Version 2023.

v1 Prepared by Samuel Lim QE & Bryan Tan DF @MCKL

P1 Chapter 8: Integration (Notes)

8.0: Preliminaries

• Subject content from the syllabus document (valid for 2020-2025):

Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples

∫ ∫
Understand integration as the reverse process of 1
e.g. (2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 1) d𝑥, d𝑥.
differentiation, and integrate (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑛 (for any (2𝑥 + 3) 2
rational 𝑛 except −1), together with constant
multiples, sums and differences.

Solve problems involving the evaluation of a e.g. to find the equation of the curve through (1, −2)
constant of integration. d𝑦 √
for which = 2𝑥 + 1.
d𝑥

Evaluate definite integrals. Including simple cases of ‘improper’ integrals, such as

∫1 1
∫∞
𝑥− 2 d𝑥 and 𝑥 −2 d𝑥.
0 1

Use definite integration to find A volume of revolution may involve a region not
– the area of a region bounded by a curve and bounded by the axis of rotation, e.g. the region
lines parallel to the axes, or between a curve between 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 5 rotated about the 𝑥-axis.
and a line or between two curves
– a volume of revolution about one of the axes.

• Prior knowledge:

(a) P1 Chapter 2: Functions

(b) P1 Chapter 7: Differentiation

• Content of the chapter:

8.1: Fundamentals of integration

8.1.1: Indefinite integrals
8.1.2: Definite integrals
8.2: Area
8.2.1: Area between the curve and the 𝑥-axis
8.2.2: Area between the curve and the 𝑦-axis
8.2.3: Area between two curves
8.3: Improper integrals
8.4: Volume of revolution
8.4.1: Volume of revolution about the 𝑥-axis
8.4.2: Volume of revolution about the 𝑦-axis
8.4.3: Volume of revolution of a region between two curves

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Version 2023.v1 Prepared by Samuel Lim QE & Bryan Tan DF @MCKL

8.1: Fundamentals of Integration

There are two main branches to the study of calculus:

• Differentiation, which concerns gradient of curves and rate of change.

• Integration, which concerns accumulation of quantities such as area, length and volumes related to curves.

We can clearly see that differentiation and integration are not the opposite of each other. However, their operational
mechanisms happen to be the reverse of each other. Therefore, integration is also sometimes known as antidiffer-
entiation (more explanation is found in section 8.2).

We write the following notation for integration:

• Indefinite integral • Definite integral

8.1.1: Indefinite Integrals

d
∫
Let F(𝑥) and f (𝑥) be functions such that [F(𝑥)] = f (𝑥). Then f (𝑥) d𝑥 =
d𝑥

We write "+𝑐" because F(𝑥) is not the only function with derivative f(𝑥). In fact, there are infinitely many functions
with derivative f(𝑥) and they are all written in terms of the arbitrary constant 𝑐.
Such integrals are also known as indefinite integrals and the solution with the arbitrary constant is known as the
general solution.

From Chapter 7 Differentiation, we have seen a few rules and we can establish corresponding rules for integration:

d𝑦
• Power rule: If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 , then =
d𝑥
∫
Therefore, if 𝑛 ≠ −1, then 𝑥 𝑛 d𝑥 =
∫ 1
Note: The integral d𝑥 will be discussed in Pure Mathematics 3.
𝑥
∫
• Addition / subtraction rule: [f (𝑥) ± g(𝑥)] d𝑥 =

∫
• Scalar multiple rule: 𝑘f (𝑥) d𝑥 =

Note:

• For the integration of sum of a few terms, clear brackets should be written in the integral.

• It is recommended to simplify an expression before integrating, and write the powers of each term clearly.

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Example 1. Find 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 for each of the following.

d𝑦 d𝑦 8 d𝑦 9 15
(a) = 10𝑥 4 (b) = √ (c) = 𝑥 7 + 5𝑥 + 4 − 6
d𝑥 d𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 d𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 2. Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

∫ √ ∫ ∫ 3
(3 𝑥 − 2) 2 2
(a) 𝑥(3𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 2) d𝑥 (b) d𝑥 (c) 3𝑥 − 2 d𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

∫
Example 3. Differentiate (4𝑥 3 − 5) 7 with respect to 𝑥 and hence find 𝑥 2 (3𝑥 3 − 5) 6 d𝑥.

