TERMINOLOGY USED

Caseinates—Compounds derived by the interaction of alkali with casein, the major milk protein.
Whey—The watery liquid remaining after the curd is formed in the manufacture of cheese and fermented or
acidified dairy products.
Lactose—Milk sugar, composed of glucose and galactose.
Lactase—The enzyme that splits lactose (milk sugar) into glucose and galactose.
Ash—The residue left when a substance is incinerated at a very high temperature for analysis.
Colloidal phase—The portion of milk containing dispersed particles ranging in diameter from 10 –5 to 10–7 cm.
Emulsion—A homogeneous dispersion of two dissimilar immiscible liquid phases. If oil is dispersed in water, it is an
oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion. If water is dispersed in oil, it is a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion.
Low-fat milk—Milk containing at least 8.25% solids-not-fat and with fat reduced to deliver not more than 3 g of milk-
fat per serving of 8 fl oz. Also termed as light milk.
Non-fat milk— Milk containing at least 8.25% solids-not-fat and with fat reduced to deliver not more than 0.5 g of
milk-fat per serving of 8 fl oz. Also termed as fat-free or skim milk.
Casein micelles—Large colloidal particles that are complexes of protein and salt ions, principally calcium and
phosphorus. Caseins exist in milk as particles called micelles, which are made up of calcium phosphate and casein
complexes. The micelles are spherical particles varying in size from 50 to 200 nm and containing thousands of
protein molecules.
Protease—An enzyme that attacks and hydrolyzes proteins.
Rennin—A milk coagulatory enzyme found in the gastric juice of the fourth stomach of calves.
Serum phase—The watery portion of a fluid; the portion of milk without fat globules and casein micelles.
Lipids—A class of compounds found in nature that are soluble in organic solvents such as ether or hexane. Examples
are triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and vitamin A.
Feathering—The limited coagulation of milk proteins when cream is added to hot liquid (e.g., coffee), characterized
by the appearance of small particles on the surface.
Homogenization—A process for reducing the size of milkfat globules in milk. Upon undisturbed storage at 7°C,
homogenized milk shows no visible cream separation.
Ultrafiltration—A process that uses a semipermeable membrane to separate fractions based on molecular size.
Electro-dialysis—A process that uses electric charge to separate substances in solution (in this case, removing
minerals from whey or milk fractions).
CHAPTER

1
Properties of Milk
and Its
Components
Milk and dairy-based ingredients are used as components of
many food products. Their contributions consist of unique flavor, In This Chapter:
desirable texture, excellent nutritive value, and a widely accepted
Milk Composition
“natural” image. In many instances, the success of the product in
the market- place is significantly enhanced by incorporation of Constituents of Milk
traditional func- tional ingredients familiar to the consumer. Thus, Major Constituents
dairy ingredients provide a consumer-friendly label on packaged Minor and Trace
foods. Constituents
Dairy ingredients contribute a number of characteristics critical to Physical
a food product. These include the emulsifying and stabilizing ability Properties of
of caseinates, the gelling properties of whey protein concentrates and Milk
isolates, the water-absorption capacity of high-heat nonfat dry milk, Color
and the browning of lactose during heat processing. Furthermore, Flavo
the crystallization characteristics of lactose and the hydrolytic activ- r
ity of the enzyme lactase are important in confectionery and frozen Density and Specific
products. In addition, butter flavor carryover can be achieved with Gravity
Surface
enzyme-modified butterfat and various cheese flavors imparted by
Tension
enzyme-modified cheeses. Therefore, a food developer can select an Foaming
appropriate dairy-based ingredient to create certain desirable attrib- Viscosity
utes in foods. An understanding of the functional properties of dairy Specific Heat
ingredients allows food technologists to utilize their potential con- Electrical
tribution to product characteristics to meet consumer expectations. Conductivity
Freezing Point
Milk Composition
Caseinates—Compounds
Milk may be defined various ways. Chemically speaking, milk is a derived by the interaction
complex fluid in which more than 100 separate chemical com- of alkali with casein, the
major milk protein.
pounds have been found. Its major components are water, fat, lac-
tose, casein, whey proteins, and minerals (or ash) in amounts vary- Whey—The watery liquid
ing with the milk of various species of animals. However, for any remaining after the curd is
given species, the range of values for the constituents of milk is fair- formed in the manufacture of
ly constant. cheese and fermented or
From a physiological standpoint, milk is the secretion of the nor- acidi- fied dairy products.
mally functioning mammary gland of the females of all mammals, Lactose—Milk sugar, com-
which is produced for some time following parturition for the nour- posed of glucose and
ishment of the young of the species during the initial period of galactose.
growth.
In terms of physical chemistry, milk is an opaque, whitish fluid of Lactase—The enzyme
multidisperse phases. The true solution contains lactose, vitamins, that splits lactose (milk
sugar) into glucose and
1 galactose.
2 / CHAPTER ONE

