineering: Guided Waves and Wave Guides, Microwave

frequencies advantages and applications, Rectangular and circular wave guides. Wave
equations rectangular and circular wave guides for TE and TM modes, Cut-off frequency and
wave length, Group and phase velocity, Wave impedance, Guide attenuation, Rectangular
and cylindrical resonators, Q of the resonators.

Unit-II

Passive Microwave Devices: Introduction to Scattering parameters and its properties,

Derivation of S- matrix for E-plane, H-plane, Magic tee, directional couplers, Hybrid ring.
Microwave propagation in ferrites, Faraday rotation, Gyrator, Circulator and isolators.

Unit- III

Microwave Tubes-I: Velocity modulation, Current modulation, Operation and performance

of two-Cavity klystron, Reflex klystron oscillator.

Unit-IV

Microwave Tubes-II : Travelling wave tube (TWT) amplifier. Magnetron: Magnetron- mode
separation, frequency pushing and frequency pulling and applications.

Unit-V

Microwave Solid State Devices: PIN diode, Varactor diode, Gunn effect, GUNN diode,
IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT Diodes, Parametric amplifier- Principle and characteristics.

Unit-VI

Microwave Measurements: Bolometric and thermocouple methods for measurement of

power, Frequency, Attenuation, VSWR, Impedance measurements and measurement of
scattering parameter For 3 and 4 port devices.
List of Abbreviations

dB - Decibel

GHz - Giga Hertz

TE - Transverse Electric

TM - Transverse Magnetic

Q - Quality Factor

S-matrix - Scattering matrix

RKO - Reflex Klystron Oscillator

TWT - Travelling Wave Tube

PIN diode - P intrinsic N diode

IMPATT - Impact Avalanche Transit Time

TRAPATT - Trapped Plasma Avalanche Transit Time

BARITT - Barrier Injected Transit Time

VSWR - Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Microwave frequencies advantages and applications

1.3 Guided Waves and Wave Guides

1.4 Rectangular and circular wave guides

1.5 Wave equations rectangular wave guides for TE and TM modes, Cut-off frequency
and wave length, Group and phase velocity, Wave impedance

1.6 Wave equations circular wave guides for TE and TM modes, Cut-off frequency and
wave length, Group and phase velocity, Wave impedance,

1.7 Guide attenuation,

1.8 Rectangular and cylindrical resonators, Q of the resonators.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Microwave Engineering

It is a study of Engineering in Electronics and Communication. It explores the

electromagnetic waves from around 1000 Mega hertz (MHz). i.e., 1 Giga hertz (GHz) to
several Giga hertz (GHz). Microwave oscillators, microwave amplifiers, transmission of
microwaves through waveguides and microwave measurements are studied in this subject.

1.2 MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION

Microwave Frequencies

Microwaves are electromagnetic waves, whose frequencies are in the range of GHz. The
range varies from 1 GHz to several GHz.

GHz - Giga Hertz = 10+9Hz

𝑐𝑐 3×10 8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
Wavelength = 𝑓𝑓 = 10 9 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
= 0.33𝑚𝑚

1.3 GUIDED WAVES AND WAVE GUIDES

Guided waves - Waves that are guided along the wires, coaxial transmission lines, wave
guides, earth surface from a radio transmitter to the receiving point.
Waveguides - Wave Guides are physical structure made by solid metal in the form of
rectangular shape or circular cylinder shape to guide the wave.

Prerequisite- Transmission Lines

What is the wavelength at 10 GHz? λ=3cm

Microwave Sources are microwave generators. The sources which generate or oscillate
Microwaves is known as microwave sources. Microwaves are produced by Gunn diode, Pin
diode, IMPATT diode, Reflex Klystron Tube, etc.
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one
meter to one mm. with frequencies between 300MHz (100cm) and 300GHz (0.1cm). This
definition includes both UHF and EHF bands.

Frequencies in microwave range are referred to by their IEEE radar band designation. The
microwave frequencies are classified as in the following bands,

L band, S band, C band, X band, Ku band, K band, and Ka band.

Characteristics of Microwaves

Microwaves are invisible waves. They have small, shorter wavelengths. Microwaves travel
by line of sight (LOS) communication.

Advantages

Microwaves are easily produced from Gunn diode and Reflex klystron tubes.

They can be amplified, guided, transmitted and received.

Disadvantages

Microwaves are produced by the costly equipments.

They are supervised by skilled technicians.

No direct measurement of microwaves by voltmeter are available.

Applications

1. Microwaves are used for point to point communication links.

2. Wireless Networks.
3. Microwave radio relay Networks
4. Radar communication
5. Satellite communication
6. Space craft communication
7. Medical Diathermy
8. Cancer treatment
9. Remote Sensing
10. Radio Astronomy
11. Particle accelerators
12. Spectroscopy
13. Industrial Heating
14. Collision avoidance systems
15. Garage door openers and Keyless entry systems
16. Cooking food in microwave ovens.

Microwave Frequency Bands

Designation Frequency/ Wavelength Typical uses

Range range

L-band 1 to 2 GHz 15 cm to 30 Military, Telemetry, GPS, Mobile

cm Phones, GSM, Amateur Radio

S-band 2 to 4 GHz 7.5 cm to Weather Radar, Surface ship

15 cm Radar, communication Satellite,
microwave ovens, microwave
device

C-band 4 to 8 GHz 3.75 cm to Radio Astronomy, wireless LAN,

7.5 cm Bluetooth, Zigbee, Long
Distance Radio communication.

X-band 8 to 12 GHz 25 mm to 37.5 Satellite communication, Radar,

Terrestrial communication,
Broad Band communication,
Space communication, Amateur
Radio, molecular rotational
spectroscopy

Ku-band 12 to 18 GHz 16.7 mm to Satellite communication, MRS

25 mm

K-band 18 to 26.5 GHz 11.3 to Radar, Satellite communication,

16.7 mm Astronomical observation,
Automotive radar, MRS

Ka-band 26.5 to 40 GHz 5 to 11.3 mm Satellite communication, MRS

Pioneers in Microwaves
1864 - James desk Maxwell - The existence of Radio waves.

1888 - Heinrich Hertz - demonstrated microwaves.

1894 - Jagadesh Chandra Bose - Demonstrated radio waves to control of a bell.

1.4 RECTANGULAR AND CIRCULAR WAVE GUIDES

Waveguides are metal structures having slots inside, used to guide the microwaves within
the slot from one point to other point, i.e., from source to load. Waveguides are available in
two different shapes. They are rectangular form and circular form.

Types of modes

The way of microwaves transmission in the waveguides is called as modes. They are
classified as Transverse Electric wave mode (TE modes), Transverse Magnetic wave mode
(TM modes) and Transverse Electromagnetic wave mode (TEM mode). Among these modes,
TEM modes are not preferred in waveguides. Coaxial cable probe type of transmission line
use the TEM mode.

1.5 Rectangular Waveguides

Waveguides with the rectangular shape to guide the microwave is known as rectangular
waveguide. Rectangular waveguides ordinarily have dimensions of a=2b ratio. The mode
with the lowest cut-off frequency in a particular guide is called the dominant mode. The
dominant mode in a rectangular guide with a>b is the TE10 mode. Each mode has a specific
mode pattern or field pattern. Actually only the dominant mode propagate and the higher
modes near the sources or discontinuities decay very fast.

1.5.1 TE Modes in Rectangular Waveguides wave equations

It has been previously assumed that the waves are propagating in the positive 'z' direction in
the waveguide. Figure 1.1 shows the coordinates of a rectangular waveguide.

Fig. 1.1 Coordinates of a rectangular guide.

The TEmn modes in a rectangular guide are characterized by Ez=0. In other words, the z
component of the magnetic field, Hz, must exist in order to have energy transmission in the
guide. Consequently, from a given Helmholtz equation,

∇2Hz=𝛾𝛾2Hz ----------(1)

a solution in the form of

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = �𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� + 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
�� × �𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� + 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
�� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(2)

will be determined in accordance with the given boundary conditions, where kx=mπ/a and
ky=nπ/b are replaced. For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell's curl equations in frequency domain
are

∇ × 𝐸𝐸 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗; 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇; ∇ × 𝐸𝐸 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗----------(3)

∇ × 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗; 𝐷𝐷 = 𝜖𝜖𝜖𝜖; ∇ × 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗----------(4)

In rectangular coordinates, their components are

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 ----------(5)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 ----------(6)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 ----------(7)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦
− = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 ----------(8)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
− = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 ----------(9)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥
− = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 ----------(10)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

With the substitution ∂/∂z =-jβg and Ez=0, in the above equations, it is simplified to

𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 ----------(11)

𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 ----------(12)

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 ----------(13)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
+ 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 ----------(14)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
−𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 − = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 ----------(15)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥
− = 0----------(16)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

By Solving these six equations for Ex, Ey, Hx, and Hy in terms of Hz will give the TE-mode field
equations in rectangular waveguides as
−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2
----------(17)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
----------(18)

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(19)
−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = ----------(20)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = ----------(21)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = �𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� + 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
�� × �𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� + 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
�� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(22)

where k c2=ω2µε-βg 2 has been replaced.

Differentiating Eq. (2) with respect to x and y and then substituting the results in Eqs.(17)
through Eqs.(21) yield a set of field equations. The boundary conditions are applied to the
newly found field equations in such a manner that either the tangent E field or the normal H
field vanishes at the surface of the conductor. Since Ex=0, then ∂Hz/∂y=0 at y=0, b. Hence
Cn=0. Since Ey=0, then ∂Hz/∂x=0 at x=0, a. Hence Am=0.

It is generally concluded that the normal derivative of Hz must vanish at the conducting
surfaces -that is,
𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
= 0----------(23)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

at the guide walls. Therefore the magnetic field in the positive z direction is given by
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(24)

where H0z is the amplitude constant.

Substitution of Eq.(24) in Eqs. (17) through Eq.(21) yields the TEmn field equations in
rectangular waveguides as
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(25)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(26)

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(27)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(28)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(29)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧----------(30)

where m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
m = n = 0 excepted

The cut-off wave number kc, as defined by 𝛾𝛾𝑔𝑔 2 = 𝛾𝛾 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 2 for the TEmn modes, is given by

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = �� 𝑎𝑎
� + � 𝑏𝑏 � = 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 √𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇----------(31)

where a and b are in meters.

cut-off frequency

The cut-off frequency, is defined for the TEmn modes, is

1 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2 � + 𝑏𝑏 2 ----------(32)
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑎𝑎 2

The propagation constant (or the phase constant here) βg, is expressed by

𝑓𝑓 2
𝛽𝛽𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 �1 − � 𝑐𝑐 � ----------(33)
𝑓𝑓

Group velocity and Phase velocity

The phase velocity in the positive z direction for the TEmn modes is shown as
𝜔𝜔 υ𝑝𝑝
υ𝑔𝑔 = 𝛽𝛽 = ----------(34)
𝑔𝑔 �1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

Where υp=1/√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 is the phase velocity in an unbounded dielectric.

Wave impedance

The characteristic wave impedance of TEmn modes in the guide can be derived from Eqs.
(11)and(12)
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜂𝜂
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 = 𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = − 𝐻𝐻 = = ----------(35)
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 �1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

where 𝜂𝜂 = �𝜇𝜇/𝜖𝜖 is the intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric.

wave length

The wave length λg in the guide for the TEmn modes is given by
λ
λ𝑔𝑔 = ----------(36)
�1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

where λ = υp/f is the wavelength in an unbounded dielectric.

Since the cut-off frequency shown in Eq.(32) is a function of the modes and guide
dimensions, the physical size of the waveguide will determine the propagation of the
modes. Table tabulates the ratio of cut-off frequency of some modes with respect to that of
the dominant mode in terms of the physical dimension.

Fig. 1.2 TE mode of rectangular waveguide

Whenever two or more modes have the same cut-off frequency, they are said to by
degenerate modes. In a rectangular guide the corresponding TEmn and TMmn modes are
always degenerate. In a square guide the TEmn, TEnm, TMmn, and TMnm modes form a
foursome of degeneracy.

1.5.2 TM Modes in Rectangular Waveguides wave equations

The TMmn modes in a rectangular guide are characterized by Hz = 0. In other words, the z
component of an electric field E must exist in order to have energy transmission in the
guide. Consequently, the Helmholtz equation for E in the rectangular coordinates is given by

∇2Ez = 𝛾𝛾2Ez----------(37)
A solution of the Helmholtz equation is in the form of
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = �𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� + 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
�� �𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� + 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
�� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(38)

which must be determined according to the given boundary conditions. The procedures for
doing so are similar to those used in finding the TE-mode wave.

The boundary conditions on Ez require that the field vanishes at the waveguide walls, since
the tangent component of the electric field Ez is zero on the conducting surface. This
requirement is that for Ez = 0 at x = 0, a, then Bm = 0, and for Ez = 0 at y = 0, b, then Dn = 0.
Thus the solution as shown in Eq. (38) reduces to
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(39)

where m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

If either m = 0 or n = 0, the field intensities all vanish. So there is no TM01 or TM10 mode in a
rectangular waveguide, which means that TE10 is the dominant mode in a rectangular
waveguide for a>b. For Hz = 0, the field equations, after expanding ∇ × H = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 are given
by
𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
+ 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 ----------(40)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 + = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 ----------(41)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥
− = 0----------(42)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 ----------(43)

−𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 ----------(44)

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥
− = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 ----------(45)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

These equations can be solved simultaneously for Ex, Ey, Hx, and Hy in terms to Ez.

The resultant field equations for TM modes are

−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = ----------(46)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = ----------(47)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(48)
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
----------(49)

−𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2
----------(50)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(51)

where 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 − 𝜔𝜔2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = −𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐2 is replaced

Differentiating Eq. (39) with respect to x or y and substituting the results in Eqs.(46) through
Eqs(51) yield a new set of field equations. The TMmn mode field equations in rectangular
waveguides are
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(52)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(53)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(54)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑥𝑥 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(55)

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑦𝑦 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝑎𝑎
� 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 𝑏𝑏
� 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(56)

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(57)

Some of the TM-mode characteristic equations are identical to those of the TE modes, but
some are different. For convenience, all are shown here:

cut-off frequency

1 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2 � + 𝑏𝑏 2 ----------(58)
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑎𝑎 2

𝑓𝑓 2
𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 = 𝜔𝜔√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 �1 − � 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 � ----------(59)

wavelength
λ
λ𝑔𝑔 = ----------(60)
2
�1−�𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 �
𝑓𝑓

group velocity and phase velocity

υp
υ𝑔𝑔 = ----------(61)
2
�1−�𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐 �
𝑓𝑓
wave impedance

𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓 2
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝜂𝜂 �1 − � 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 � ----------(62)

Power Losses in Rectangular Waveguides

There are two types of power losses in a rectangular waveguide:

1. Losses in the dielectric

2. Losses in the guide walls

Fig. 1.3 TM mode of rectangular waveguide

1.6 Circular Waveguides

Waveguide with circular shape to guide the microwaves is known as circular waveguide. A
circular waveguide is a tubular, circular conductor. A plane wave propagating through a
circular waveguide results in a transverse electric(TE) or transverse magnetic(TM) mode.

1.6.1 TE Mode in Circular Waveguides Wave equations

It is commonly assumed that the waves in a circular waveguide are propagating in the
positive 'z' direction. Figure shows the coordinates of a circular guide.

Fig. 1.4 Circular Waveguide structure

The TEmp modes in the circular guide are characterized by Ez = 0. This means that the 'z'
component of the magnetic field Hz must exist in the guide in order to have electromagnetic
energy transmission. A Helmholtz equation for Hz in a circular waveguide is given by

∇2 𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝛾𝛾 2 𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 ----------(63)

Its solution is given in Eq. by

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(64)

which is subject to the given boundary conditions.

For a lossless dielectric, Maxwell's curl equations in frequency domain are given by

∇ × 𝐸𝐸 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗; B = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇; ∇ × 𝐸𝐸 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗----------(65)

∇ × 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗; D = 𝜖𝜖𝜖𝜖; ∇ × 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗----------(66)

In cylindrical coordinates, their components are expressed as

1 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸∅
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 ----------(67)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
− = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻∅ ----------(68)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(𝑟𝑟𝐸𝐸∅ ) −
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
= −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 ----------(69)

1 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻∅
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
− = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 ----------(70)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
−𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 − = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸∅ ----------(71)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(𝑟𝑟𝐻𝐻∅ ) −
𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
= 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 ----------(72)

When the differentiation ∂/∂𝑧𝑧 is replaced by (−𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 ) and the z component of electric field Ez
by zero, the TE-mode equations in terms of Hz in a circular waveguide are expressed as
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = − 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
----------(73)

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸∅ = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2
----------(74)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(75)
−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 = ----------(76)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 1 ∂H z
𝐻𝐻∅ = ----------(77)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(78)

where 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐2 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 − 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 has been replaced.