√
∫
𝑥−1
Example 4. Differentiate 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 with respect to 𝑥 and hence find √ d𝑥.
3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥

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When we are given the derivative of a curve, we can find the equation of the curve by integration. In this case, the
arbitrary constant 𝑐 can be determined if additional information about the curve (such as the coordinates of a point
on the curve) is given.
d𝑦
Example 5. Find the equation of the curve, given and a point 𝑃 on the curve.
d𝑥
√
d𝑦 d𝑦 (1 − 𝑥) 2
(a) = 3𝑥 2 + 1 , 𝑃 (1, 4) (b) = √ , 𝑃 (9, 5)
d𝑥 d𝑥 𝑥

Example 6. A function f is defined for 𝑥 ∈ R and is such that f ′ (𝑥) = 8 − 2𝑥. The range of the function is given by
f(𝑥) ⩽ 20. Find f (𝑥) and sketch the graph of 𝑦 = f (𝑥).

d2 𝑦
Example 7. A curve is such that = 12𝑥 + 12. The gradient of the curve at the point (0, 4) is 10.
d𝑥 2
(a) Express 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.

(b) Show that the gradient of the curve is never less than 4.

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Reverse Chain Rule

d𝑦
Let 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑛 . Then by chain rule, =
d𝑥

We can perform reverse chain rule when doing integration. However, reverse chain rule can only be applied if the
“inner" function is linear.
∫
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑛 d𝑥 =

Note: If the function ‘inside’ is not linear, you are not allowed to reverse the process. For example,
∫
(2𝑥 2 + 1) 6 d𝑥

Example 8. Find each of the following indefinite integrals.

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ 4
9 5 3
(a) (2𝑥 − 3) 5 d𝑥 (b) d𝑥 (c) √ d𝑥 (d) d𝑥
(3 − 𝜋𝑥) 6 4𝑥 − 3 4𝑥 − 2

d𝑦 12
Example 9. A curve is such that =√ , where 𝑎 is a constant. The point 𝑃 (2, 14) lies on the curve and the
d𝑥 4𝑥 + 𝑎
normal to the curve at 𝑃 is 3𝑦 + 𝑥 = 5.
(a) Show that 𝑎 = 8. [3]

(b) Find the equation of the curve. [4]

[9709 s14 qp13 q6]

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8.1.2: Definite Integrals

We can evaluate the value of an integral if its limits are given. Such integrals are known as definite integrals.
∫ 𝑏
d
Let F(𝑥) and f (𝑥) be functions such that [F(𝑥)] = f (𝑥). Then f (𝑥) d𝑥 =
d𝑥 𝑎

Here, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are values of 𝑥. 𝑎 is known as the lower limit and 𝑏 is the upper limit.

Note:

• The limits cannot be swapped as the value of the integral will be affected. It is not necessary that 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑏.
∫𝑎
f (𝑥) d𝑥 =
𝑏

∫𝑏 ∫𝑐
• f(𝑥) d𝑥 + f (𝑥) d𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑏

• It is mandatory to show the working when the limits 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 are substituted into F(𝑥).

• The arbitrary constant 𝑐 is not written as it is cancelled when the limits are substituted into F(𝑥).
∫ 𝑏
f(𝑥) d𝑥 =
𝑎

Example 10. Evaluate each of the following definite integrals.

∫ 2
∫ 4
4𝑥 5 − 1 8
(a) d𝑥 (b) d𝑥
𝑥3
√︁
1 0 (1 + 2𝑥) 3

∫ 2
1 𝑥2
Example 11. Differentiate 3 with respect to 𝑥 and hence evaluate d𝑥.
𝑥 +4 0 (𝑥 3 + 4) 2

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8.2: Area
In this section, we will learn the reason to why the mechanism of integration is the reverse of differentiation and the
way we evaluate definite integrals.

8.2.1: Area Between the Curve and the 𝑥-axis

Consider the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. We denote the
area of this region as follows:

Let 𝑦 = f (𝑥) be a curve and let 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) be two points on the curve.
Let 𝛿 𝐴 be the area the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the two vertical lines joining 𝑃 and 𝑄
with the 𝑥-axis. We can compare 𝛿 𝐴 with the area of two rectangular strips.

Example 12. Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 , the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑥 = 6.

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Example 13.

√
The diagram shows the curve 𝑦 = 1 + 4𝑥, which intersects the 𝑥-axis at 𝐴 and the 𝑦-axis at 𝐵. The normal to the
curve at 𝐵 meets the 𝑥-axis at 𝐶.
(a) Find the equation of 𝐵𝐶. [5]

(b) Find the area of the shaded region. [5]

[9709 s13 qp12 q11]

Area Below the 𝑥-axis

Let f(𝑥) be such that the curve of 𝑦 = f (𝑥) lies below the 𝑥-axis for 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑥 ⩽ 𝑏.
Consider the curve 𝑦 = −f (𝑥), which is the reflection of the curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥) on the 𝑥-axis. The area of the region
bounded by 𝑦 = f (𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 can be determined as follows:

Therefore, the integral of regions above the 𝑥-axis has a positive value while the integral of regions below the 𝑥-axis
has a negative value.

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Example 14. (a) Sketch the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥.