Ash—The residue left

when a substance is acids, enzymes, and some inorganic salts. The colloidal phase con-
incinerated at a very high tains casein, calcium phosphate, and globular proteins. Fat exists in
temperature for analysis. the form of an oil-in-water type of emulsion, with fat globules vary-
ing from 0.1 to 22 m in diameter.
As a food ingredient or consumed by itself, milk provides an excel-
Parturition—The act or
process of giving birth. lent nutritional profile in the human diet. Nutrition experts consid-
er milk an exceptionally complete food because it contains signifi-
cant levels of required nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrates,
Colloidal phase—The minerals, and several vitamins. Low-fat and nonfat milks are increas-
portion of milk containing
dispersed particles
ingly popular in fat-reduced and fat-free food formulations.
ranging in diameter from Worldwide, milk of the cow is by far of more commercial importance
10–5 to 10–7 cm. than milk of any other mammal. In the United States, the term
“milk” legally refers to cow’s milk. Milk from other species is
labeled to indi- cate the type: sheep’s milk, goat’s milk, etc. Milk is
Emulsion—A
homogeneous dispersion
the whole, clean lacteal secretion of one or more healthy cows,
of two dissimilar properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before
immiscible liquid phases. If calving and three to five days after. Colostrum, the milk secreted
oil is dispersed in water, it immediately after giving birth, is not considered milk from a legal
is an oil-in-water (O/W) standpoint. The U.S. Public Health Service’s definition of Grade A
emulsion. If water is milk is “the lacteal secretion practically free from colostrum,
dispersed in oil, it is a
water-in-oil (W/O)
obtained by complete milking of one or more healthy cows, which
emulsion. contains not less than 8.25% milk solids-not-fat (MSNF) and not
less than 3.25% milkfat.”
Low-fat milk—Milk
containing at least 8.25% Constituents of Milk
solids-not-fat and with fat
reduced to deliver not Milk is composed of water, milkfat, and MSNF. The MSNF consists
more than 3 g of milkfat of protein, lactose, and minerals. These solids are also referred to as
per serving of 8 fl oz. Also skim solids, or serum solids. The term total solids refers to the serum
termed light milk. solids plus the milkfat.
The major components of commercial raw milk (1–3) are
Nonfat milk— Milk illustrat- ed in Figure 1-1. On a dry basis, the composition of milk
containing at least 8.25% solids is shown in Figure 1-2. The composition of the MSNF portion
solids-not-fat and with fat of milk is given in Figure 1-3.
reduced to deliver not
more than 0.5 g of milkfat
per serving of 8 fl oz. Also MAJOR CONSTITUENTS
termed fat-free or skim The major constituents of milk vary more widely in individual
milk.
cow’s milk than in pooled market milk. Factors affecting the milk
such as breed of cow, intervals of milking, stages of milking, differ-
Colostrum—The first milk
secreted by an animal just
Casei
before and after the birth of n,
its young. Fat, 3.7% Protei 2.8%
Milk n,
3.4% Whey
solids,
Oestrum/Estrus—Period protein,
12.6%
of sexual receptivity (heat) 0.6%
in female mammals.