The boundary conditions required that the φ component of the electric field Eφ, which is
tangential to the inner surface of the circular waveguide at r = a, must vanish or that the 'r'
component of the magnetic field Hr, which is normal to the inner surface of r = a, must
vanish. Consequently
𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸∅ = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 ∴ � =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟=𝑎𝑎

or
𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 ∴ � =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟=𝑎𝑎

This requirement is equivalent to that expressed in Eq.(64)

𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧
� = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛′ (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(79)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟=𝑎𝑎

Hence

𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛′ (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎) = 0----------(80)

where J'n indicates the derivative of Jn.

Since the Jn are oscillatory functions, the J'n(kca) are also oscillatory functions. An infinite
sequence of values of (kca) satisfies Eq. (79)These points, the roots of Eq.(79), correspond to
the maxima and minima of the curves J'n(kca), as shown in Fig. Table tabulates a few roots of
J'n(kca) for some lower-order n.

Table pth Zeros of J'n(Kca) FOR TEnp Modes

p n=0 1 2 3 4 5

1 3.832 1.841 3.054 4.201 5.317 6.416

2 7.016 5.331 6.706 8.015 9.282 10.520

3 10.173 8.536 9.969 11.346 12.682 13.987

4 13.324 11.706 13.170

The permissible values of kc can be written

′
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = ----------(81)
𝑎𝑎
Substitution of Eq. (64) in Eqs.(73) through (78) yields the complete field equation of the
TEnp modes in circular waveguides:
′ 𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑟𝑟 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(82)
𝑎𝑎

′ 𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝛷𝛷 = 𝐸𝐸0𝛷𝛷 𝐽𝐽′𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(83)
𝑎𝑎

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(84)
′ 𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸0∅
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 = − 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(85)
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎

′ 𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐸𝐸0𝑟𝑟
𝐻𝐻∅ = 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(86)
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎

′ 𝑟𝑟
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(87)
𝑎𝑎

where Zg = Er/Hφ = -Eφ/Hr has been for the wave impedance in the guide and where n = 0, 1,
2, 3, . . . . and p = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

The first subscript 'n' represents the number of full cycles of field variation in one revolution
through 2π radian of φ. The second subscript 'p' indicates the number of zeros of Eφ- that is,
′
J'n(𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟/a) along the radial of a guide, but the zero on the axis is excluded if it exists.

The mode propagation constant is determined by Eqs.(73) through (78) and Eq.(81)

′ 2
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 = �𝜔𝜔 2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 − � � ----------(88)
𝑎𝑎

The cut-off wave number of a mode is that for which the mode propagation constant
vanishes. Hence
′
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎
= 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 √𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇----------(89)

cut-off frequency

The cut-off frequency for TE modes in a circular guide is then given by

′
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ----------(90)
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

group velocity and phase velocity

and the phase velocity for TE modes is

𝜔𝜔 υ𝑝𝑝
υ𝑔𝑔 = 𝛽𝛽 = ----------(91)
𝑔𝑔 �1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

1
where υ𝑝𝑝 = = 𝑐𝑐/√𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖𝑟𝑟 is the phase velocity in an unbounded dielectric.
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

Wave length

The wavelength and wave impedance for TE modes in a circular guide are given,
respectively, by
λ
λ𝑔𝑔 = ----------(92)
�1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

wave impedance
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜂𝜂
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 = = ----------(93)
𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 �1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

υ𝑝𝑝
where λ = = wavelength in an unbounded dielectric.
𝑓𝑓

µ
η = �� ε � where it is the intrinsic impedance in an unbounded dielectric.

Fig. 1.5 TE mode of Circular waveguide

1.6.2 TM Modes in Circular Waveguides wave equations

The TMnp modes in a circular guide are characterized by Hz = 0. However, the z component
of the electric field Ez must exist in order to have energy transmission in the guide.
Consequently, the Helmholtz equation for Ez in a circular waveguide is given by

∇2 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝛾𝛾 2 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 ----------(94)

Its solution is given by

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(95)

which is subject to the given boundary conditions.

The boundary condition requires that the tangential component of electric field Ez at r = a
vanishes. Consequently,

𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎) = 0----------(96)

Since Jn(kcr) are oscillatory functions, as shown in Fig., there are infinite numbers of roots of
Jn(kcr). Table tabulates a few of them for some lower-order n.

Table: pth ZEROS OF Jn(Kca) For TMnp Modes

p n=0 1 2 3 4 5

1 2.405 3.832 5.136 6.380 7.588 8.771

2 5.520 7.106 8.417 9.761 11.065 12.339

3. 8.645 10.173 11.620 13.015 14.372

4 11.792 13.324 14.796

For Hz = 0 and ∂/∂z = -jβg, the field equations in the circular guide, after expanding
∇×E = -jωµH and ∇×H = jω∈E, are given by
−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = ----------(97)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

−𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔 1 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸∅ = ----------(98)
𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅

𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 (𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(99)

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 1 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕∅
----------(100)

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧
𝐻𝐻∅ = 𝑘𝑘 𝑐𝑐2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
----------(101)

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(102)

where 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐2 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 − 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔2 has been replaced.

Differentiation of Eq. (95) with respect to z and substitution of the result in Equations (97)
through (102) yield the field equations of TMnp modes in a circular waveguide:
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟
𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑟𝑟 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛′ � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(103)
𝑎𝑎
𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟
𝐸𝐸∅ = 𝐸𝐸0∅ 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(104)
𝑎𝑎

𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(105)
𝑎𝑎

E 0∅ 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟
𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟 = 𝐽𝐽𝑛𝑛 � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(106)
Zg 𝑎𝑎

E 0∅ ′ 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑟𝑟
𝐻𝐻∅ = 𝐽𝐽 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑛𝑛∅)𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 ----------(107)
Z g 𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎

𝐻𝐻𝑧𝑧 = 0----------(108)
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
where 𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 = 𝑟𝑟 = − ∅ = 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 /(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) and 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 /𝑎𝑎 have been replaced and where n = 0, 1,
𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 ∅ 𝑟𝑟

2, 3, . . . . and p = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Some of the TM-mode characteristic equations in the circular guide are identical to those of
the TE mode, but some are different. For convenience, all are shown here:

𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 = �𝜔𝜔 2 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 − � 𝑎𝑎
� ----------(109)

𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = = 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 √𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇----------(110)
𝑎𝑎

𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ----------(111)
√𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

𝜔𝜔 υ𝑝𝑝
υ𝑔𝑔 = 𝛽𝛽 = ----------(112)
𝑔𝑔 �1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

λ
λ𝑔𝑔 = ----------(113)
�1−(𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2

𝛽𝛽 𝑔𝑔
𝑍𝑍𝑔𝑔 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝜂𝜂�1 − (𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 /𝑓𝑓)2 ----------(114)

It should be noted that the dominant mode, or the mode of lowest cut off frequency in a
circular waveguide, is the mode of TE11 that has the smallest value of the product,
kca=1.841, as shown in table.
Fig. 1.6 TM mode of Circular waveguide

1.7 Guide attenuation

Guide attenuation means the Attenuation in waveguide.

The Propagation constant is γ

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2
𝛾𝛾 = �� � + � � − 𝐾𝐾 2
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

where K = ωµε

ω = 2πf

For the case a TE10 mode is propagating in Wave guide, below cut-off and m = 1, n = 0,

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
𝛾𝛾 = �� � − (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)2
𝑎𝑎

if a = 0.1524 m, b = 0.0762 m, f = 500 MHz

γ = 20.614 Np/m

1Nep = 8.686

γ = 20.614 x 8.686 = 179 dB/m

Normally γ can be represented as γ = a + j β but for frequencies below art of only the
evanescent mode will propagate with β = 0 and γ = ∝.

For this example, the attenuation is 179 dB/m for a frequency of 500 MHz.

Dispersion Relations of waveguides

Dispersion relation relates the angular frequency, ω to the wave number, K (wave vector)
Fig. 1.7 Dispersion relations

2𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋; 𝐾𝐾 =
λ
𝜔𝜔 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= = 𝑓𝑓λ
𝐾𝐾 2𝜋𝜋 ∙ 1
λ
𝜔𝜔
Phase velocity 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ = 𝐾𝐾

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Group velocity 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Dispersion means separation. Dispersion is the change of the refraction index of a meterial.

1.8 Resonators

A resonator is a metallic enclosure that confines the electromagnetic energy or waveguide

with closed sides that confine the electromagnetic energy. Inside the resonator, hollow
space is called cavity, hence sometimes it is known as cavity resonators. There are two types
of resonators. i)Rectangular cavity resonator

ii)Circular cavity resonator

Rectangular and Cylindrical resonators - Q of the resonators

Working Principle

The stored electric and magnetic energies inside the cavity determine its equivalent
inductance and capacitance. The energy dissipated by the finite conductivity of the cavity
walls determines its equivalent resistance.

A given resonator has a infinite number of resonant modes and each mode corresponds to a
definite resonant frequency.
When the frequency of an impressed signal is equal to a resonant frequency, a maximum
amplitude of the standing waves occurs.

In many microwave applications, The following three resonators are commonly used.

1. Rectangular cavity resonator (RCR)

2. Circular cavity resonator (CCR)
3. Re entrant cavity resonator

Rectangular Cavity Resonator

The EM field inside the cavity should satisfy Maxwell's equations subject to the boundary
conditions that the E field tangential and H field normal to the metal walls must vanish.

Expression

The wave equations in the RR should satisfy the boundary condition of the zero tangential E
at four of the walls.

Fig. 1.8 Coordinate of the Rectangular cavity

The resonant frequency is expressed by

1 2 2 2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 2 ��𝑚𝑚 � + �𝑛𝑛 � + �𝑝𝑝 � ----------(115)
√ 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑

1
𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2 𝑝𝑝 2 2
𝑓𝑓0 = 2 �� 𝑎𝑎 � + �𝑏𝑏 � + �𝑑𝑑 � � ----------(116)

For a > b <d, the dominant mode is TE101 mode.

Circular Cavity Resonator

A Circular Cavity Resonator is a Circular Waveguide with two ends closed by a metal wall.

The wave functions in Cavity Resonator should satisfy Maxwell's equation subject to the
same boundary condition.
Fig. 1.9 Coordinates of a CCR

The resonant frequency for TE mode,

′ 2 2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜋
1
��𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 � + �𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 � ----------(117)
√ 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑

For TM mode

2 2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜋
1
��𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 � + �𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 � ----------(118)
√ 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑

TM10 mode is dominant when 2a > d.

TE11 mode is dominant when d ≥ 2a,

Q. Factor of a resonator

The quality factor Q is a measure of the frequency selectivity of a resonant or anti resonant
circuit, It is defined as
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
𝑄𝑄 ≡ 2𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= 𝑃𝑃
----------(119)

Where W is maximum energy stored and P is average power loss.

The resonant frequency and unloaded Q of Cavity Resonator are

1
𝑓𝑓0 = 2𝜋𝜋√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ----------(120)

𝜔𝜔 𝑜𝑜 𝐿𝐿
𝑄𝑄0 = 𝑅𝑅
----------(121)

1
𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 2
𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋 �� � + � 𝑑𝑑 � � ----------(122)
𝑎𝑎
1
2
𝑐𝑐 ′
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 2
𝑓𝑓0 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜋 �� � + � 𝑑𝑑 � � ----------(123)
𝑎𝑎

Applications of cavity Resonators

They can be used as tuned circuits, in VHF tubes, Klystron, Amplifier / Oscillators, Cavity
magnetron, in duplexes of Radars, Cavity wave meters in measurement of frequency etc.

Problem

Calculate the lowest resonant frequency of a RCR of dimensions, a = 2 cm, b = 1 cm,

d = 3 cm

Solution

Lowest resonant frequency is obtained for the dominant mode TE101

TE mnp m = 1, n = 0, p = 1
1
𝑐𝑐 𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2 𝑝𝑝 2 2
𝑓𝑓0 = �� � + � � + � � �
2 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑

= 9 GHz

1 1 1
= +
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄0 𝑄𝑄𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

Loaded Q, QL

unloaded cavity Q, Q0

external ohmic losses in Q, Qext

Three are 3 types of couplings

1. Critically coupled.
2. Under coupled
3. Over coupled

The Q that takes into account the coupling between the cavity and coupling path is known
as loaded Q. Q increases with an increase in frequency.

Re entrant Cavity

A CR in which the metallic boundaries will extend into the interior of the cavity are called re
entrant cavities.

Several ways to coupling:

1. Loop coupling
2. Iris / Aperture coupling

Problem:

Show that the TM01 and TM10 modes in a Rectangular wave guide do not exist.

Solution:

TM modes in a rectangular wave guide are characterized by Hz=0, Z component of an

Electric field E must exist in order to have energy transmission in the wave guide.

Helm Holtz equation for E is given by

𝑉𝑉 2 𝐸𝐸2 = 𝛿𝛿 2 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧

solution for these Helm Holtz equation

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = �𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 sin + 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 cos � �𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 sin + 𝐷𝐷𝑛𝑛 cos � 𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
This solution must be determined according to given boundary conditions.

Ez = 0 at x = 0, a then Bm = 0

Ez = 0 at y = 0, b then Dn = 0.

Thus the above solution reduces to the form of

𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 sin � � sin � � 𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
If either m = 0 or n = 0, the field intensities all vanish
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽 𝑧𝑧
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 . sin(0). sin � � 𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔 = 0
𝑏𝑏
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 𝐸𝐸0𝑧𝑧 . sin � � . sin(0) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝑎𝑎
So, the modes TM01 and TM10 modes in a RWG do not exist.

Problem

An air filled Rectangular waveguide has dimensions of a = 6 am and b = 4 cm. The signal
frequency is 3 GHz. Compute the following for the TE10, TE01, TE11, and TM11 modes:

a. Cut off frequency

b. Wavelength in the WG
c. Phase constant and phase velocity in the WG
d. Group velocity and wave impedance in the WG.

For TE10

λc = 2a = 2 x 6 = 12 cm; fc = 2.45 GHz

𝑐𝑐 3 × 1010
λ0 = = = 10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓 3 × 109
λ0 10 10
λ𝑔𝑔 = = 2
= 0.556
= 17.98 ≈ 18 cm
2 �1−�10 �
�1−�λ0 � 12
λ𝑐𝑐

𝜋𝜋 2
𝛽𝛽𝑔𝑔 = �𝜔𝜔 2 𝜇𝜇0 𝜀𝜀0 −
𝑎𝑎2

(2𝑓𝑓)2 1
= 𝜋𝜋� − 2
𝑐𝑐 2 𝑎𝑎

(3 × 109 )2 1
= 𝜋𝜋�4 × −
(3 × 10 )
8 2 (6 × 10−2 )2

= -π rad/m

𝑐𝑐 3 × 1010
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 = = = 5.39 × 1010 cm/s
2 0.556
�1 − �λ0 �
λ𝑐𝑐

𝑐𝑐 2 (3 × 1010 )2 9 × 1010 × 1010

𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 = = = = 1.66 × 1010 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 5.39 × 1010 5.39

𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏 λ𝑔𝑔 4𝜋𝜋 × 10−7 4 16

𝑍𝑍0 = 377 ∙ � ∙ ∙ = 377 ∙ � × × = 1.70434Ω
𝜀𝜀 𝑎𝑎 λ 8.854 × 10 −12 6 10

Problem

A Rectangular waveguide has wide and narrow dimensions of 4 cm and 2 cm, respectively,
what is the minimum frequency in GHz that can be transmitted if a dielectric of εr = 4 be
inserted inside the Waveguide?

Solution

We have a = 4 cm, b = 2 cm
λc (max free space) = 2 x 4 cm = 8 cm

Minimum frequency which can be passed without dielectric is 3.75 GHz.