(b) Find the area of the region enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥, the 𝑥-axis and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 6.

In some cases, part of the graph of 𝑦 = f (𝑥) lies above the 𝑥-axis and part of it lies below the 𝑥-axis. Therefore the
total area of the regions bounded by the graph of 𝑦 = f (𝑥) and the 𝑥-axis is given by

Example 15. (a) Sketch the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 6).

(b) Find the total area of the regions enclosed by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 6) and the 𝑥-axis.

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8.2.2: Area Between the Curve and the 𝑦-axis

A similar method can be used to find the area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = f(𝑥), the 𝑦-axis and the
horizontal lines 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑. We first reflect this region in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥:

Hence, the area bounded by the curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥), the 𝑦-axis and the lines 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑 is given by

Areas to the Left of the 𝑦-axis

We have seen that the integral of regions below the 𝑥-axis has a negative value. Similarly, the integral of regions to
the left of the 𝑦-axis also has a negative value.

Therefore, the area of the region to the left of the 𝑦-axis is given by

Example 16. Sketch each of the following curves and find the area of the enclosed region.

(a) 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 2, the 𝑦-axis, the lines 𝑦 = −1 and 𝑦 = 2.

(b) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 1, the 𝑦-axis and the line 𝑦 = 9.

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∫ 17. The figure shows part ∫of the curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥). The points 𝑃 (2, 4) and 𝑄 (7, 12) lie on the curve. Given
Example
7 12
that 𝑦 d𝑥 = 42, find the value of 𝑥 d𝑦.
2 4

8.2.3: Area Between Two Curves

Let 𝑦 = f(𝑥) and 𝑦 = g(𝑥) be two curves. Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by the two curves and the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎
and 𝑥 = 𝑏. Suppose that f (𝑥) ⩾ g(𝑥) for all 𝑥 values between 𝑎 and 𝑏. Then we can find the area of 𝑅 as follows:

As we can see, it does not matter whether the curves 𝑦 = f (𝑥) and 𝑦 = g(𝑥) lie above or below the 𝑥-axis. All we
need is to identify the "upper" curve and the "lower" curve.

In the case where both f(𝑥) ⩾ g(𝑥) and f (𝑥) ⩽ g(𝑥) are possible in the interval 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑥 ⩽ 𝑏, we need to identify all
the values of 𝑥 such that f (𝑥) = g(𝑥), and we consider the area of each region separately and identify the "upper" and
"lower" curves for each region.

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Example 18. Sketch the following pairs of curves and lines and find the area enclosed between their graphs.

(a) 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 5 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 (b) 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2)

1
Example 19. The diagram shows a curve with equation 𝑦 = 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 for 𝑥 ⩾ 0, and a straight line with equation
𝑦 = 3 − 𝑥. The curve crosses the 𝑥-axis at 𝐴 (4, 0) and crosses the straight line at 𝐵 and 𝐶.

(a) Find, by calculation, the 𝑥-coordinates of 𝐵 and 𝐶. [4]

(b) Show that 𝐵 is a stationary point on the curve. [2]

(c) Find the area of the shaded region. [6]

[9709 w20 qp11 q12]

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8.3: Improper Integrals

∫𝑏
Definition 1. A definite integral f (𝑥) d𝑥 is called an improper integral if at least one of the following holds:
𝑎
• The integral has positive or negative infinity at either or both of its limits.
• The integrand f (𝑥) is undefined at one or more points in the interval 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑥 ⩽ 𝑏.

Infinite Limit(s)
When evaluating improper integrals with infinite limit, we are to replace infinity with a variable, then find the limit
of the integral as this variable approaches infinity (provided it exists). There are two cases:
∫∞ ∫𝑋 ∫𝑏 ∫𝑏
• f(𝑥) d𝑥 = lim f (𝑥) d𝑥 • f(𝑥) d𝑥 = lim f (𝑥) d𝑥
𝑎 𝑋→∞ 𝑎 −∞ 𝑋→∞ −𝑋

Example 20. Determine whether each of the following improper integrals exists. If it exists, find its value.
∫ ∞
∫ ∞
5 7
(a) √ d𝑥 (b) √ d𝑥
4 𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥−1

∫ −1
∫ 1
9 7
(c) d𝑥 (d) √3 d𝑥
−∞ 𝑥2 −∞ 6 − 2𝑥

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Undefined Integrand
∫𝑏
For an integral f (𝑥) d𝑥 , it is possible that f(𝑥) is not defined at some value(s) in the interval 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑥 ⩽ 𝑏.
𝑎