Casein micelles—Large
Milk
col- loidal particles that Lactos
solids-not-
are com- plexes of protein Milk fat, e,
and salt ions, principally 8.9% 4.8%
calcium and phos- phorus. Wate Minerals,
r, 0.7%
87.4
Fig. 1-1. Gross composition of milk, showing major constituents.
PROPERTIES OF MILK \ 3

ent quarters of udder, lactation period, season, feed, nutritional

Ash
level, environmental temperature, health status, age, weather, 5.56
oestrum, gestation period, and exercise are known to cause Fat Lacto
%
29.36 se
variations in fat, protein, lactose, and mineral levels in milk derived
% 38.1
from indi- vidual cows (4,5). In general, these variations tend to %
average out but display an interesting seasonal pattern in
commercial milk used by food processors, which may have an
important impact on properties of the finished products. An
approximately 10% variation in fat and protein is observed in milk
received in July and August (lowest level)
compared to that received in October and November (highest Casei
level). Variations in protein and fat during the year affect yogurt Whey
n
Protein
and cheese manufacture and whey protein production. For 22.22
4.76%
example, appropri- %
ate adjustments, such as fortification with additional nonfat milk Fig. 1-2. Composition of
solids, are necessary in yogurt production to ensure uniform milk solids of whole milk.
viscos- ity throughout the year.
Milk proteins. Caseins make up approximately 80% of milk pro-
teins. The remaining proteins are classified as whey proteins. Milk
proteins and their concentration in milk are shown in Table 1-1.
a
TABLE 1-1. Milk Proteins
Whey
Concentration Protei
Type Nomenclature (g/L of n
milk) Casei 7.53%
n
Casein 24–28 31.18
s1-Casein 12–15 % Lactose
s2-Casein 3–4 52.15
-Casein 9–11 %
-Casein 3–4
-Casein 1–2
Whey protein 5–7
-Lactoglobulin 2–4
-Lactalbumin 1–1.5
Bovine serum albumin 0.1–0.4 Fat
Immunoglobulins 0.6–1.0 1.08%
Proteose peptones 0.6–1.8
Ash
8.06
%

Fig. 1-3. Composition of

a
non- fat solids of skim
From: Functional Properties of Milk Proteins, by O. Robin, S. Turgeon, and milk.
P. Paquin, in: Dairy Science and Technology Handbook, Vol. 1, Y. H. Hui,
Ed.
1993 by VCH Publishers. Used by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Besides having a biological and nutritional role, caseins and

caseinates are important because of their structure, charge, and phys-
ical properties. Caseins become insoluble when the milk is acidified
and the pH is reduced to 4.6, while the whey proteins remain in
solution. Caseins exist in milk as particles called micelles, which are
made up of calcium phosphate and casein complexes. The micelles
are spherical particles varying in size from 50 to 200 nm and con-
taining thousands of protein molecules. Caseins are further divided
into s1, s1, , and  fractions. A -fraction is derived from the
break- down of -casein by inherent proteolytic enzymes of milk.
Each of
4 / CHAPTER ONE

Rennin—A milk
coagulatory enzyme the casein fractions exhibits distinct chemical properties. For exam-
found in the gastric juice ple, s1 and s2 caseins have eight and 10–13 phosphoserine units,
of the fourth stomach of respectively. -Casein has five phosphoserine units. All the casein
calves. fractions except -casein are precipitated by calcium, whereas -
casein, which contains one phosphoserine unit, is not calcium-sen-
Serum phase—The watery sitive. Only -casein contains a carbohydrate moiety. Calcium (30
por- tion of a fluid; the mM) and phosphate (20 mM) are complexed with s1, s2, and -
portion of milk without fat caseins, whereas -casein stabilizes the colloidal particles (micelles)
globules and casein by surface binding. During cheesemaking, the stabilizing -casein is
micelles. cleaved by the enzyme rennin, resulting in destabilization of the
micelle and subsequent curd formation.
Lipids—A class of Whey proteins are located in solution in the serum phase of milk
compounds found in nature along with minor proteins and enzymes, including lactoperoxidase,
that are soluble in organic lactotransferrin, lysozyme, glycoprotein, serum transferrin, and
solvents such as ether or degradation products derived from casein.
hexane. Examples are Caseins and whey proteins are distinguishable from each other
triacylglycerols, cholesterol,
and vitamin A.
by their physical and chemical characteristics (Table 1-2). Caseins
have a distinct, disordered molecular structure that lacks stabilizing
disul- fide bridges. This characteristic structure makes the casein
fraction precipitate in acidic conditions as well as in the presence of
di- and polyvalent ions of various salts. Casein molecules exist
naturally in an open and extended state. Therefore, heat has little or
no effect on them. However, severe heat treatment results in
detachment of phosphate groups as well as formation of brown
pigments by inter- action with milk sugar (the Maillard reaction).
Whey proteins have a relatively more ordered molecular structure,
which contains disulfide linkages. Accordingly, they are not vulner-
able to precipitation under acidic conditions or by polyvalent ions.
Like other globular proteins, they can be heat-denatured, resulting
in gel formation. -Lactoglobulin complexes with -casein in milk
subjected to rigorous heat treatment.
In food systems, milk proteins contribute to properties of the final
product. Table 1-3 summarizes the major functional characteristics
of milk proteins.
Milkfat. The fat in milk occurs in microscopic globules in an oil-in-
water type of emulsion. The globules vary in size from 0.1 to 22 µm
in diameter. The lipid content of milkfat is 97–98% triacylglycerols,
0.2–1% phospholipids, 0.2–0.4% sterols, and traces of fatty acids, as
well as vitamins A, D, E, and K. Milkfat is made up of 65% saturated,