But if we insert a dielectric,

λ(max free space ) 8
λ(max dielectric) = = = 4 cm
�Σ𝑟𝑟 √4

3 × 1010
𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 (min 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = = 7.5 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
4
minimum frequency that can be passed with dielectric in RWG is therefore 7.5 GHz

Attenuation in Wave guides near the fc is

a) Very low b) Very high c) Medium high d) zero

Problem

1. A TE11 mode is propagating through a circular waveguide. The radius of the guide is 5
cm and guide contains an air dielectric. i)Determine the cut-off frequency,
ii)Determine the wavelength in the guide for an operating frequency of 3 GHz,
iii)Determine the wave impedance in the guide.
(Ans:1.75 GHz, 12.3 cm, 465 ohms)
2. An air filled circular waveguide has a diameter of 1.5 cm and is to carry energy at a
frequency of 10 GHz. Determine all TM modes for which transmission is possible.

Fill in the blanks:

1. The vector wave equation are __________ , __________

2. Whenever two or more modes have the same cut-off frequency, they are said to be
__________
3. The mode with the lowest cut-off frequency in a particular guide is called
__________
4. Two types of power losses in Rectangular waveguides are __________, __________
5. The Quality factor Q is __________ of a resonant or anti resonant circuit.
6. The IEEE microwave frequency range of X-band is __________
7. The microwaves have the application of __________

Review Questions

1. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of microwaves.

2. Write the applications of microwaves.
3. Denote the IEEE microwave bands.
4. Explain TE modes of rectangular waveguide?
5. Explain TM modes of rectangular waveguide?
6. Explain TE modes of circular waveguide?
7. Explain TM modes of circular waveguide?
8. Explain the resonators in detail.

Multiple choice questions

1. 1. A waveguide operated below the cut-off frequency can be used as

i) phase shifter ii) attenuator iii) isolator iv) none
2. A Rectangular waveguide of internal dimensions a = 4 cm and b = 3 cm is to be
operated in TE11 mode, the minimum operating frequency is
i) 6.25 GHz ii) 5 GHz iii) 6 GHz iv) 3.75 GHz
3. The cut-off wavelength for TE20 mode for a standard Rectangular waveguide is
i) 2/a ii) 2a iii) a iv) 2a2
4. A Helmholtz equation for Hz in a circular wave guide in given by
i) ∇2Hz=𝛾𝛾2Hz ii) ∇2Hz=𝜂𝜂2Hz iii) ∆2Hz=𝛾𝛾2Hz iv) ∇2Hz=𝜞𝜞2Hz
5. The mode of lowest cut-off frequency in a Circular wave guide is the mode of TE11
that has the smallest value of the product Kca = ____________
i) 1.841 ii) 2.405 iii) 3.054 iv) 3.832

Unit 2

PASSIVE MICROWAVE DEVICES

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Scattering parameters introduction and its properties
2.3 H-plane Tee
2.4 E-plane Tee
2.5 Magic Tee
2.6 Directional couplers
2.7 Hybrid ring
2.8 Microwave propagation in ferrites
2.9 Faraday Rotation
2.10Gyrator
2.11Circulator and Isolators.

2.1 Introduction

The following devices are considered as passive microwave devices. E-plane, H-plane, Magic
tee, directional couplers, Hybrid ring. ferrites, Gyrator, Circulator, and isolators.

Derivation of S- matrix for E-plane, H-plane, Magic tee, directional couplers, Hybrid ring.
Microwave propagation in ferrites, Faraday rotation, Gyrator Circulator and isolators.
2.2 Scattering parameters Introduction and its properties

Scattering parameters

These are parameters, which can measure the travelling waves in microwave devices,
having the frequencies in the microwave range. They describe the behaviour of microwave
devices. Scattering parameters are devoted as S-parameters. Which are expressed as S11,
S12, S21, S22, . . . . [b] = [S][a]

For a two port network

b1 = S11a1+S12a2

b2 = S21a1+S22a2

Fig. 2.1 Two-port network

S11, S12, S21, S22 are also known scattering Coefficients. These can be used to form matrix
that matrix is known as scattering matrix.

For a two port network, 2 x 2 matrix

Three port network, 3 x 3 matrix
Four port network, 4 x 4 matrix

a - represent input to particular port

b - represent outputs out of various port

In matrix form,

𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆12 𝑎𝑎1
� 1 � = � 11 �� �
𝑏𝑏2 𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑎𝑎2

Column matrix [b] corresponding to Reflected classes or output

Scattering column matrix [S] of order 2 x 2

Matrix [a] corresponding to incident bases or input

Input waves in microwave devices are called incident waves

Output waves in microwave devices are called Reflected waves

S11, S12 have the meaning of reflection coefficients

S21, S22 have the meaning of transmission coefficients

S12 represents the power transferred from port 2 to port1

S21 represents the power transferred from port 1 to port 2

Properties of Scattering matrix parameters

1. [S] is always square matrix of order (n x n)

2. [S] is a symmetric matrix. i.e., Sij =Sji
3. [S] is a Unitary matrix i.e., [S][S]*=[I]
Where [S]* is a complex conjugate of [S]
[I] is unit matrix of the same orders as that of [S]
4. The sum of the products of each team of any row (or) column multiplied by the
complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row or column in zero.
i.e., ∑𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖∗ = 0 for k≠ ; k= 1, 2, 3, . . . . . n; j = 1, 2, 3, . . . . . n
5. If any of the terminal or reference places Say the Kth port do are moved away from
the junction by an electric distance βk tk, each of the coefficients Sij involving k will be
multiplied by the future 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝛽𝛽𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑖𝑘𝑘 .

Example: The Complex conjugate (CC) of (3 + 4i) is (3-4i). Then no. with equal real port and
imaginary port equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.

Derivation of S-matrix

Ann intersection of three wave guides in the form of English alphabet 'T' is known as T-
junction microwave device.

Examples of Tee junctions are

1. H-Plane Tee
2. E-Plane Tee
3. E-H Plane Tee or Hybrid Tee or Magic Tee

2.3 H-Plane Tee Junction

Fig. 2.2 H-Plane Tee

H-plane Tee has 3 arms These arms lie in the plane of magnetic field, This Tee is called as
current junctions.

The properties of H-plane Tee is defined by its S-matrix. The order is 3 x 3 S-matrix.

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

𝑆𝑆 = �𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 �
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33

Now we determine the S-parameters,

Sij, i→ 1, 2, 3,

j→ 1, 2, 3 by applying the properties of [S].

Scattering coefficients S13 and S23 must be equal because of place of symmetry of the
junction.

∴ S13 = S23

From the symmetric property, Sij = Sji

∴ S12 = S21, S23 = S32 = S13

S13 = S31

Since port is perfectly matched to the junction,

S33 = 0

with these properties of [S] matrix, equations becomes

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

𝑆𝑆 = �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 �
𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆13 0

From the unitary property, [S] [S]*=[I]

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 1 0 0
∗ ∗ ∗
i.e., �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 � �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 � = �0 1 0�
𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆13 0 𝑆𝑆13 ∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆13 0 0 0 1

multiplying we get,
∗ ∗ ∗
R1C1 : 𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆11 + 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆12 + 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆13 = 1 (R1C1 = row1 column1)

Then |𝑆𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1

similarly R2C2: |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆22 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1

R3C3 : |𝑆𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1
∗ ∗
R3C1: 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆11 + 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆12 =0

From Equation

1
2|𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆13 =
√2

Comparing equation and, we get

|𝑆𝑆11 |2 = |𝑆𝑆22 |2

S11 = S22

From equation
∗ ∗ )
𝑆𝑆13 (𝑆𝑆11 + 𝑆𝑆12 =0
∗ ∗ )
Since 𝑆𝑆13 ≠ 0, (𝑆𝑆11 + 𝑆𝑆12 = 0 or
∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆11 = −𝑆𝑆12

S11 = -S12

or S12 = -S11

using these in equation

1
|𝑆𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆𝑆11 |2 + =1
2
1
2|𝑆𝑆11 |2 =
2
1
𝑆𝑆11 =
2
From equation and

1
𝑆𝑆12 =
2
1
𝑆𝑆22 =
2
Substituting for S13, S11, S12, S22 from above equations, we get
1 1 1
⎡ − ⎤
⎢ 2 2 √2⎥
⎢ 1 1 1⎥
[𝑆𝑆] = ⎢−
2 2 √2⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 1
0⎥
⎣ √2 √2 ⎦

If input is given at port 3, Hence the power coming out of port 1 and port 2 is 3 dB down
with respect to input power at port 3, Hence H-plane Tee is also known as 3 dB splitter.

The waves that come out of ports 1 and 2 one equal in magnitude and phase.

2. 4 E-Plane Tee

It is one of the microwave Tee junctions. It has 3 ports. Port 1, port 2, port 3. Ports 1 and 2
are the collinear arms. Port 3 is the E-arm.

Fig. 2.3 E-Plane Tee

when TE10 mode is made to propagate into port 3 as input, the 2 outputs at port 1 and port
2 will have waves equal in magnitude and phase shift of 180°. i.e. electric field lines change
their direction.

The S-matrix can be used to describe its properties. In general, the power out of port 3 (side
or E arm) is proportional to the difference between instantaneous power entering from
ports 1 and 2.

These port junction.

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

[𝑆𝑆] = �𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 �
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33

The scattering coefficient S23 = -S13

Since the outputs at port 1 and 2 are out of phase by 180° with an input at port 3.

If port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction.

S33 = 0

From symmetric property Sij = Sji

∴ S12 = S21; S13 = S31; S23 = S32

with the above properties 2 & 3, [S] becomes

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

[𝑆𝑆] = �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 �
𝑆𝑆13 −𝑆𝑆13 0

From unitary property, [S].[S]* = [I]

∗ ∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 1 0 0
∗ ∗ ∗
i.e., �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 � �𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆13 � = �0 1 0�
𝑆𝑆13 −𝑆𝑆13 0 𝑆𝑆13 ∗ ∗
−𝑆𝑆13 0 0 0 1

R1C1 : |𝑆𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1

R2C2 : |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆22 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1

R3C3 : |𝑆𝑆13 |2 + |𝑆𝑆13 |2 = 1

∗ ∗
R3C1 : 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆11 − 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆12 =0

Equating equations and we get

S11 = S22
1
From Equation 𝑆𝑆13 =
√2

∗ ∗ )
From Equation 𝑆𝑆13 (𝑆𝑆11 − 𝑆𝑆12 = 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆11 = 𝑆𝑆12 = 𝑆𝑆22

using these values (equations ) in ,

1 1 1
|𝑆𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆𝑆11 |2 + 2 = 1 or 2|𝑆𝑆11 |2 = 2 or 𝑆𝑆11 = 2

Substituting the values from equation to

the matrix becomes

1 1 1
⎡ ⎤
⎢2 2 √2 ⎥
⎢1 1 1⎥
∴ [𝑆𝑆] = ⎢ − ⎥
2 2 √2⎥
⎢
⎢ 1 1
− 0 ⎥
⎣√2 √2 ⎦

2.5 E-H plane Tee or Hybrid Tee or Magic Tee

Fig. 2.4 E-H Plane Tee

Fig. 2.5 Field Lines

It is a Tee junctions of combining E & H plane Tee together. It has 4 x 4 matrix, since there
are 4 ports S-matrix is

1 1
⎡0 0 ⎤
⎢ √2 √2 ⎥
⎢0 1 1
0 − ⎥
⎢ √2 √2⎥
[𝑆𝑆] = ⎢ ⎥
1 1
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎢√2 √2 ⎥
⎢1 − 1 0 0 ⎥
⎣√2 √2 ⎦

Applications of magic Tee

1. It is used for measurement of impedance.

2. Magic Tee as a Duplexer
3. Magic Tee as a Mixer, in microwave circuits.

Waveguide corners, bends and twists

Waveguide corners, bends and twists are waveguide components used to change the
direction of the microwave through an arbitrary angle.

2.6 Directional coupler

 It is a passive microwave device

 They are flanged, built in waveguide assemblies
 They are used to measure the microwave power.
 They have four ports of having primary waveguide and secondary waveguide.

Fig. 2.6 Directional Coupler with input and output powers

Pi = incident power at port 1

Pr = received power at port 2

Pf = forward coupled power at port 4

Pb = back power at port 3

The performance of a DC is usually defined in terms of parameters.

1. Coupling factor, C
2. Directivity, D
3. Isolation, I

Coupling factor, C is defined as the ratio of the incident power Pi to the forward power Pf
measured in dB.

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝐶𝐶 = 10 log10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
Directivity, D is defined as the ratio of forward power Pf to the back power Pb expressed in
dB.

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
𝐷𝐷 = 10 log10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏

For a typical Directional Coupler, C = 20 dB, D = 60 dB

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝐶𝐶 = 20 = 10 log10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
= 102 = 100; 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 =
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 100

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
𝐷𝐷 = 60, 10 log10
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓
= 106
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏

𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = 6
= 8 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 = )
10 10 100
since Pb is very small, power coming out of port 3 can be neglected, almost zero.

Isolation. It is defined as the ratio of incident power to the back power expressed in dB.

𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼 = 10 log10 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏

It may be noted that isolation in dB equals coupling factor plus directivity.

Types of directional coupler (DC)

1. Single hole DC or Bethe DC

2. Two hole DC.

Scattering matrix of a Directional Coupler

The Directional coupler properties are used to arrive at the S-matrix

DC is a 4 port network. Hence [S] is 4 x 4 matrix

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆14

𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 𝑆𝑆24
i.e., [𝑆𝑆] = � �
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33 𝑆𝑆34
𝑆𝑆41 𝑆𝑆42 𝑆𝑆43 𝑆𝑆44

In a DC, all form ports are perfectly matched to the junction. Hence the diagonal elements
are zero
i.e. S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0

From symmetric property, Sij = Sji

S23 = S32; S13 = S31; S24 = S42;

S34 = S43; S41 = S14

ideally back power is zero (Pb = 0). There is no coupling between port 1 and port 3

S13 = S31 = 0

Also there is no coupling between port 2 and port 4

S24 = S42 = 0

By substituting all values in equations we get

0 𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆14
𝑆𝑆 0 𝑆𝑆23 0
[𝑆𝑆] = � 21 �
0 𝑆𝑆32 0 𝑆𝑆34
𝑆𝑆41 0 𝑆𝑆43 0

Since [S][S*] = [I], we get

∗ ∗
0 𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆14 0 𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆14 1 0 0 0
∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆 0 𝑆𝑆23 0 𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆23 0 0 1 0 0
� 12 �� ∗ ∗ �=� �
0 𝑆𝑆23 0 𝑆𝑆34 0 𝑆𝑆23 0 𝑆𝑆34 0 0 1 0
𝑆𝑆14 0 𝑆𝑆34 ∗
0 𝑆𝑆14 ∗
0 𝑆𝑆34 0 0 0 0 1

By multiplication of matrix we get

R1C1 : |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆14 |2 = 1

R2C2 : |𝑆𝑆12 |2 + |𝑆𝑆23 |2 = 1

R3C3 : |𝑆𝑆23 |2 + |𝑆𝑆34 |2 = 1

∗ ∗
R3C1 : 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆23 + 𝑆𝑆14 𝑆𝑆34 =0

By comparing equations

S14 = S23

By comparing equation

S12 = S34

Let us assume that S12 is real and positive = P

From equation
i.e., S23 must be imaginary

Let S23 = jq = S14

Therefore S12 = S34 = P and S23 = S14 = jq; q is positive and real; (Transmission parameter)

Also p2+q2 = 1 from unitary property

∗ ∗
𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆12 + 𝑆𝑆14 𝑆𝑆14 =1

By substituting the above values in equation

0 𝑃𝑃 0 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑃𝑃 0 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0
[𝑆𝑆] = � �
0 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0 𝑃𝑃
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 0 𝑃𝑃 0

2.7 Hybrid ring

This coupler device overcomes the power limitations of magic Tee. This is a 4 port device.
Four ports with circular annular ring is known as hybrid rings. It consists of an annular line of
proper electrical length to sustain standing waves, to which four arms are connected at
proper intervals by means of series junction or parallel junctions. This device is also known
as Rat Race circuits or Rat Race couplers. Figure shows a hybrid ring with series junction.

Fig. 2.7 Hybrid Ring.

The hybrid ring has the characteristics similar to those of the hybrid Tee.