To evaluate such improper integrals, if f(𝑥) is undefined at 𝑥 = 𝑐 (where 𝑎 ⩽ 𝑐 ⩽ 𝑏), we are to replace 𝑐 with a
variable, then find the limit of the integral as this variable approaches 𝑐 (provided it exists). There are three cases:
∫𝑏 ∫𝑏 ∫𝑏 ∫𝑋
• f(𝑎) is undefined: f (𝑥) d𝑥 = lim f (𝑥) d𝑥 • f(𝑏) is undefined: f (𝑥) d𝑥 = lim f(𝑥) d𝑥
𝑎 𝑋→𝑎 𝑋 𝑎 𝑋→𝑏 𝑎

∫𝑏 ∫𝑋 ∫𝑏
• f(𝑐) is undefined, where 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏: f (𝑥) d𝑥 = lim f (𝑥) d𝑥 + lim f(𝑥) d𝑥
𝑎 𝑋→𝑐 𝑎 𝑋→𝑐 𝑐

Example 21. Determine whether each of the following improper integrals exists. If it exists, find its value.
∫ 9
∫ 0
3 9
(a) √ d𝑥 (b) d𝑥
0 𝑥 −2 𝑥3

∫ 1 ∫ 0
7 5 3
(c) √ +√ d𝑥 (d) d𝑥
−3 3+𝑥 1−𝑥 −∞ 𝑥2

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8.4: Volume of Revolution

A solid of revolution is a solid figure obtained by rotating a region around a straight line (the axis of revolution).
In this section, we will study the method to determine the volume of this solid of revolution, and the main axes of
revolution are the 𝑥-axis and the 𝑦-axis.

The formulae of the volume of a cylinder is very useful in determining the volume of revolution of a region.

8.4.1: Volume of Revolution About the 𝑥-axis

Let 𝑦 = f (𝑥) be a curve and let 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑄 (𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) be two points on the curve.
Let 𝛿𝑉 be the volume of revolution of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = f(𝑥), the 𝑥-axis and the two vertical lines
joining 𝑃 and 𝑄 with the 𝑥-axis.
We can compare 𝛿𝑉 with the volume of two cylinders.

Therefore, the volume of revolution when a curve 𝑦 = f (𝑥) between the boundaries 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated through
360◦ about the 𝑥-axis is given by

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Example 22. The diagram shows the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 4 . The shaded region is bounded by the curve, the 𝑥-axis and the
lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 4. Find the volume of the solid obtained when this shaded region is rotated completely about the
𝑥-axis, giving your answer in terms of 𝜋. [4]

[9709 s07 qp1 q2]

Example 23. Find the volume of revolution when the regions bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 is rotated through
360◦ about the 𝑥-axis.

4 3
Example 24. (a) Prove that the volume of a sphere of radius 𝑟 is 3 𝜋𝑟 .
1 2
(b) Prove that the volume of a cone with radius 𝑟 and height ℎ is 3 𝜋𝑟 ℎ.

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8.4.2: Volume of Revolution About the 𝑦-axis

In a similar fashion, we can deduce the volume of revolution when a region is rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑦-axis.

The volume of revolution when a curve 𝑥 = g(𝑦) between the boundaries 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑 is rotated through 360◦
about the 𝑦-axis is given by

Example 25. The diagram shows part of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1. Find the volume obtained when this shaded region is
rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑦-axis. [4]

[9709 w14 qp12 q1]

8.4.3: Volume of Revolution of a Region Between Two Curves

Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by two curves 𝑦 = f(𝑥) and 𝑦 = g(𝑥) between the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
When 𝑅 is rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑥-axis, the volume of revolution is given by

Note that it is crucial to determine which curve is the ‘outer shell’ and which curve is the ‘inner shell’.

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Similarly, the volume of revolution when the region between two curves 𝑥 = f (𝑦) and 𝑥 = g(𝑦), where f(𝑦) is the
‘outer shell’ and g(𝑦) is the ‘inner shell’, between the intersections 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑, is rotated through 360◦ about
the 𝑦-axis is given by

Note that it is important to write the formula correctly:

Example 26.

4
The diagram shows part of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 + which has a minimum point at 𝑀. The line 𝑦 = 5 intersects the curve
𝑥
at the points 𝐴 and 𝐵.
(a) Find the coordinates of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝑀. [5]

(b) Find the volume obtained when the shaded region is rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑥-axis. [6]

[9709 s10 qp13 q9]

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Example 27. Functions f and g are defined for −4 ⩽ 𝑥 ⩽ 0 by

√
f(𝑥) = − 12 (𝑥 + 4) and g(𝑥) = − 4 + 𝑥 .

(a) Sketch the graphs of 𝑦 = f (𝑥) and 𝑦 = g(𝑥) on the same diagram.

Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = f(𝑥) and 𝑦 = g(𝑥).

(b) Find the area of 𝑅.

(c) Find the volume obtained when 𝑅 is rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑥-axis.

(d) Find the volume obtained when 𝑅 is rotated through 360◦ about the 𝑦-axis.

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