TABLE 1-2. Major Physical and Chemical Differences in Milk Proteins

Caseins Whey Proteins

Strong hydrophobic regions Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic

regions
Little cysteine content Both cysteine and cystine present
Random coil structure Globular structure with helical contents
Heat stable Easily heat denatured and insolubilized
Precipitate in acidic conditions and insoluble at pH Stable in mild acidic environment
4.6
Precipitated by di- and polyvalent ions
PROPERTIES OF MILK \ 5

TABLE 1-3. Functional Characteristics of Milk Proteins

Functionality Casein or Caseinates Whey Proteins
Hydration, Very high, minimum at pH 4.6 Water-binding capacity
water binding increases with denaturation
of the protein
Solubility Insoluble at pH 4.6 Soluble at all pH levels. If denatured,
insoluble at pH 5
Viscosity High at or above pH 6 Low for native protein. Higher if
denatured
Gelation No thermal gelation except in Heat gelation at 70°C (158°F) or higher;
the presence of Ca+2. Micelles influenced by pH and salts
gel with rennin
Emulsifying Excellent at neutral and basic Good except at pH 4–5, if heat
ability pH denatured
Foam formation Good overrun. -Casein best, Good overruns. -Lactoglobulin
followed by - and s1- better than -lactalbumin
caseins. Poor foam stability
Flavor binding Good Retention varies with degree of
denaturation

32% monounsaturated, and 3% polyunsaturated fatty acids. It con-

Feathering—The limited
tains 7% short-chain fatty acids (C4–C8), 15–20% medium-chain coag- ulation of milk proteins
fatty acids (C10–C14), and 73–78% long-chain fatty acids (C16 or when cream is added to hot
higher). The cholesterol content of whole milk (3.3% fat) and skim liquid (e.g., coffee),
milk is 14 mg/100 ml and 2 mg/100 ml, respectively. The function- characterized by the
al properties of milkfat are attributed to its fatty acid make-up. appearance of small parti-
cles on the surface.
Milk sugar. Lactose is the major carbohydrate of milk, occurring at
a 4.5–4.9% level. It consists of two forms ( and ) that differ in
Homogenization—A
their sweetness and solubility. The -form is less soluble (70 g/L at process for reducing the
15°C) than the -form. Crystallization is important in the size of milkfat globules in
manufacture and utilization of several dairy ingredients. An milk. Upon undis- turbed
equilibrium mixture of - and -lactose, formed by mutarotation, storage at 7°C, homog-
exhibits a solubility of 170 g/L of water. -Lactose is slightly enized milk shows no
visible cream separation.
sweeter than the -form. Overall, in sweetening power, lactose is
only 16–33% as sweet as sucrose. The sweetening power is
concentration dependent.