Working

When a microwave is fed into port 1, the wave will be available at port 1 and port 4. It will
not appear at port 3 because of the difference of the phase shifts for the waves travelling in
the clockwise and counter clockwise directions. The difference of phase shift is 180°. Thus
the waves are cancelled at port 3. Similarly the waves fed into port 2, reach port 1 and port
3, will not emerge at port 4. If the wave is fed into port 3, will not emerge at port 1 and that
reach at port 4 and port 2. When the wave is fed into port 4, it reaches at port 1 and port 3,
not at port 2.

The ideal hybrid ring S parameter matrix is given as

0 𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆14
𝑆𝑆21 0 𝑆𝑆23 0
[𝑆𝑆] = � �
0 𝑆𝑆32 0 𝑆𝑆34
𝑆𝑆41 0 𝑆𝑆43 0

In real life, zero elements in the above matrix show some nonzero values due to small
leakage in couplings.

Applications

Hybrid Rings are used as duplexer. In Transmit side, this allows power coupling of
transmitter to antenna, In receiver side, this allows power coupling of antenna to receiver.

2.8 Microwave propagation in ferrites

- Ferrites are non-metallic materials with resistivity (ρ) nearly 1014 times greater
than metals and with dielectric constants (εr) around 10-15. They have relative
permeability of the order of 1000.
- They have magnetic properties similar to those of ferrous metals.
- They are oxide based compounds.
ex.: MeO, Fe2O3, MnO, ZnO, CdO, NiO or mixture of these
- Ferrites have atoms with large number of spinning electrons in strong magnetic
properties.
- These properties find application in number of Microwave devices to reduce the
reflected power, for modulation purpose, and in switching circuits.
- Ferries are two types soft ferrites and hard ferrites.
- Soft ferrites are used primarily as transformer, inductor, recording heads and in
microwave devices
- Hard ferrites are used in PM motors, LS, hording device, storage media
- The ferri-magnetic Compound Materials are an isotropic.
- i.e. These are non-reciprocal devices.
- At RF frequencies, ferrites are used as core material in inductors.
- At Microwave frequencies, ferrites are used as circulators isolators and switches.
- Ferrites are ceramic like materials. They are made by sintering a mixture of
metallic oxides.

Properties:

Ferrite devices:

ex. isolator, circulator, Phase shifters, modulators, power limiters.

Ferrites are power limiters available as sheets, cores and blocks.

- EM waves pass through ferrites with negligible attenuation.

- Microwave property undergoes phase shift due to ferrites. Which can be influenced by the
applied DC magnetic fields.

2.9 Faraday rotation

Any linearly polarized wave may be regarded as the vector sum of two counter rotating,
circularly polarized waves. If such a wave field is a lossless plasma, the two circularly
polarized components will travel at different phase velocities and thus the plane of
polarization will rotate with distance, a phenomenon known as Faraday rotation.

Consider an infinite ferrite medium with a static magnetic field Bo applied along the z-
direction. Let a plane TEM wave that is LP along the x-axis at x=0 be propagating in the z-
direction. Thus FR is a nonreciprocal effect.

The direction of Faraday Rotation is thus different in the two regions above and below the
resonant frequency.

2.10 Gyrator

It is one of the microwave device which uses the Faraday rotation principle. It is a two port
device. It has a relative phase difference of 180° from port 1 and port 2 for transmission and
has a zero phase difference from port 1 and port 2 for transmission.

Fig. 2.8 Gyrator symbol

Construction

The Gyrator is constructed such that it consists of a piece of circular waveguide carrying the
dominant TE11 mode with transitions to a standard rectangular waveguide with dominant
TE10 made. A thin circular shaped ferrite rod is tapered at both ends. Waveguide is
surrounded by a permanent magnet. It generates dc magnetic field for proper operation of
ferrite. A rectangular waveguide of 90° twisted is connected to the input end. The ferrite
rod is tapered at both ends to reduce the attenuation and smooth rotation of the polarized
wave. It is nonreciprocal

0 −1
The Scattering matrix for the Gyrator is 𝑆𝑆 = � �
1 0
An ideal Gyrator is similar to ideal transformer in being a linear, lossless, passive, memory
loss 2 port device.

Application

A Gyrator can be used to transform a load capacitance into an inductance.

2.11 Circulator and Isolators:

Circulator, Isolators are Ferrite microwave devices. Ferro magnetic materials, Ferrites when
placed in dc mag. field, EM wave propagation becomes non reciprocal. This property is used
for construction of circulator and isolators.

Circulator:

They are multiport junction, in which microwave can travel from one port to the next
immediate part in one direction only.

Fig. 2.9 Schematic diagram of a four port circulator

Commonly for port circulators are used. Microwave can flow only from nth port to (n+1)th
port in one direction.

Fig. 2.10 Circulator symbol

Fig. 2.11 Schematic diagram of a Three port circulator

A perfectly matched lossless and non reciprocal four port circulator has S matrix of

0 0 0 𝑆𝑆14
𝑆𝑆 0 0 0
� 21 �
0 𝑆𝑆32 0 0
0 0 𝑆𝑆43 0

S14=S21=S32=S43=1

0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
𝑆𝑆 = � �
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

For a perfectly matched lossless non-reciprocal these port circulator, the S-matrix is
0 0 𝑆𝑆13
𝑆𝑆 = �𝑆𝑆21 0 0�
0 𝑆𝑆32 0

S13=S21=S32=1

0 0 1
So that 𝑆𝑆 = �1 0 0�
0 1 0
Insertion loss, isolation, VSWR are typical characteristics of circulator.

Problem

A 3 port circulator has an insertion Loss of 1dB. isolation 30dB, and VSWR=1.5, Find the

S-matrix.
Solution:

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

S-matrix of a 3 port circular is 𝑆𝑆 = �𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 �
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33

insertion loss = 1dB = -20 log |S21|

or |𝑆𝑆21 | = 10−1/20 = 0.89

For some insertion loss between Port1 & Port2, Port2 & Port3, Port3 &Port1,

|S21| = |S32| = |S13| = 0.89

The isolation between the ports is 30dB = -20 log |S31|

−30�
or |𝑆𝑆31 | = 10 20 = 0.032

|S23| = |S12|
𝑆𝑆−1 1.5−1
Since VSWR =1.5, ref. coefficient |𝛤𝛤| = 𝑆𝑆+1 = 1.5+1
= 0.2

S11 = S22 = S33

By placing the values, S-matrix becomes

0.2 0.032 0.89

[S] = � 0.89 0.2 0.032�
0.032 0.89 0.2
Construction of Circulator:

1method: A 4 port circular can be constructed from two magic tees and a phase shifter +

2method: A combination of two 3dB side hole directional couples and a Rectangular
Waveguide with two phase shifters, 4 port circulator can be constructed. #
Fig. 2.12 Circulator by using magic tee and phase shifter.

Isolator

An isolator is a non-reciprocal transmission device. It is used to isolate one mw component

from reflections of other components in the Transmission Lines.

It is usually called uniline.

An isolator is a 2port device. It provides very small amount of attenuations for transmission
from port1 to port2 but provides maximum attenuation for transmission from port2 to
port1.

This requirement is very much desirable when we want to characteristic match a source
with a variable load. Reflected waves from variable load will not reach the source, because
of isolation.

Fig. 2.13 Isolator

Working of Isolator:

When isolator is inserted between generator and load, the generator is coupled to the load
with zero attenuation and reflections if any from load side are completely absorbed by the
isolator without affecting the generator. Isolator maintains the frequency stability of the
generator.
Fig.2.14 Isolator in between Microwave setup

Construction of Isolators:

Isolators are constructed from Wave guide with some transition. i.e, input side is 45° twist,
ferrite rod in the centre, resistive card in input & output side.

Fig.2.15 Faraday rotation isolator

Fig. 2.16 Four port circulator using Two magic Tees & a Phase shifter.

The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°.

Applications:

A circulators can be used as a duplexer for a radar system. As parametric amplifies tunnel
diode in microwave circuits.

These can be used as low power device as they can handle Low powers only.
Fig.2.18 Four port circulator having Directional Coupler with RWG and Phase shifter.

Isolator Contd...

For an ideal lossless, matched isolator

|S21| = 1, |S12| = |S11| = |S22| = 0

0 0
i.e. [S] =
1 0
isolators can be constructed in many ways.

1. They can be designed by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a four ports circulator with matched
loads.

2. Isolators can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a RWA.

Fig. 2.19 Faraday rotation isolator.

Insertion loss 1 dB. in forward directions

Isolation loss 20 to 30 dB in reverse attenuation.

Problem

Find the scattering parameters of the 3dB attenuator

Fig. 1.10 A matched 3dB attenuator with a 50 Ω Z0

Solution

S11 can be found as the reflection coefficient seen at port 1 when port 2 is terminated in a
matched load (Z0 = 50 Ω)
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖+
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = −
𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗

V+ incident voltage

V- reflected wave

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑍𝑍0
=
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑍𝑍0

[141.8(8.56 + 50)]
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 8.56 +
(141.8 + 8.56 + 50)

= 50 Ω

So S11 = 0

Because of the symmetry of the circuit, S22 = 0

We can find S21 by applying an incident wave at port 1, 𝑉𝑉1+ and one asuing the outcoming
wave at port 2 𝑉𝑉2−. This is equivalent to the transmission coefficient from port 1 to port 2.

𝑉𝑉2−
𝑆𝑆21 = 𝑉𝑉2+ = 0
𝑉𝑉1+

From the fact that 𝑆𝑆11 = 𝑆𝑆22 = 0, 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑉𝑉1− = 0

when port 2 is terminated in Z0 = 50 Ω, and that 𝑉𝑉2+ = 0 in this case we have that 𝑉𝑉1+ = V1
and 𝑉𝑉2− = 𝑉𝑉2

By apply a voltage V1 at port 1 using voltage division twice we find 𝑉𝑉2− = 𝑉𝑉2 as the voltage
across 50 Ω load at port 2.

41.44 50
𝑉𝑉2− = 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 � �� � = 0.707𝑉𝑉1
41.44 + 8.56 50 + 8.56
141.8(58.56)
where 41.44 = 141.8+58.56
is the resistance of parthed combi of the 50 Ω load and 8.56 Ω
resistor with 141.8 Ω. Thus S12 = S21 = 0.707

Problem

A two port network is known to have the following S matrix

[𝑆𝑆] = � 0.15∠0° 0.85∠ − 45°

�
0.85∠45° 0.2∠0°

Determine if the network is reciprocal and lossless

Solution

Because [S] is not symmetric the network is not reciprocal to be lossless the S-parameter
must satisfy

Taking the first column

i = 1 gives |𝑆𝑆11 |2 + |𝑆𝑆21 |2 = 1 (0.15)2 + (0.85)2 = 0.745 ≠ 1

So, the network is not lossless

𝑉𝑉1− = 𝑆𝑆11 𝑉𝑉1+ + 𝑆𝑆12 𝑉𝑉2+

𝑉𝑉2− = 𝑆𝑆21 𝑉𝑉1+ + 𝑆𝑆22 𝑉𝑉2+

Fill in the blanks:

1. When all ports are matched completely in a directional coupler, the diagonal
elements of the S matrix __________
2. The non reciprocal microwave transmission devices are __________
3. The transmission device that is used to isolate one component from reflections of
other components in the transmission line is __________
4. [S] is always a square matrix of __________
5. The condition of S parameter from the symmetric property is __________

Review Questions

1. Explain the S-parameter properties?

2. Derive the S-matrix for E-plane Tee.
3. Derive the S-matrix for H-plane Tee.
4. Derive the S-matrix for EH-plane Tee.
5. Derive the S-matrix for directional coupler.
6. Explain hybrid ring.
7. Explain Circulators.
8. Explain Isolators.
9. Explain Faraday Rotation.
10. Explain ferrites in microwaves.

Multiple choice questions

1. 1. S-matrix is not a
i) Square matrix ii) Unitary matrix iii) Symmetrical matrix
iv) Diagonal matrix
2. A waveguide Tee in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to E field of the main
guide is i) E-plane tee ii) H-plane tee iii) EH-plane tee iv) none
3. H-plane tee is a waveguide tee known as
i) series tee ii) shunt tee iii) Hybrid tee iv) none
4. A combination of the E-plane tee and H-plane tee is
i) E-plane tee ii) H-plane tee iii) EH-plane tee iv) none
5. A directional coupler is a
i) 2 port waveguide junction ii) 3 port waveguide junction iii) 4 port waveguide
junction iv) none

Unit 3

MICROWAVE TUBES-I

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Two cavity Klystron

3.2.1 Velocity modulation

3.2.2 Current modulation

3.2.3 Operation and performance of two-Cavity klystron

3.3 Reflex Klystron Oscillator

3.1 Introduction

The two types of microwave tubes are i) O-type; Original; ii) M-type; Magnetic field

The other name for O-type tubes are microwave Linear beam tubes.

The classifications in O-type tubes are two. They are

i) Resonant cavity structure, ii) slow wave structure.

The examples of Resonant cavity structured O-type tubes are Reflex Klystron, Two cavity
klystron. Some examples of non resonant structure of O-type tubes are TWT, FWA, BWO &
BWA.

Twystron is a hybrid amplifier that was combinations of Klystron and TWT components.

The conventional vacuum tubes like diode, tetrode, pentode are not useful at microwave
frequencies, Because of Lead inductance, inter electrode capacitance effects transit angle
effects, Bandwidth product limitations.
The two cavity klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier operated by the principles of
velocity modulation and current modulation.

Limitations of conventional Tubes at Microwave Frequencies

1. Lead inductance and inter electrode capacitance effects

2. Transit angle effect
3. Gain bandwidth limitations

3.2 Two-Cavity klystron

Klystron Amplifier

It is a widely used microwave amplifier operated by the principles of velocity modulation

and current modulation.

In this, two cavities are used

1. Buncher Cavity
2. Catcher cavity.

In RKO, only one cavity will be present. i.e., catcher cavity will be there. From there, RF
output is taken.

In Klystron Amplifier, one more cavity called Buncher cavity is introduced in between Anode
and Catcher cavity for applying RF input.

Re-entrant cavities

Cavity diagram

Fig. 3.1 Two - cavity Klystron Amplifier.

Operation

All electrons injected from the cathode arrive at the first cavity with uniform velocity. Those
electrons passing the first cavity gap at zeros of the gap voltage (or signal voltage) pass
through with unchanged velocity. Those passing through the positive half cycles of the gap
voltage undergo an increase in velocity those passing through the negative savings of the
gap voltage undergo a decrease in velocity. As a result of these actions, the electrons
gradually bunch together as they travel down the drift space. The variation inn electron
velocity in the drift space is known as velocity modulation. The density of the electrons in
the second cavity gap varies cyclically with time. The electron beam contains an ac
component and is said to be current modulated. The maximum bunching occur
approximately midway between Second cavity grids. Thus KE is transferred from the
electron to second cavity. The electrons then emerge from second cavity with reduced
velocity and finally terminate at the collector.

Assumptions in the analysis of Klystron Amplifier

1. The electron beam is assumed to have a uniform density in the cross section of the
beam.
2. Space charge in the cross section of the beam.
3. The magnitude of the microwave signal input is assumed to be much smaller than
the dc accelerating voltage.

Characteristics of Klystron Amplifier

1. Efficiency about 40%

2. Power output: CW power average is up to 500 KW
pulsed power is 30 mW at 10 GHz.
3. Power gain : about 30 dB.

The cavity close to the cathode is known as buncher cavity or input cavity, which velocity
modulates the electron beam.

The other cavity is called the catcher cavity or output cavity, it catches energy from the
bunched electron beam. The beam then passes through the catcher cavity and is terminated
at collector.

Equivalent circuit

Rsh is the effective shunt resistance

Fig. 3.2 Equivalent circuit of a Reflex Klystron.

Electronic Admittance
Ye can be written as Ye=Ge+jBe
L and C are the energy storage elements of the cavity
Ge - Copper losses of the cavity
Gb - beam loading conductance
Gl - Load Conductance
Gc - electronic conductance; Be is the phase constant

Electronic admittance spiral

Formulas

Beam voltage Vo, repeller Voltage Vr, and cycle number, n relation

𝜋𝜋 2
𝑉𝑉0 �2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − �
= 2 𝑒𝑒
(𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 + 𝑉𝑉0 )2 8𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿2 𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 1.759x1011
𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉2
Direct current 𝐼𝐼0 = 2𝐽𝐽 1 )𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅ℎ
; V2 is gap voltage
1 (𝑋𝑋

𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋1 ) = 0.582 = 𝐽𝐽1 (1.841)

X1=1.841

3.3 Reflex Klystron

The reflex klystron is a single cavity Klystron. It is a low power microwave generator of 10 to
500 mW output at a frequency of 1 to 25 GHz.

This is widely used in the lab for microwave measurements and in microwave receivers as
local oscillators in commercial, military and airborne Doppler radars as well as missiles. The
klystron will oscillate when a fraction of the output power is fed back to the input cavity and
if the loop gain has a magnitude of unity with a phase shift of multiple 2π.

Diagram of Reflex Klystron Oscillator

Fig. 3.3 Reflex Klystron Oscillator having single cavity Tube

Velocity Modulation

Definition

Uniform velocity, υ0 = 0.593 × 106 �𝑉𝑉0

where V0 is the beam voltage

Velocity at time t1, when the some electron leaves the cavity gap at Z=d

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉1 𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡1 ) = 𝑣𝑣0 �1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡1 − ��
2𝑉𝑉0 2

Retarding Electric field, E at time t2, when the same electron is forced back to cavity z=d

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 +𝑉𝑉0 +𝑉𝑉1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝐸𝐸 =
𝐿𝐿
The round trip transit time in the repeller region

T' = t2-t1

The Bunching parameter of the Reflex Klystron Oscillator is

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉0 ′
𝑋𝑋 ′ = . 𝜃𝜃
2𝑉𝑉0 0

where 𝜃𝜃0′ is the round trip dc transit angle

𝜃𝜃0′ = 𝜔𝜔𝑇𝑇0′

2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣0
𝑇𝑇0′ =
𝑒𝑒(𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 +𝑉𝑉0 )

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 = Beam coupling coefficient

Fig.3.4 Coaxial cavity

Fig. 3.5 Coaxial Cavity cross section

All electrons injected from the cathode arrive at the first cavity gap at zeros of the gap
voltage (or signal voltage) pass through with unchanged velocity. Those passive through the
positive half cycles of the gap voltage undergo an increase in velocity. Those passive through
the negative swings of the gap voltage undergo a decrease in velocity. As a result of these
actions, the electrons gradually bunch together as they travel down the drift space. The
variation in electron velocity in the drift space is known as velocity modulation.

Fig. 3.6 Applegate diagram with gap voltage for a Reflex Klystron.

Current Modulation

It is one of the principle used in two cavity Klystron amplifier.

Operation

Cathode in the vacuum tube is emitting electrons as beams. Electrons are attracted by
anode, so move towards anode. But there is a repeller, next to anode. Because of more
repeller voltage than beam voltage of anode, electrons more towards repeller. But near the
cavity the electrons get velocity variation i.e. velocity modulation and further electrons
turned around by the repeller voltage then pass through the cavity gap. The fallen electrons
in the city now called bunched electrons. Maximum amount of Kinetic energy is transferred
from electrons to the cavity walls. From the walls of cavity RF output dc power is collected
as output. Input is ac power, that depends on the beam voltage, beam current, bunching
parameter and energy transfer.

Performances

Power Output

2𝑉𝑉0 𝐼𝐼0 𝑋𝑋 ′ 𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ )

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜋𝜋
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −
2
𝜋𝜋
energy transfer =2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 2 ; J1 is the Bessel function
Pdc = V0I0

𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑃𝑃 2𝑋𝑋 ′ 𝐽𝐽 1 �𝑋𝑋 ′ �

Efficiency or Electronic efficiency 𝜂𝜂, of 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
= 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −
2

Efficiency ranges from 20 to 30% is Reflex Klystron Oscillator

Fig. 3.7 Power output and frequency characteristic of a Reflex Klystron Oscillator

Electronic admittance
𝑖𝑖
Electronic admittance is denoted as 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 = 𝑉𝑉1
2

′
where 𝑖𝑖2 = 2𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋1 )𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃0
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 2
′
𝑖𝑖2 2𝐼𝐼0 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ )𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃0
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 =
𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 /2

2𝑉𝑉0 𝑋𝑋 ′
𝑉𝑉1 = from bunching parameter equation,
𝛽𝛽 𝑖𝑖 𝜃𝜃0′

′
2𝐼𝐼0 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ )𝑒𝑒 −𝑗𝑗 𝜃𝜃0 𝐼𝐼0 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖2 𝜃𝜃0′ 2𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ ) 𝑗𝑗 �𝜋𝜋 −𝜃𝜃0′ �
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 = = . 𝑒𝑒 2
2𝑉𝑉0 𝑋𝑋 ′ 𝑉𝑉0 2 𝑋𝑋 ′
𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝜃𝜃0′

E.A is a function of the dc beam admittance, dc transit angle, and the second transmit of
electron beam through the cavity gap. It is non linear.
Fig. 3.8 Electronic admittance spiral of a Reflex Klystron

What is the bunching parameter of the Reflex Klystron Oscillator?

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉1 ′
𝑋𝑋 ′ = 𝜃𝜃
2𝑉𝑉0 0

Draw the equivalent circuit of a Reflex Klystron?

What is e/m?
𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑚
= 1.759𝑋𝑋1011

Draw the graph of frequency, power output Versus Repeller Voltage of a Reflex Klystron.

Problem:

A Reflex Klystron operates under the conditions V0 = 600 V; L = 1 mm, Rsh - 15Ω;
𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑚
= 1.759𝑋𝑋1011 fr = 9 GHz. The tube is oscillatory at Fr at n = 2 mode or 13/4 mode or
transit time gap, beam loading - neglected; β0 = 1.

Find i) The value of repeller Voltage, Vr.

ii) The direct current necessary to give a gap V of 200V

iii) the electronic efficiency

𝜋𝜋 2
�2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −
𝑉𝑉0
= �
𝑒𝑒
� 2�
(𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 +𝑉𝑉0 )2 𝑚𝑚 8𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿2

𝑉𝑉0
(𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 +𝑉𝑉0 )2 =
𝜋𝜋 2
�2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −
𝑒𝑒
�𝑚𝑚� 2�
2
8𝜔𝜔 𝐿𝐿 2

𝑉𝑉2
𝐼𝐼0 =
2𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ )𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠ℎ

𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ ) = 0.582

2𝑋𝑋 ′ 𝐽𝐽1 (𝑋𝑋 ′ )

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜋𝜋
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 2

Problem

A two cavity klystron Amplifier with V0 = 2.5 KV, V1 = 200 V, Cavity gap width = 1 mm is
operated at f = 8 GHz. Find the gap transit angle and optimum length of the drift region?

Given

V0 = 2.5 KV

V1 = 200 V

L = 1 mm

f = 8 GHz

Required

Gap transit angle, θg = ?

Optimum Length

Solution

𝑑𝑑
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔 = 𝜔𝜔
𝑣𝑣0

𝑣𝑣0 = 0.593 × 106 �𝑉𝑉0

What is the communication name for cavities> Re-entrant cavity. List the types of Re-
entrant cavity?
Coaxial, Radial, Tunable, Toroidal and Butterfly.

Write the expression of beam coupling coefficient of input cavity gap?

𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � 2 �
𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 =
𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔
2

What is the depth of velocity modulation?

𝛽𝛽 𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉1
The factor is call as the depth of velocity modulation.
𝑉𝑉0

What is the mathematical equation of velocity modulation?

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉1 𝜃𝜃𝑔𝑔

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡1 ) = 𝑣𝑣0 �1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡0 + ��
2𝑉𝑉0 2
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
When θg is average gap transit angle θg = ωτ = ω(t1-t0) = 𝑣𝑣0

What is bunching process?

Write the expression of bunching parameter of a klystron?

𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉0
𝑋𝑋 = 𝜃𝜃
2𝑉𝑉0 0

where 𝜃𝜃0 is the round trip dc transit angle = 𝜔𝜔𝑇𝑇0

What is Applegate diagram? The Cavity gap distance versus transit time taken by electrons
from input C to output C plot is known as applegate diagram.

What should be the spacing be between the buncher and catcher cavities in order to
achieve a maximum degree of bunching?
3.682𝑣𝑣0 𝑉𝑉0
Spacing, L optimum = 𝜔𝜔 𝛽𝛽 𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉1

V0 is the high dc voltage between cathode and collector.

V1 is the amplitude of RF microwave signal.

2𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉0
𝑣𝑣0 = � = 0.593 × 106 �𝑉𝑉0 m/s.
𝑚𝑚

What is the electronic efficiency of the KA? H is the ratio of output power to input power.

Efficiency = Pout/Pin = β0I2V2/2I0V0.

What is the Electronic efficiency of Reflex Klystron?

Fill in the blanks:

1. Two cavity Klystron is a widely used __________ operated by the principles of

velocity and current modulation.
2. The variation in electron velocity in the drift space is known as __________
3. The factor __________ is called the depth of velocity modulation.
4. The bunching parameter of a Klystron is __________
5. In a reflex klystron oscillator, repeller electrode is at __________ potential
6. The correct sequence of the assembly parts in a klystron amplifier from the end is
__________
7. In a reflex Klystron, the velocity modulation occurs in the __________

Review Questions

1. What are the two types of microwave tubes?

2. What is the other name for O-type tubes?
3. What are the classifications in O-type tubes?
4. Give examples of Resonant cavity structured O-type tubes?
5. Name some examples of non resonant structure of O-type tubes?
6. What is Twystron?
7. Why conventional vacuum tubes like diode, tetrode, pentode are not useful at
microwave frequencies.
8. Mention the characteristics of a two-cavity klystron Amplifier?
9. What is buncher cavity? Another name for buncher cavity?
10. What are the assumptions made during the analysis of a two cavity Klystron?
11. What is the communication name for cavities> Re-entrant cavity. List the types of
Re-entrant cavity?
12. Write the expression of beam coupling coefficient of input cavity gap?
13. What is the depth of velocity modulation?
14. What is the mathematical equation of velocity modulation?
15. What is bunching process?
16. Write the expression of bunching parameter of a klystron?
17. What is Applegate diagram?
18. What should be the spacing be between the buncher and catcher cavities in order to
achieve a maximum degree of bunching?
19. What is the electronic efficiency of the KA?
20. What is the Electronic efficiency of Reflex Klystron?

Multiple choice questions

1. 1. A two-cavity klystron is
i) Oscillator ii) Amplifier iii) mixer iv) none
2. A reflex klystron is
i) Oscillator ii) Amplifier iii) mixer iv) none
3. A reflex klystron has
i) one cavity ii) two-cavity iii) three cavity iv) four cavity
4. Klystron amplifier is not having
i) one cavity ii) two-cavity iii) three cavity iv) four cavity
5. The two-cavity klystron is operated by the principle of
i) velocity modulation ii) current modulation iii) Velocity and current modulation
iv) phase modulation

Unit-4

MICROWAVE TUBES-II

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Helix Travelling wave tube

4.3 Magnetron.

4.1 Introduction

Microwave tubes-II have the following devices. They are Helix Travelling wave tube and
Magnetron.

4.2 Helix Travelling wave tube (TWT)

TWT is invented by Kompfner in1944. It is used in Radar Transmitters.

Differences between the TWT and the Klystron

No. TWT Klystron

1 Linear beam or O type device Linear beam or O type device

2 Uses non-resonant wave circuit. Uses cavities for input and output circuit

3 Wide Band device Narrow Band device

4 The interaction of election beam and RF The interactions occurs only at the gaps
field in the TWT is continuous over the of the few resonant cavities in the
entire length of the circuit. Klystron

5 The wave in the TWT is a propagating The wave in the Klystron is not
wave propagating wave

6 In the coupled cavity TWT there is a Each cavity in the Klystron operates
coupling effect between the cavities. independently.

The performance characteristics of the TWT are Frequency range is at 3GHz and higher.
Bandwidth is about 0.8GHz. Efficiency is about 20% to 40% . Power output is upto 10KW
average. Power Gain is up to 60dB. Noise figure is low < 10dB.

Structure:

A helix TWT consists of an electron beam and a slow wave structure. The election beam is
focused by a constant magnetic field along the electron beam and the slow wave structure.

This is termed as O-type travelling wave tube. The slow wave structure is helical type. Some
time it is folded back line.

Working Operation:

The applied signal propagates around the turns of the helix. It produces an electric field at
the centre of the helix, directed along the helix axis. The axial electric field progresses with a
velocity that is very close to the velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of helix pitch (H.P) to
helix circumference (H.C).
𝐻𝐻.𝑃𝑃
Axial electric field velocity = Velocity of light x 𝐻𝐻.𝐶𝐶

when the electrons enter the helix tube an interaction takes place between the moving axial
electric field and the moving electrons.

On the average, the electrons transfer energy to the wave on the helix. This interaction
causes the signal wave on the helix to become larger.

The electrons entering the helix at zero field are not affected by the signal wave.
Those electrons entering the helix at the accelerating field are accelerated, and those at the
retarding field are decelerated. As the electrons travel further along the helix, they bunch at
the collector end.
π
The bunching shifts the phase by .
2

Each electron in the bunch encounters a stronger retarding field. Then the MW energy of
the electrons is delivered by the electron bunch to the wave on the helix. The amplification
of the signal wave is accomplished.

Fig. 4.1 The energy increase in the RF continues process.

Amplification process

Advantages of TWT

High gain

Wide bandwidth

Disadvantages of TWT

TWT produces heat.

The internal attenuator reduces the gain of the tube.

TWT is used as Amplifier.

Types of TWTA are

i) Helix TWT, ii) Couple cavity TWT.

Applications of TWT

TWT amplifiers are used in medium and higher power satellite transponders (transmitters)
𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔
λ= 𝑓𝑓 =
𝑓𝑓 2𝜋𝜋
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐2𝜋𝜋
λ = 𝜔𝜔 =
𝜔𝜔
2𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑁𝑁 = =
λ0 υ0
1 𝜔𝜔 𝑓𝑓
= =
λ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 υ0

Problem1.

A helix TWT operates at 4 GHz under a bean voltage of 10 KV and Bean current of 500 mA. If
the helix impedance is 25 Ω and the interaction length is 20 cm, Find the output power gain
in dB.

(Ans: υ0=0.593x108m/s; N=13.49; c=0.068, Ap=33.85 dB)

Problem2.

A TWT operates under the following parameters. Beam Voltage V0=3 KV, Beam current I0=30
mA, characteristic impedance of helix Z0=10 Ω, circuit length N=50, frequency F=10 GHz.
Determine C, Ap, all for propagation constant.

(Ans: C=2.92x10-2, Ap=59.52dB, Be=1.93x103rad/m

𝛾𝛾1=-49.03+j1952

𝛾𝛾2=49.03+j1952

𝛾𝛾3= j1872.25

𝛾𝛾4=-j1930)

Problem3.

A helical TWT has diameter of 2mm with 50 turns per cm a) Calculate the axial phase
velocity and the anode voltage at which TWT can be operated for useful gain.
1
υp= Velocity of light x Pitch / circumference; Pitch =50𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.02cm = 2x10-4m

Circumference = πD = 6.284x10-3m

2x10 −4
υp = 3x 108x 6.284x10 −3 =0.9548x107

1
𝑒𝑒𝑉𝑉0 = 𝑚𝑚υ2p
2
1 𝑚𝑚 2 1 9.1x10−31
𝑉𝑉0 = υ = x x(0.9548x107 )2
2 𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝 2 1.6x10−19
= 25.92 KV

4.3 Magnetron:

Magnetron -mode separation, frequency pushing and frequency pulling and applications.

Magnetron is a microwave crossed field tubes.

(M type). Resonant > Standing wave > Re-entrant > Magnetron

Magnetron is used as microwave oscillators.

Magnetron was invented by Hull in 1921. It was developed by Boot and Randall. It is active
microwave source.

The dc magnetic field and electric field are perpendicular to each other in magnetron, and
hence they are called as cross field device.

It generates high mw power required in radar and common systems.

Classification of magnetrons:

i) Split mode magnetron

ii) Cyclotron frequency magnetron

iii) Travelling wave magnetron

First two types are not considered here. Third one Travelling wave magnetron has following
sub divisional classification.

Magnetron oscillators are classified as cylindrical magnetron, Linear magnetron, Coaxial

magnetron, Frequency Agile coaxial magnetron.