MINOR AND TRACE

CONSTITUENTS TABLE 1-4. Major Mineral Composition of Milk

The typical composition of major milk Concentratio Concentrati

minerals is shown in Table 1-4. n (mg/100 on Range
Mineral concentration in milk is relat- ed Milk Salt ml whole (mg/100
to physical-chemical equilibria, which are Constituents milk) ml)
important in processing, nutritive value, and Calcium 123 110–130
shelf life of dairy products. Minerals include Magnesium 12 9–14
chloride, PO 2++, and +cit- 2+ Phosphorus (total) 95 90–100
4 2+
rates of K , Na , Ca , and Mg . Their Phosphorus 75 70–80
concentration is <1% in milk, but they (inorganic)
are involved in heat stability and alcohol Sodium 58 35–90
coagulation of milk, age-thickening of Potassium 141 110–170
sweetened condensed milk, feathering of Chloride 99 90–110
coffee cream, rennin coagulation, and Sulfate 10 ...
clumping of fat globules upon homoge- Carbonate (as CO2) 20 ...
Citric acid 160 ...
6 / CHAPTER ONE

Ultrafiltration—A process
that uses a semipermeable TABLE 1–5. Trace Minerals of nization. The calcium level of
mem- brane to separate Milk milk influences the firmness
fractions based on Concentration of curd during cheesemaking.
molecular size. Constituent (g/100 ml of Ash, the white residue after
milk) incineration of a given weight
Electrodialysis—A Iron 30–60 of milk, is used as a measure
process that uses electric Zinc 200–600 of the mineral content of
charge to separate Copper 10–60 milk. It is not identical to
substances in solution (in Manganese 2–5 milk mineral level because of
this case, removing decomposition and volatiliza-
minerals from whey or milk Iodine 2–6
fractions). Fluoride 3–22 tion of certain minerals due
Selenium 0.5–6.7 to heat. Ash contains
Cobalt 0.05–0.13 carbonates derived from
Chromium 0.8–1.3 organic con- stituents;
Molybdenum 1.8–12 sulfates from pro- teins;
Nickel 0–5 phosphate, partly from
Silicon 75–700 casein, which may contain
Vanadium 0–31 approximately 1.62% phos-
Tin 4–50 phate; and chloride, which is
Arsenic 2–6 partly lost (45–50%). Citric
acid is completely lost. The
average ash content is 0.70%,
which is equivalent to 0.90% minerals.
All the minerals considered essential for human nutrition are found in milk. They exist in milk in
different states. Sodium, potas- sium, and chloride are ionic forms and in true solution. They per-
meate freely across the membrane during ultrafiltration and electro- dialysis of milk and whey.
Calcium, magnesium, inorganic phospho- rus, and citrate exist in both colloidal and diffusible forms,
depend- ing on the pH of milk. Approximately 20–30% of diffusible calcium and magnesium exists as
free ions and the remainder as salts of cit- rate and phosphate. As the pH of milk drops, the colloidal
form is converted progressively to the ionic form. At pH 4.4, most of the minerals are in diffusible
form.
By lowering the pH of milk or whey, protein concentrates of low
mineral content and different mineral ratios can be produced.
Trace elements are those constituents found in the parts per mil-
lion level in milk. Table 1-5 shows their levels.
In addition, several nonprotein nitrogen compounds, vitamins,
and some organic materials are present in milk (7, Table 1-6).

Physical Properties of Milk

COLOR
The color of milk is perceived by consumers to be indicative of
purity and richness. Its white color is due to the scattering of reflect-
ed light by the inherent ultramicroscopic particles, fat globules, col-
loidal casein micelles, and calcium phosphate (5). The intensity of
white color is directly proportional to the size and number of parti-
cles in suspension. Homogenization increases the surface area of fat
PROPERTIES OF MILK \ 7

globules significantly as a result of the breakup of larger globules. Density—Mass per