Cylindrical Magnetron

Conventional Magnetron is this

Fig.4.2 Diagram of magnetron Top view

Fig. 4.3 Schematic diagram of magnetron Electron path in a cylindrical magnetron.

Fig.4.4 Lines of Force in π mode of δ cavity magnetron

Fig, 4.5 Equivalent circuit for one resonator of a magnetron

Structure:

Magnetron consist of cylindrical shaped. Anode, cathode, dc magnetic field, dc electric field,
cavities between cathode and anode.

Working:

In cylindrical magnetron, several re-entrant cavities are connected to the gaps. The dc
voltage V0

Fig. 4.6 Simplified circuit diagram of helix TWT

Fig. 4.7 Helical coil and One turn of helix

Amplification process:

Since the dc velocity of the electrons is slightly greater than the axial wave velocity, more
electrons are in the retarding field than in the accelerating field. So, a great amount of
energy is transferred from the beam to the EM field. The mw signal voltage is in turn
amplified by the compact and a larger amplification of the signal voltage occurs at the end
of the helix. The magnet produces an axial magnetic field, it prevents spreading of the
electron beam as it travels dan the tube. Attenuator at the center of helix reduces
oscillation from mismatched loads. The bunched electrons induce a new E-field with same
freq. This is turn induces a new amplified mw signal on helix.

Fig.4.8 Interaction between Electron Beam and Electric field

Convection current in the electron beam

𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 𝜔𝜔
induced by the axial electric field of 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑗𝑗 2𝑉𝑉 (𝐽𝐽 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽0−𝛾𝛾)2 𝐸𝐸1 where 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 𝜗𝜗 , is the phase
0 0

2𝑒𝑒
constant of the velocity modulated electron beam 𝜗𝜗0 = � 𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉0 . This equal is called the

electronic equn. for it determines the convection current. 𝜗𝜗0 = 0.593𝑥𝑥106 �𝑉𝑉0

I0 - dc current; V0 - Beam Voltage; δ is the propagation constant of the axial waves.

Axial Electric Field

Fig. 4.9 Equivalent circuit of slow wave structure-helix

Wave modes

This can be determined by solving electronic equal and circuit equation for the propagation
constants. There are 4 modes of TW in O-type TWT. The 4 propagation constants are

√3 𝑐𝑐
𝛾𝛾1 = −𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 �1 + �
2 2

√3 𝑐𝑐
𝛾𝛾2 = 𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 �1 + �
2 2
𝛾𝛾3 = 𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 (1 − 𝑐𝑐)

𝑐𝑐 3
𝛾𝛾4 = −𝑗𝑗𝛽𝛽𝑒𝑒 �1 − �
4

where c is the gain parameter.

Gain Consideration
1
𝐼𝐼0 𝑍𝑍0 3
The output power gain and gain parameter are discussed. Gain parameter, 𝐶𝐶 = � 4𝑉𝑉 �
0

where Z0 is characteristic impedance of helix Output power gain Ap = -9.54+47.33 NC where

𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓
N is circuit length 𝑁𝑁 = λ = 𝑙𝑙 𝜗𝜗
0 0

V0 is applied between the cathode and anode. The magnetic flux density Bo is in the positive
Z direction. When the dc voltage and the magnetic flux are adjusted properly, the electrons
will follow cylindrical paths in the Cathode - anode space under the combined force of both
electric and magnetic fields.

The Hull cut-off magnetic equation

1
𝑚𝑚 2
�8𝑉𝑉0 𝑒𝑒 �
𝐵𝐵0𝑐𝑐 =
𝑎𝑎2
𝑏𝑏 �1 − 2 �
𝑏𝑏

where a is a radius of the cathode cylinder, b is the radius from the center of the cathode to
the edge of the anode (Vane edge to center)

𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝑒
= 1.759x1011c/kg

V0 Anode dc voltage in KV.

2
𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 2
V0c = Hull cut off Voltage equation = 8𝑚𝑚 𝐵𝐵02 . 𝑏𝑏 2 �1 − 𝑏𝑏 2 �

B0 is magnetic flux density Wb/m2 cyclotron angles frequency:

𝑑𝑑∅ 𝑒𝑒
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 = 𝛽𝛽0 . = 𝐵𝐵
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 0
Power output and efficiency
𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉0 𝐼𝐼0 −𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
efficiency, 𝜂𝜂𝑒𝑒 = 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑉𝑉0 𝐼𝐼0

Power output, Pgen = V0I0-Port

Power input = V0I0

Problem

A cylindrical magnetron has Anode voltage of V0=26KV. Beam current I0 = 27A, Magnetic flux
density B0=0.3336 Wb/m2, a = 5 cm, b=10cm, compute cyclotron angles freq, cut of voltage,
cut off magnetic flux density

[Ans: ωc= 5.91x1010rad V0c= 139.50KV, B0c=14.495mwb/m2]

Mode separation

In magnetron, π-mode, and other modes are available. π mode is common mode. The
separation of π mode frequency from other modes is done by the strapping method
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Hartree Voltage 𝑉𝑉0ℎ = 𝑁𝑁
(𝑏𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑎2 )𝛽𝛽0 f is operating frequency.

N is no. of resonates

Advantages:

Magnetron can deliver a peak power output of 40mw. High efficiency ranging 40 to 70%

Disadvantages: Uses permanent magnets, which provides const. magnetic field.

Frequency pulling: Frequency pulling is caused by changes in the load impedance reflected
into the cavity resonators.

Frequency Pushing: Frequency pushing is due to the change in anode voltage alters

the orbital velocity of electron clouds. it is expressed as Hz/V

Applications:

Magnetrons are wide used on radar transmitters industrial heating and microwave ovens.
Fill in the blanks:

1. The gain parameter of TWT is __________

2. The Hull cut-off magnetic equation is __________
3. TWT is preferred over the Klystron amplifier is __________
4. In __________ device, the Kinetic energy of the beam remains unchanged in the
interaction between an electron beam and an RF wave
5. The main advantage of TWT over Klystron is __________

Review Questions

1. Explain Helix TWT operation and performance.

2. Explain magnetron working principle and applications.
3. List some major differences between the TWT and the klystron.
4. Write the characteristics of the TWT?
5. Why are slow wave structures used in tubes?
6. Draw the types of slow wave structures.
7. What slow wave structure is used in TWT?
8. State the Floquet's periodicity theorem.
9. Write the expression of convection current in TWT?
10. Determine the gain parameter, the output power gain AP in decibels of TWT under
the following parameters. Beam Voltage V0 = 3 KV, Beam Current I0 = 30 mA,
Characteristics impedance of helix Z0 = 10 Ω, Circuit Length N = 50, Frequency f = 10
GHz.
11. What are the types of magnetron?
12. What is magnetron?
13. Explain conventional cylindrical magnetron?
14. Obtain the Hull cut off magnetic equation?
15. Write the Hull cut off voltage equation?
16. Give the expression of the cyclotron angular frequency?
17. Compute the cyclotron angular frequency, the cut off voltage for a fixed B0, the cut
off magnetic flux density for a fixed V0 of cylindrical magnetron, having the following
parameter. Anode voltage V0 = 26 KV, Beam current I0 = 27 A, magnetic flux density
B0 = 0.336 Wb/m2, Radius of cathode cylinder a = 5 cm, Radius of vane edge to
center b = 10 cm
18. Write few application of TWT?
19. What is frequency pushing and frequency pulling in magnetron?
20. List few applications of magnetron.
21. What is inter electrode capacitance effect?
22. What are cross field tubes? Give one example?
23. What is mode jumping or mode separation in magnetron?
24. What is strapping in magnetron?
Multiple choice questions

1. 1. The advantages of TWT are

i) Large Bandwidth ii) High reliability iii) High gain iv) All the above
2. 2. The wave in the TWT is
i) a propagating wave ii) non-propagating wave iii) both iv) none
3. A tube consist of an electron beam and a slow wave structure is
i) TWT ii) Klystron iii) reflex klystron iv) magnetron
4. The cyclotron angular frequency of a conventional cylindrical magnetron is ωc =
𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚
i) 𝑚𝑚 𝐵𝐵0 ii) 𝑒𝑒
𝐵𝐵0 iii) 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝐵𝐵0 iv) none
5. Magnetrons are
i) Amplifiers ii) Oscillators iii) mixer iv) none
Unit-5

MICROWAVE SOLID STATE DEVICES

5.1 Introduction

5.2 PIN diode

5.3 Varactor diode

5.4 Gunn effect , GUNN diode

5.5 IMPATT, TRAPATT and BARITT Diodes

5.6 Parametric amplifier- Principle and characteristics.

5.1 Introduction

PIN diode, Varactor diode Gunn effect , GUNN diode, IMPATT , TRAPATT and BARITT Diodes,
Parametric amplifier- Principle and characteristics.

5.2 PIN Diode

It is one of the microwave solid state devices. The device acts as an electrically variable
resistor related to the 'i' layer thickness. It is used as a switch, amplitude modulator, phase
shifter and limiter in microwave frequency range

(Attenuator or) Duplexer

Symbol

Fig.5.1 PIN (p-intrinsic-n)

Construction of PIN diode

A PIN diode consist of a high resistivity intrinsic Solid State semiconductor layer between
two highly doped p+ and n+ semiconductor (Si, Gates) layers
Fig. 5.2 Pin diode and Equivalent circuit

Lp, Cp = Package inductance, capacitance

Rs = Bulk semiconductor layer and contact resistance

Rj, Cj = Junction resistance, capacitance of i layer.

Fig. Construction of PIN diode

Mec - metallic end cap

Si chip

CH - Ceramic housing

wc - wire contact

Principle:

The intrinsic layer has a very large resistance in reverse bias and it decrease in forward bias.
When mobile carriers from P and n regions are injected into the i layer, carvirs take tive such
that the diode ceases to act as a rectifier at microwave frequency. The diode appears as
liner resistance. This property makes it usable as a variable attenuator at microwave
frequency.

5.3 Varactor diode

These VD's are p-n junction diodes which provide a voltage variable junction capacitance in
microwave circuit when reverse biased.
Varactor is a short form of variable reactor - refering to the voltage variable capacitance of a
RB junction.

Symbols

Fig. 5.3 Varactor diodes symbols

Fig. 5.4 Varactor diode construction

Equivalent circuit

Fig. 5.5 Equivalent circuit of Varactor diodes

Fig. 5.6 Commercial Varactor diodes

1
Frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗
𝑉𝑉 −𝑛𝑛
Junction capacitance 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 = 𝐶𝐶0 �1 + 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 �
𝐵𝐵

n = constant; 0.5 and 0.33

C0 = junction capacitance for zero bias

VR = Reverse bias Voltage

VB = Barrier potential

Cj is indirectly proportional to depletion layer width Wd

1
𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 ∞
𝑊𝑊𝑑𝑑

Working operation

In forward bias, it is working as normal p-n junction diode Voltage is increased, the
depletion layer width Wd increases. The junction capacitance Cj decreases. The frequency
increases to high microwave frequency level.

Characteristics

This Varactor diode gives the non liner Cj - V characteristics

Fig. 5.7 V.I. characteristics

Construction of Varactor Diode

Fig. 5.8 Varactor diode structure

The Varactor Diode contains electrical loads attached to the semiconductor wafer, and a
lead to ceramic tube or case. Diffused junction MESA is at the center. Both top and bottom
Gold plated studs are attached. Gold plated wire around the diffused silicon layers.

Figure of merit of a Varactor diode

1
Static form 1. cut off frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗

𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
2. Quality factor 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑓𝑓

1 1 1
Dynamic form 1. Dynamic fc 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 = �𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶 � 2𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅
𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 0 𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆 1
2. Dynamic Quality 𝑄𝑄 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔1 ∴ 𝑆𝑆1 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑠𝑠 1

Applications of Varactor Diodes

They are used in several applications. They are

1. Harmonic generation
2. microwave frequency multiplication (up conversion)
3. Low Noise amplification (parametric amplifiers)
4. Pulse generation and pulse shaping.
5. Tuning stage of a radio receiver replacing the bulky variable plate capacitor
6. Active filters
7. switching circuits and modulation of microwave signal.

Fig. 5.9 Varactor diode multiplication circuit.

5.4 Gunn effect - GUNN diode

GUNN Diode is one of the active microwave sources. Also it is classified under one of the
transferred Electron devices (TEDs).

This Diode is working on the principle of Gunn effect. Gunn invented this diode in 1963. This
diode is also known as Gunn effect diodes.

Gunn effect

Gunn had taken n-type GaAs specimen. It was covered at the end surfaces by ohmic metal
coated and the other cathode. An electric field of 2000 - 4000 volts/cm is applied to the
specimen through anode and cathode. Above some critical voltage, the current in every
specimen become a fluctuating function of time. In this, the fluctuation took the form of a
periodic oscillation super imposed on the pulse current. The frequency of oscillation was
determined by specimen, not by the external circuit. The period of oscillation was inversely
proportional to the specimen length. It was closely equal to the transit time off electrons
between the electrodes.

The carrier drift velocity increased from zero to maximum. When the E is varied from 0 to
threshold value of 3000 V/cm after that the drift velocity is decreased and the diode exhibits
negative resistance. The threshold Electric field Eth varied with the length and the type of
material. ETH = V/L. The current oscillations caused be the periodic function produced
frequency at microwave ranges. This is known as Gunn effect.

Fig. 5.10 Schematic diagram of n type GaAs diode.

Fig. 5.11 Gunn diode symbol and structure

Gunn diode

This diode can be constructed by using n type GaAs, P-type GaAs, n-type InP.

Construction

Fig. 5.12 Construction details of Gunn diode

The structure consists of n-type GaAs semiconductor with regions of high doping n+. Since
the GaAs is poor conductor, considerable heat is generated in the diode when it is applied
dc voltage across the device electrodes. Hence diode is bounded with metal contacts as heat
sink.

Equivalent circuit

Fig. 5.13 Equivalent circuit of Gunn diode

Working operation

When the GaAs is biased with a dc source of voltage V, at electric field, E is generated inside
the sample upto threshold value, the drift velocity increases with E, when E exceeds Eth, the
drift velocity reduces the diode exhibits negative resistance. It is utilized for making
microwave Gunn oscillators. The operation is explained for these Valley model.

Characteristics

voltage controlled mode

Current controlled mode

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = negative resistance

Drift velocity vd = f.L; f = frequency; L = device length;

J is current density = q n v; q = 1.6 x 10-19; n = doping concentration; v = average electron

velocity
𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑
negative electron mobility 𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 = 𝐸𝐸
Fig. 5.14 Two valley mode of electron energy Vs wave number for n type GaAs.

Transfer of Electron

Fig. 5.15 Transfer of Electron densities

If electron densities in lower and upper valleys are nl, nu the conductivity σ of n type GaAs is

𝜎𝜎 = 𝑒𝑒(𝜇𝜇𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑙𝑙 + 𝜇𝜇𝑢𝑢 𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑢 )

e = charge; µ = electron mobility; n = nl+nu -density

Mode of Operation

1. Gunn oscillation mode or TTn

2. Stable amplification mode
3. LSA oscillation mode
4. Bias circuit oscillation mode

TTdm. fL approximately 107 cm/s

Delayed 106 < fL< 107

Quenched fL > 2 x 107

LAS fL > 2 x 107

LAS - Limited Space charge Accumulation

Advantage of Gunn diode

1. Bandwidth is 2% of centre frequency.

2. Construction is easy with single n type GaAs
3. Size is small and rugged

Disadvantages

1. Power output is generated in few watts for continuous wave 100-200w for pulsed wave.

Application of Gunn diode

It is used as microwave oscillator in laboratory experiments within X-band of microwave

frequencies.

5.5 IMPATT, TRAPATT, BARITT Diodes

IMPATT Diodes

It is one of the Avalanche TT devices. Another name for this diodes is Read - type diodes.
IMPATT - stands for Impact ionization avalanche transit time.

Physical structure

Fig. 5.16 PIN diode structure

This IMPATT diode structure is p+ -n-i- n+ (or) n+ -p-i- p+ type.

Its basic physical mechanism is the interaction of the impact ionization avalanche and the
transit time of charge carriers.

Application

IMPATT diodes are at present the most powerful continuous wave solid state microwave
power source.

These diodes have been fabricated from germanium, Silicon, and Gallium arsenide and can
probably be constructed from other semiconductors as well.

Parameters of IMPATT diode

Carrier drift velocity, vd

Drift region length, L

Maximum operating Voltage, V0max

Maximum operating current, I0max

𝑃𝑃
Efficiency 𝜂𝜂 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Break down voltage = V0d

Power Outputs Pac = 𝜂𝜂Pdc

Pdc = power input = V0max I0max

𝑣𝑣
Resonant frequency 𝑓𝑓 = 2𝐿𝐿𝑑𝑑

Performance Characteristics of IMPATT diode

Potentially reliable

Compact in size

in expensive

moderately efficient microwave power sources

Frequency 1 to 300 GHz

Theoretical 𝜂𝜂 = 30%

Fig. 5.17 IMPATT diode schematic diagram

Fig. 5.18 Constructional details of IMPATT

Equivalent Circuit
Fig. 5.19 Equivalent Circuit of IMPATT diode

Disadvantages.

1. Very noisy due to avalanche

2. Tuning range is not good

TRAPATT Diode

TRAPATT diodes are manufactured from Si. They have p+ n n+ or n+ p p+ configuration. They
are one of the Avalanche Transit time devices. TRAPATT stands for Trapped Plasma
Avalanche Triggered Transmit

TRAPATT diode is suitable for low frequency (1 - 3 GHz) applications with pulsed power
output of several hundred watts. The efficiency is 20 - 60%. This diode is used as oscillator.

Physical Structures

Fig. 5.20 TRAPATT diode structure in Reverse bias

Disadvantages of TRAPATT diode

i) High noise figure of 60 dB, It limits its use as an amplifier.

ii) It generates strong harmonics due to the short duration current pulse.

Characteristics curve
C - Charging

P - Plasma formation

E - Plasma Extraction

Fig. 5.21 Voltage and current wave form for TRAPATT diode

Parameters of TRAPATT diode

Doping concentration, NA . . . . . in cm-3 Ts - Transit time

Current density, J . . . . . KA/cm2 Ts = L / vs

Avalanche zone velocity vz . . . . . cm/S

𝐽𝐽
𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝑞𝑞𝑁𝑁 where q is 1.6 x 10-19; Power output, Efficiency
𝐴𝐴

Principles of operation

This diode works on trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit operation.

The basic operation is a semiconductor p-n junction diode reverse biased to current
densities well in excess of those encountered in normal avalanche operation. A high field
avalanche zone propagates through the diode and fills the depletion layer with a dense
plasma of electrons and holes that become trapped in the low field region behind the zone.

Power output and Efficiency

RF power is delivered by the diode. Pulsed power of 1.2 KW has been obtained as highest
Efficiency of 75% has been achieved as highest.

Advantages

1. It is a high efficiency microwave generator

2. Operating Bandwidth 1 GHz - 10 GHz
3. Small in size
4. Ruggedness

Application
1. TRAPATT diode is used as an oscillator in microwave ranges for radars radio systems.

AB - Charging

BC - Plasma formation

DE - Plasma Extraction

EF - residual Extractions

FG - Charging

Fig. 5.22 Configuration of TRAPATT in a circuit

BARITT Diodes

BARITT Stands for Barrier Injected Transit Time.

BARITT Diode is one of the Avalanche Transit time devices.

It is classified under active microwave diodes. BARITT diode are formed by forward biased p-
n junction with p-n-p or p-n-i-p or p-n metal or metal - n - metal configurations

Physical description

They have long drift regions similar to those of IMPATT diodes. Because of their metal - n -
metal configuration, it is called as M - n - M diode
Fig. 5.23 M - n - M diode or BARITT diode.

Fig. Energy band diagram in Thermal equilibrium.

Fig. Energy band under bias condition.

Principles of operation

The forward biased p-n junction emits holes into the v - region. The holes drift with
saturation velocity through the v region and are collected at the p contact.

Construction

n - type silicon wafer is taken and it is sandwiched between two barrier metal contacts of
0.1 mm thickness.

Fig. 5.24 Construction of BARITT diode

Performance Characteristics

Fig. Current Vs Voltage characteristics cure of BARITT diode

Frequency : 4 - 8 GHz

Power : 50 mW at 4.9 GHz

Efficiency : 1.8%

Noise fig : 9 dB at 6.35 GHz with 15 dB gain

Applications

BARITT diodes are used for amplifiers rather than oscillators.

Mechanism
1. The rapid increase of the carrier injection process caused by the decreasing potential
barrier of the forward biased metal semiconductor contact.

2. An apparent 3π/2 transit angle of the injected carrier that traverses the semiconductor
depletion region.

Microwave performance

Continuous wave microwave performance of M-n-M type BARITT diode was obtain all over
the entire C band of 4 to 8 GHz. The G bandwidth product of a 6 GHz BARITT diode was 19
dB.

Parameters

Relative dielectric constant of Si Semiconductor εr = 11.8

Donor concentration N

Silicon Length, L

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝐿𝐿2
Break down voltage 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝜀𝜀 𝑟𝑟

𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Break down electric field 𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝐿𝐿

Principle of operation

Minority charge carriers are injected into the drift region. The TT through the drift region
provides registered phase shift between the current and voltage to give a negative
resistance. When the diode is mounted in a resonator, a noise spike generates microwave
voltage across the diode.

During +ve H cycle the tot voltage produces a shape pulse of minority carrier current in the
drift region.

During drift time, a constant extra current delivers energy to the resonator from the dc bias
source to maintain a continuous wave oscillation.

Advantages

1. Less noisy device, Noise figure, NF < 15 dB

2. Forward biased working
3. Less harmonics
4. Small in size
5. Ruggedness

Disadvantages
1. Efficiency is very low 1.8%
2. Low power output
3. Bandwidth narrow.

Compared to our ordinary pn junction diode, the PIN diode can be biased at a high negative
potential because of large breakdown voltage (= - 500 V)

Comparison of IMPATT, TRAPATT, BARITT diodes

IMPATT diode TRAPATT diode BARITT diode

Its full form is Impact Its full form is Trapped Its full form is Barrier
ionisation Avalanche Transit Plasma Avalanche Triggered Injection Transit Time diode
Time Transit Time

Operating frequency is 1 to 3 GHz 4 GHz to 8 GHz

between about 4 GHz and
200 GHz

Used as oscillators Used as microwave

oscillators

It is a kind of high power It is a kind of high power This diode construction is

semiconductor microwave semiconductor microwave two diodes placed back to
device device back.

Applications: Applications:
Radar systems proximity Burglar alarm
Alarms

Construction:
Fig. Symbol

Operation: The working principle is that This diode uses thermionic

the avalanche front emission rather than
This diode uses avalanche
advances faster than the multiplication of avalanche.
breakdown united with the
saturation velocity of the
transit time of the charge
carriers.
carriers to facilitate it to
offer negative resistance
region and then perform as
an microwave oscillator.

Advantages: Advantages: Advantage:

i) High power capability i) high efficient oscillator Less noisy than IMPATT
than IMPATT.
ii) Output is reliable
ii) Low power dissipation

Principle of operation Plasma avalanche Thermionic Emission

Avalanche multiplication

Output Power: 250 W Just few milli watts.

1 watt if continuous 550 W

wave(cw) power

400 W if pulsed power.

Efficiency 35% & 60% 5% & 20%

3% efficiency if cw,

60% if pulsed powers.

Noise figure: 30 dB Very high Noise Figure: 60 dB Low Noise Figure : 15 dB.

Disadvantage: Disadvantage: Disadvantage:

The level of noise on the
Phase noise level is high Narrow Bandwidth.
signal is higher than IMPATT
High noise figure Limited few milli watts of
Not suitable for cw
power
High operating Current operation

High noise figure

Applications: used in i) used in microwave i) used in mixers

beacons
i) Voltage controlled impact ii) oscillators
oscillators ii) instrument landing
iii) small signal amplifiers
system.
ii) Low power radar systems
iii) LO in radar
iii) Injection locked amplifiers

iv) cavity stabilized IMPATT

diode oscillators

5.6 Parametric amplifier- Principle and characteristics

Parametric Amplifier

It is a low noise amplifier. In this, non-linear reactance is used. No resistance is involved in

the amplifying process. Varactor diode is the most widely used active element in a
parametric amplifier. As the active device involved in reactive capacitive, there will be no
thermal noise. Amplification is obtained when the reactance is varied electronically at some
frequency higher than the signal frequency being amplified.

Working

In pA, the pump generator acts as a local oscillator and varactor diode acts as the mixer. The
output circuit which does not require external excitation is known as idler circuit. The
output frequency is called as idler frequency. It is defined as the sum and difference
frequencies of signal frequency fs and pump frequency fp.

i.e., f0 = mfp ± nfs

The signal frequency fs and pump frequency fp are mixed in a non linear capacitor C(t) to
generate voltage at fundamental frequencies fp, fs as well as idler frequencies across C(t)
Fig. Equivalent circuit of a parametric Amplifier

If f0 > fs the device is up converter

Types of parametric amplifiers

i) Parametric up converter

ii) Parametric down converter

iii) Negative resistance Parametric Amplifier

iv) Degenerate resistance Parametric Amplifier

v) Broadband resistance Parametric Amplifier

vi) Cooled resistance Parametric Amplifier

Parameters of P.A.

The power gain, noise figure and bandwidth are the three parameters of P.A.

Manley Rowe power gain relations

For predicting whether power gain is possible in parametric amplifier, there relations are
useful. The equivalent circuit for Manley Rowe relations is given below.

Fig. Equivalent circuit of Manley Power relations

The Manley Rowe relations for any single valued, non linear, lossless reactance are given by
two independent equations.
∞ ∞
𝑚𝑚 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 ,𝑛𝑛
� � =0
𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 + 𝑛𝑛𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 =−∞ 𝑛𝑛 =−∞

and
∞ ∞
𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 ,𝑛𝑛
� � =0
𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝 + 𝑛𝑛𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 =−∞ 𝑛𝑛 =−∞

where Pm, n is the average power flow into the non linear reactance at frequencies±
(mfp+nfs).

m, n are integers from 0 to ∝

Application of P.A.

PAs are used in long range radar systems, Satellite ground station systems, radio telescopes,
artificial satellites, microwave ground wave communications, radio astronomy etc.

Fill in the blanks:

1. A PIN diode can be used as microwave __________ switch

2. A Varactor diode may not be useful at microwave frequencies for __________
3. The natural frequency of oscillation in a GaAs Gunn diode the drift velocity is 107
cm/s and active region length is 10-3 cm. __________
4. In Gunn diode, electrons are transferred from __________
5. The operating frequency of the IMPATT diode, if it has a drift length of 4 µm, and
drift velocity of Si 105 m/s is __________
6. __________ is the advantage of TRAPATT diode over IMPATT diode.
7. BARITT diodes are primarily used for __________ rather than __________ because
of lower efficiencies.
8. __________ is a semiconductor device in which junction capacitance can be varied
as a function of reverse voltage.
9. __________ is a non linear reactance or time varying reactance for its amplification.

Review Questions

1. Explain the PIN diode operation and applications

2. Explain Varactor diode by its construction details, equivalent circuit.
3. Mention the figure of merit of a Varactor diode
4. Write the applications of Varactor diodes.
5. Explain the Gunn effect in Transferred Electron Devices.
6. What are the materials used for making of Gunn diode.
7. Explain the modes of operation for Gunn diode
8. Explain the Gunn oscillation mode.
9. Write the applications of Gunn diode.
10. Explain IMPATT diode construction, schematic diagram, characteristic curves.
11. Explain TRAPATT diode in terms of schematic, operation, applications.
12. Explain the BARITT diode by its construction, performance, characteristics,
applications.
13. Compare IMPATT, TRAPATT, BARITT diodes characteristics.
14. Explain the parametric amplifier with its principle and characteristics.
15. What is idler frequency?
16. What are up converter, down converter in parametric amplifiers?
17. What is degenerated parametric amplifiers?
18. Give applications of parametric amplifiers.
19. Draw the equivalent circuit of parametric amplifiers.

Multiple choice questions

1. Read-Type diodes are called

i) IMPATT diode ii) Varactor diode iii) TRAPATT diode iv) BARITT diode
2. Noise Figure of IMPATT diode is
i) 30 dB ii) 60 dB iii) 15 dB iv) 45 dB
3. A parametric device is one that uses a
i) linear reactance ii) non-linear reactance
4. The electron drift velocity of a n-type GaAs Gunn diode is
i) fL ii) f/L iii) L/f iv) 2fL
5. A diode consist of a high resistivity intrinsic Solid State semiconductor layer is
i) PIN ii) Varactor iii) Gunn iv) IMPATT
6. In parametric amplifier used in microwave communication system, the gain is mainly
restricted by
i) ambient temperature ii) pump frequency
iii) pump bandwidth iv) pump energy
7. In parametric amplifier, the pump energy is the deciding factor for which one of the
following?
i) Frequency stability ii) maximum output
iii) Amplification factor iv) Thermal noise level
Unit-6

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Power measurement

6.2.1 Bolometric methods for measurement of power

6.2.2 Thermocouple methods for measurement of power

6.3 Frequency measurement

6.4 Attenuation measurement

6.5 VSWR measurement

6.6 Impedance measurements

6.7 Measurement of scattering parameter For 3 and 4 port devices.

6.1 Introduction

Bolometric and thermocouple methods for measurement of power, Frequency, Attenuation,

VSWR, Impedance measurements and measurement of scattering parameter For 3 and 4
port devices.
6.2 Microwave Power Measurements:

A microwave power meter is an instrument, which measures the electrical power at

microwave frequencies typically in the range of 100 MHz to 40 GHz.

Power meter

It consists of a measuring head which contains the actual power sensing element connected
via cable to the point where power to be measured. The head is referred to as power sensor
or mount.

One of the sensors is thermal type sensors. This is classified as 1. Thermo couple power
sensors and 2. Thermistor based power sensors

Thermal sensors depend on the process of absorbing the RF and microwave signal energy
and sense the resulting heat rise. Therefore, they respond to true average power of the
signal whether it is pulsed power or continuous power.

Thermocouple sensors move up the majority of the thermal power sensors. They are
reasonably linear and fast response time, dynamic range. The microwave power is absorbed
in a load whose temperature rise is measured by thermocouple. Thermocouple often
require a reflect DC or microwave power some for sensors calibration before measuring.
This can be built into the power meter.

6.2.1 Bolometer:

It is a device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation.

Fig. 6.1 Block diagram of Power measurement

A bolometer consists of an absorptive element such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a

thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link.
Fig. 6.2 Bolometer

6.2.2 Thermocouple

Power P from an incident signal is absorbed by the bolometer and heats up a Thermal mass
with heat capacity C and temperature T. The thermal mass is connected to a reservoir of
constant temperature through link with thermal conductance G. The temperature increase
is ∆T = P/G. The change in temperature is read out with a resistive thermometer. The
intrinsic thermal time constant is T=C/G. The average response time of the bolometer allows
convenient measurement of power of a pulsed source.

Fig. 6.3 Thermocouple

A thermo couple is an electric device consisting of tow dissimilar electrical conductors at

different temperature. It produces a temperature dependant voltage.
Fig. 6.4 Bolometer used bridge circuit for power measurement

Low power is 0.0l mw to 10 mw by bolometric technique Baratter has a positive

temperature coefficient whose R increases with T increase. Thermistor has negative
temperature coefficient whose R decrease with T increase. Any of them can be used.

6.3 Attenuation Measurement

Microwave components and devices almost always provide some degree of attenuation.
Attenuation is defined as the ratio of input power to the output power and is normally
expressed in decibels.
𝑃𝑃
i.e., Attenuation (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑0 = 10 log �𝑃𝑃 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 �
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

where Pin = input power

and Pout = output power

The attenuation can be measured by two methods. i) Power ratio method, ii) RF substitution
method.

Each method has two set of configuration. First the Device whose attenuation is to be
measured is taken. In the microwave bench first without connecting the device under test
(DUT), power is measured. Next, By connecting the DUT in the microwave Bench power is
measured.

Power Ratio method

This method involves measuring the input power and output without the DUT, with DUT.
Fig. 6.5 Setup1, Power ratio method

Fig. 6.6 Setup2, Power ratio method.

The powers are measured in each setup as P1 and P2. The ratio of powers P1/P2 expressed in
decibels gives the attenuation. The drawback of this method is that the attenuation
measured corresponds to two power position on the power meter with a Square law crystal
detector characteristics.

Fig. 6.7 Square Law characteristics of crystal diode.