Accordingly, homogenized milk and cream are whiter than their unit volume.
unhomogenized counterparts. Lack of fat globules gives skim milk a
blue tinge.
Specific gravity—Ratio
Cow’s milk contains the pigments carotene and xanthophyll,
of the density of a product
which tend to give a golden yellow color to the milkfat. and the density of water
at the same temperature.
FLAVOR
The flavor of milk is a property difficult to define, but there is no
doubt that taste and aroma are critical to the assessment of milk.
Flavor constitutes a critical criterion of quality for the consumer. It
is a sensory property in which odor and taste interact. The sweet
taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of
chloride, and both are somewhat moderated by
TABLE 1–6. Other Trace Components of Milk a
proteins. This balance is maintained over a fairly
wide range of milk composition even when the Concentration
chloride ion level varies from 0.06 to 0.12%. Constitue per 100 ml of Milk
Saltiness can be detected by sensory tests in sam- nt
ples containing 0.12% or more of chloride ions Vitamins 40 g retinol
and becomes marked in samples containing A equivalent
0.15%. Some workers attribute the characteristic B B1 45 g
rich flavor of dairy products to the lactones, 175
B2
methylketones, certain aldehydes, dimethyl sul- g
fide, and certain short-chain fatty acids. Niacin 90 g
Although milk has a clean, pleasantly sweet fla- B6 50 g
vor, it is quite bland, and therefore any off-flavors Pantothenic acid 350
are readily discernible. Off-flavors result when the g
balance of flavor compounds is altered by micro- Biotin 3.5 g
biological action, dairy farm or processing condi- Folic acid 5.5 g
tions, or chemical or biochemical reactions. CB 2 mg
0.45
12
Appendix A describes off-flavors and gives poten- 4
gIU
tial causes. D 100
g
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY E
Nonprotein 5 g
nitrogen compounds
The density of milk with 3–5% fat averages 1.032 (NPN)
Total NPN 22.9–30.8
g/cm3. Accordingly, the weight of 1 L of milk is Urea N mg
1.03 kg. To convert the weight of milk from kilo- Creatine N 8.4–13.4 mg
grams per liter to pounds per gallon, the number Uric acid N 0.6–2 mg
is multiplied by 8.34. Orotic acid N 0.5–0.8 mg
The average specific gravity of milk at 15.5°C 1.2–1.3 mg
Choline
(60°F) is 1.032. It varies from 1.028 to 1.035 in 4.3–28.5 mg
N-acetylneuraminic
commercial milk. The specific gravities of milkfat acid
(0.93), MSNF (1.62), and water (1.0) determine
Miscellaneo 3.4–10.4
the specific gravity of milk. Specific gravity is
increased by the removal of fat and lowered by us Lactic mg
the addition of water. acid Acetic 0.3–5 mg
acid Formic 1–8.5 mg

a
From: Chemistry and Physics, by H. D. Goff and A. R. Hill,
in:
Dairy Science and Technology Handbook, Vol. 1, Y. H. Hui, Ed.
1993 by VCH Publishers. Used by permission of John
Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
8 / CHAPTER ONE

Surface tension—Forces
caus- ing a reduction in SURFACE TENSION
surface area, which is a
characteristic proper- ty of a
Surface properties are involved in adsorption phenomena and
liquid. the formation and stability of emulsions. They are relevant to
creaming, fat globule membrane function, foaming, and emulsifier
use in dairy products. Normal cow’s milk has an inherent surface
Protease—An enzyme activity. Its sur- face tension approximates 70% of that of water.
that attacks and
hydrolyzes pro- teins.
The surface tension of whole milk is usually about 50–52 mN/m (or
dyn/cm) at 20°C. The surface tension of skim milk is 55–60 mN/m.
For cream, it is approximately 46–47 mN/m (8,9). Casein, along
Viscosity—Resistance to with the proteoly- sis products protease-peptones, is largely
flow. A measure of the
responsible for the surface activity. Whey proteins make little
friction between molecules
as they slide past one contribution. Fat reduces surface tension by a physical effect.
another. Lactose and most of the salts tend to raise it when they are present
in true solution.
Surface tension decreases as milk temperature rises. Processing
treatments such as heating, homogenization, and shear tend to
increase surface tension.

FOAMING
The formation of stable foam depends upon two main factors.
First, the lowering of the surface tension allows the gathering and
spreading of the surface-active components into thin films. Second,
the films must be sufficiently elastic and stable to prevent the coa-
lescence of the gas cells. A stable foam is thus formed when the sur-
face tension of the liquid is not great enough to withdraw the film
from between the gas cells and when the stabilizing agent has great
internal viscosity.
Foaming of milk is at a minimum at 30–35°C. At 60°C, the foam
volume is independent of the fat content. Below 20°C and above
30°C, the foaming tendency appears to increase. Fat tends to stabi-
lize the foam formed below 20°C, for instance, during churning.
Skim milk produces slightly more stable foam above 30°C than
whole milk or light cream.
Foaming properties affect handling of milk products and how
dairy-based ingredients are incorporated into other products.