RF substitution method

This method overcomes the drawback of power ratio method. Here we measure
attenuation at a single power position. The method consists of measuring the output power
say 'P' by including the network whose attenuation is to be measured in setup.

Fig. 6.8 Setup1- RF substitution method

In Setup 2 of RF substitution method, this network is replaced by a variable precision

calibrated attenuator which can be adjusted to obtain the power P as measured in setup1.
Under this condition, the attenuation read on the precision attenuator gives attenuation
values of the network directly as P2.
Fig. 6.9 Setup2 RF substitution method.

6.4 VSWR measurements

VSWR is denoted by the symbol 'S'. It ranges from 1 to infinity. 1 ≤ 𝑆𝑆 < ∞ But 'S' close to
unity i.e. < 2 is desired.
1+𝛤𝛤
VSWR (or) 𝑆𝑆 = 1−𝛤𝛤𝐿𝐿
𝐿𝐿

𝑍𝑍 −𝑍𝑍
𝜞𝜞L is reflection coefficient = 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 +𝑍𝑍0
𝐿𝐿 0

ZL = Load impedance

Z0 = characteristics impedance

VSWR and voltage reflection coefficient are very important parameters, which determine
the degree of impedance matching.

When a ZL ≠ Z0, load is connected to Transmission line, standing waves are produced. By
inserting a slotted line in the system, standing waves can be traced by moving the carriage
with a tunable probe detector along the line. By detecting Vmax and Vmin by adjusting
carriage, VSWR can be measured in the VSRW meter.
𝑉𝑉
VSRW = S = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Fig. 6.10 VSWR measurement in microwave Bench setup.

VSWR is classified into low VSWR high VSWR

If S < 20, it is low VSWR

If S > 20, it is High VSWR

Low VSWR
Low values of VSWR can be measured directly from the VSWR meter using the experimental
set up shown in figure.

Fig. 6.11 VSWR meter.

The slotted section carriage probe is moved to set Vmax and Vmin. This is the method of using
a square law basis.

High VSWR

For high VSWR, the difference of power at maximum, minimum level is large hence double
minimum method is introduced led the ratio of line voltage near a minimum and the
λ𝑔𝑔
voltage at the minimum be S =
𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑥𝑥

∆x = x2 - x1
λ𝑔𝑔
S = 𝜋𝜋(x2 − x1)

Fig. 6.12 Double minimum method.

This high VSWR can be measured by observing the distance between two successive minima
to find λg.

and distance ∆x between two 3dB points on both sides of Vmin

The steps are given below

1. The probe is moved to a voltage minimum and the probe depth and gain centre is
adjusted to read 3 dB in the VSWR meter.
2. The probe is moved either side of the minimum to read 0 dB in meter. This position
x1 is noted. Then the probe is moved to other side to read 0 dB again at x2.
3. By moving the probe between two successive minimum a distance equal to λg/2 is
found to determine the guide wavelength λg.
λ𝑔𝑔
4. High VSWR is calculated from 𝑆𝑆 = 𝜋𝜋(𝑋𝑋
1 −𝑋𝑋2 )

S-parameter measurement of Four port network device

Examples for 4 port device are Directional coupler, Magic Tee, or Hybrid Tee etc, circulators

The simple type of 4 port device is DC

S-matrix of an arbitrary 4 port network device is

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆14

𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 𝑆𝑆24
[𝑆𝑆] = � 21 �
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33 𝑆𝑆34
𝑆𝑆41 𝑆𝑆42 𝑆𝑆43 𝑆𝑆44

Fig. 4 port Device under S-parameter measurement

For each port, first i) Power the port ii) Terminate the rest iii) measure the voltages.

For a four port device, if it is matched, Smm = 0

S11 = S22 = S33 = S44 = 0

i.e., all diagonal elements are zero

For a four port network, if it is reciprocal, Sij = Sji

i.e., S12 = S21; S23 = S32; S13 = S31; S24 = S42;

S34 = S43; S41 = S14

For a four port network, if it is lossless,

|S11|2+|S21|2+|S31|2+|S41|2= 1

|S13|2+|S22|2+|S32|2+|S42|2= 1
i.e., ∑𝑁𝑁 2
𝑚𝑚 =1 |𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 | = 1 for all n

Measurement of scattering parameters for 3 port devices

 Three port devices examples are power divider, E-plane Tee, H-plane Tee.
 The simple type of three port device is power divider.
 It is also known as T-junction
 T-junction is a three port network with two inputs and one output.
 The S-matrix of an arbitrary three port network has nine independent elements.
 S-matrix of 3port network device is

Fig. Three port measurement

Fig. 3-port device under S-parameter measurement with P1 terminated with a 50Ω load

 For each port, port1, port2, port3 in turn

i) power it up ii) Terminate the rest of ports iii) measure all voltage V's
 For a three port network device, if it is loss less |S11|2+|S21|2+|S31|2= 1
 For a three port network device, is reciprocal, it should be Sij = Sji
i.e., S12 = S21; S13 = S31; S23 = S32
 For a three port network device, is matched Smm = 0; i.e., all diagonal elements are
zero
 At a time, all matched, lossless, reciprocal properties in 3 port network do not exist.

Measurement of scattering parameter for 3 port devices

First two port devices

S-parameters for 2 port devices are S11 S12 S21 S22

These S-parameters can be measured by using Network Analyzer for a 2 port network. A
vector network analyser can measure complex transmission reflection characteristics of
several microwave devices as a function of frequency, i.e., it measure both magnitude and
phase.

DUT - device under Test; Dual DC = Duel directional coupler

Fig. S-parameter measurement set up

Amplitude : V1 V2 V3 V4

Phase : ø 1 ø2 ø3 ø4

In this setup, Amplitude, phase from the ports through dual DC is measured.

𝑉𝑉2
𝑆𝑆11 = (∅ − ∅1 )
𝑉𝑉1 2

𝑉𝑉3
𝑆𝑆21 = (∅ − ∅1 )
𝑉𝑉1 3

For measuring S22, S12 the RF signal source and load are interchanged

𝑉𝑉3
𝑆𝑆22 = (∅ − ∅4 )
𝑉𝑉4 3

𝑉𝑉2
𝑆𝑆12 = (∅ − ∅4 )
𝑉𝑉4 2

Three Port analysis

The first step in performing is calibrations. The purpose of calibration is to quantity each of
these error terms through measurement of standards.

S11 - input Reflection coefficient

S22 - output Reflection coefficient

S21 - Transmission coefficient

S12 - Transmission coefficient

𝑆𝑆11 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13

[𝑆𝑆] = �𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 � Three port network
𝑆𝑆31 𝑆𝑆32 𝑆𝑆33

A certain three port network is measured and the following S-parameter is determined at a
frequency.

1 0 1 −1
[𝑆𝑆] = �1 0 𝑗𝑗 �
√2 −𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 0

a) Determine if the network is symmetric and if loss less

b) If a SC is placed at port2 what will the resulting S-parameter?

c) if port3 is terminated and port2 is left open what will S11?

i) If all 3 ports are matched S11 = S22 = S33 = 0

If 3 ports are not reciprocal, then Sij = Sji; So, not symmetric

The simple type of power divider is T-junction, which is a three port network with 2 inputs
and one output. The S-matrix of an arbitrary 3 port network has nine independent
elements.

If the component is passive and contains no anisotropic materials, then it must be

reciprocal and symmetric (Sij = Sji)

|S11|2+|S21|2 = 1 mean the network is lossy

RL = -20 log 𝜞𝜞

All ports are matched, and network is reciprocal.

0 𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13
�𝑆𝑆12 0 𝑆𝑆23 �
𝑆𝑆13 𝑆𝑆23 0

Multiport measurement
For each port in turn
*Power it up
*Terminate the rest
*measure all V's

Problem:

S-parameters of a 3 port device is given below. Determine the all elements of S-matrix of S
matrix if the device is loss less and reciprocal. (Note: consider S-parameters are real)

All matched, loss less reciprocal properties do not exist in 3port network at a time.
1
2
𝑆𝑆12 𝑆𝑆13
𝑆𝑆 = �𝑆𝑆21 𝑆𝑆22 𝑆𝑆23 �
1
𝑆𝑆32 0
√2

1 1
𝑆𝑆11 = ; 𝑆𝑆31 = ; 𝑆𝑆33 = 0
2 √2

Given an example of a scattering matrix for a matched, 3port device.

Power divider It is a T-junction, which is 3 port network with 2 inputs and one output.

If Sij = Sji; S12 = S21 = 1/2

reciprocal S13 = S31 = 1/√2

S23 = S32 = 1/√2

Fig. Three port device under S-parameter measurement with port1 terminate with a 50 Ω
load.
Matched Smm = 0 all diagonal elements are zero. Lossless Poutput = Pinput

|S11|2+|S21|2+|S31|2+|S41|2=1

1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
3 2 1 1
� � + (𝑆𝑆21 )2 + � � = 1; + 𝑆𝑆21 + = 1; 𝑆𝑆21 = 1 − ; 𝑆𝑆21 = ; 𝑆𝑆21 =
2 √2 4 𝑠𝑠 4 4 2

∑𝑁𝑁 2
𝑚𝑚 =1 |𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 | = 1 for all n

|S13|2+|S22|2+|S32|2+|S42|2=1
2
1 2 2
� � + 𝑆𝑆22 + 𝑆𝑆32 =1
√2
|S13|2+|S23|2+|S33|2=1

1 2 1 1 1 1
2
� � + 𝑆𝑆23 2
+ 02 = 1; 𝑆𝑆23 = 1 − = ; 𝑆𝑆23 = � =
√2 2 2 2 √2

1 2
1 2
+ 𝑆𝑆22 + = 1; 𝑆𝑆22 = 0; 𝑆𝑆22 = 0
2 2

Fill in the blanks:

1. For the measurement of low power, less than 10 mW, __________ technique is used
2. Bolometer is a simple temperature sensitive device whose resistance __________
3. __________ method is used frequency measurement.
4. Attenuation measurements are made by __________ methods.
5. For VSWR > 10, the method used is __________
6. __________ measurement can be done using magic Tee, using slotted line, using
reflector meter
7. __________ are the S-parameters known as reflection coefficient in 3 port devices.
8. __________ are the S-parameters known as transmission coefficient for 4 port
device.

Review Questions

1. Explain the power measurements in microwave system.

2. Explain the frequency measurement.
3. Explain the attenuator measurement.
4. Explain VSWR measurement.
5. Explain impedance measurements.
6. Explain the S-parameter measurements for 3 port devices.
7. Explain the S-parameter measurements for 4 port devices.

Devices Principles

Microwave circulator Faraday Rotation

Isolator Faraday Rotation

Waveguides Total internal reflection

Tunnel diode Negative Resistance characteristics

TEDs Operate with hot electrons whose energy is

very much greater than thermal energy.

Klystron Amplifier Velocity and circuit modulation

Reflex Klystron oscillator Velocity modulation

Helix Travelling Wave Tubes The interaction of electron beam and RF

field in the slow wave structure.

Magnetron Crossed field electric and magnetic field

Gunn Diode Negative Resistance Region

Microwave Components / device Application

Rectangular waveguides For transmission of microwave signals

Circular Waveguides For transmission of microwave signals

Rectangular Resonators Used in microwave oscillators amplifiers,

wave meters and filters.

Cylindrical Resonators Used in microwave oscillators amplifiers,

wave meters and filters.

E- Plane Tee Used to connect a branch or section of the

waveguide in series or parallel with the main
waveguide transmission line for providing
means of splitting and also combining power
in waveguide systems.

H - plane Tee Used to connect a branch or section of the

waveguide in series or parallel with the main
waveguide transmission line for providing
means of splitting and also combining power
in waveguide systems.

Magic Tee Used in microwave circuits such as EH Tuner

for impedance matching, or Balanced mixer,
power combiner and duplexer.

Directional Couplers Used for coupling a known fraction of the

microwave power to a part in auxiliary line.

Hybrid Ring Alternative to Magic Tee, used in RF and

microwave systems as duplexer.

Ferrites Used in Phase shifters

Gyrators Used as Non-reciprocal Phase shifters in

microwave circuits, as inductor in LF

Circulators Used as non-reciprocal device in microwave

circuits.

Isolators Used as isolating device in microwave

circuits.
Two cavity klystron amplifier Low power microwave amplifier

Reflex klystron oscillator Used as low power microwave oscillator

TWT Used as Amplifiers in medium power and

high power satellite transponders

PIN Diode Used as High power microwave oscillator in

Radar and communication systems.

PIN diode for Attenuation, modulation

switching, Phase shifting and Limit

Varactor diode Varactor diode for Frequency multiplying

Parametric Amplification and Tuning

Gunn Diode For producing microwave oscillation

IMPATT diode Used as oscillators as well as Amplifiers

TRAPATT diode Use as Oscillators

BARITT diode Used as local oscillators

Parametric Amplifier Used in space communication systems,

Radio Telescopes and Tropo - receivers.

Microwave systems or microwave bench setup components

Microwave Source (Reflex Klystron Mount with Oscillator Tube)

Waveguide

Wave meter

Frequency meter
Calibrated Variable attenuator

Transmitting Horn Antenna

Receiving Horn Antenna

Waveguide stand
H-plane Tee

E-plane Tee

Slotted section

Directional coupler

Detector Mount
Fixed Attenuator

Gunn Oscillator

Pin Modulator

Phase Shifter
Tunable Probe

Matched Termination / Waveguide Termination

Isolator

Circulator
BNC probes

Hybrid Ring

Microwave Experiment bench setup

Research & Development in microwaves

Microwave Tube Research & Development Centre (MTRDC) is an ISO 9001:2008 certified
laboratory of Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO), Ministry of Defence.
It was established in 1984 to develop advanced types of microwave tubes to meet the
present and futuristic needs of the country and establish self-reliance in this strategic area.
MTRDC is located in Bharat Electronics Complex at Jalahalli, Bangalore. MTRDC has a team
of about 145 highly qualified scientists, technicians and support personnel. MTRDC is
focusing on design and development of various microwave tubes, electronic power
conditioners, microwave power modules and transmitters for communication, Radar and
Electronic Warfare (EW) systems and other applications.

Society for Applied Microwave Electronics Engineering & Research (SAMEER) was set up as
an autonomous R & D laboratory at Mumbai under the then Department of Electronics,
Government of India with a broad mandate to undertake R & D work in the areas of
Microwave Engineering and Electromagnetic Engineering Technology. It is an offshoot of the
special microwave products unit (SMPU) set up in 1977 at the TATA INSTITUTE OF
FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH (TIFR), Mumbai. SAMEER, Mumbai was setup in 1984.The centre
of Electromagnetics, Chennai of the then Department of Electronics (DOE) was merged with
SAMEER in 1987.SAMEER Kolkata centre was set up in 1994 for research & Development in
Millimetrewave Technology. A new centre is being established at Navi Mumbai campus of
SAMEER for augmentation of EMI/EMC FACILITY for CE Marking of Electronics products.

Bhabha (BARC) atomic research centre is located in Mumbai, Tarapur, Vishakapatnam,

Kolkata, focused on RF & microwaves.
References:

1. Samuel Y.Liao, Microwave devices and circuits, 3rd Edition, PHI 2003.

2. M. Kulkarni, Microwave & Radar Engineering, 3rdEdition, Umesh Publications 2003.

3. O P Gandhi, Microwave Engineering and Applications, Pergamon Press 1989.

4. R.E. Collins, Foundation of Microwave Engineering, 2ndEdition, Wiley 2003.

5. E.C. Jordan and Balmain, EM Fields & Waves and Radiating System, 2ndEdition, PHI 2003.

6. Sushrut Das, Microwave Engineering, 1st Edition, Oxford University Press, 2014

7. David M. POZAR : Microwave Engineering - John Wiley & Sons - 2nd Edition, 2003

8. GP Srivastava, Microwave Circuits & Components, Defence Scientific Information &

Documentation centre, Defence Research & Development Organisation, Ministry of
Defence, India.

9. http://technology.niagarac.on.ca/courses/elncl1730/microsolid.ppt

10. http://www.intechopen.com//passive_microwave_components_ana_antenna

11. http://home.sandiego.edu/~ekim/e194rfso1/

12. http://wwwslideshare.net/sarahkrystelle/lecture-notes

13. www.nvistech.com; Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Indore.

Index