VISCOSITY
Whole milk and skim milk display viscosities of 2.0–2.1 and
1.5–1.8 cP (or mPa/sec) at 20°C, respectively (4,8). Whey has a vis-
cosity of 1.2 cP. The viscosity of milk and cream creates the impres-
sion of “richness” to the consumer. From an organoleptic stand-
point, viscosity contributes to mouthfeel and flavor release.
The casein micelles of milk contribute more to the viscosity of
milk than any other constituent. Viscosity varies not only with
changes in the physical nature of fat but also with the hydration of
proteins. Alterations in the size of any dispersed constituents result
in viscosity changes. The fat contributes less than casein but more
than whey proteins. When fat globules are greatly subdivided by
homogenization, an increase in viscosity is observed. The viscosity
of skim milk decreases on heating to 62°C, after which it increases,
PROPERTIES OF MILK \ 9

apparently due to changes in protein hydration. An increase of tem-

Specific heat—Number
perature causes a marked reduction of viscosity. For example, at of calories required to
20°C, milk is about half as viscous as at 0°C and at 40°C is approxi- raise the temperature of
mately one-third of the value at 0°C. 1 g of a sub- stance by 1
degree C.
SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat of milk products is a function of their composi- Electrical conductivity
—The reciprocal of
tion. The values for whole milk, skim milk, 40% cream, butter, and
electrical resis- tance
whey at 15°C are 0.93, 0.95, 0.68, 0.53, and 0.97 BTU/lb•°F, respec- exhibited by a 1-cm cube
tively (3.89, 3.97, 3.35, 2.21, and 4.06 kJ/kg•K, respectively). of conductor (solution
containing electrolytes).
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Current passes through the milk by virtue of the activity of its
ionic mineral constituents, of which the chloride ions carry 60–68%
of the current. There is therefore a close correlation between the
elec- trical conductivity of milk and its chloride content. The
electrical conductivity of normal milk corresponds to that of
approximately 0.25% sodium chloride solution (w/w) and ranges
from 45 to 55 A•v–1m–-1 (8) or 45–55 x 10–4 mho (1). Conductivity of
milk is the basis of the new ohmic process for sterilizing milk.
Lactic acid accumulates as a result of fermentation during the
manufacture of yogurt and fermented dairy products, converting
calcium and magnesium to ionic form and thereby increasing the
conductivity reading. Thus, the progress of fermentation can be fol-
lowed by increases in the conductivity of the yogurt base. Also,
dem- ineralization of whey and its fractions, leading to loss of ionic
min- erals, is monitored using a conductivity meter.

FREEZING POINT
The freezing point of milk is generally expressed as degrees
Hortvet (H), reflecting the commonly used Hortvet crysoscope pro-
cedure. Determination of freezing point is a parameter widely used
in the industry for detection of adulteration of milk with water. The
freezing point of milk has a relatively narrow range (from –0.520 to
–0.560°C, the average being –0.540°C). It corresponds to the
freezing point of an 0.85% sodium chloride solution (w/w).
Addition of water raises the freezing point, and readings above –
0.520 support strong suspicion of watering the milk. As little as 3%
water added to milk can be detected by this method.
Lactose and chloride are the major milk constituents responsible
for 70–80% of the overall depression in the freezing point of milk.

BOILING POINT
A solution boils at a higher temperature than does the pure sol-
vent, according to the concentration of the dissolved substance. The
boiling point of milk is 100.17°C. The milk constituents in true solu-
tion are mainly responsible for the elevation of the boiling point
above 100°C. Elevation of the boiling point is based on the same
10 / CHAPTER ONE

Refractive index—A
physical property of a principles as depression of freezing point. However, for detecting
substance that relates to added water, the freezing point method is far superior on the
how light is refracted from grounds of accuracy and convenience.
the material. Usually used
to indirectly measure some
other property such as
REFRACTIVITY
concentration. The refraction of light by a solution is a function of the molecular
concentration of the solute in solution. Each solute maintains its
own refractivity, and the refractive index of a mixture is that of the
total of the refractive indices of the substances plus that of the sol-
vent. The components of milk contributing to its refractive index in
descending order of importance are water, proteins, lactose, and
minor constituents. Whey proteins are more important than casein.
The refractive index of milk at 20°C is 1.3440–1.3485.
The refractive index of butterfat is distinct enough to indicate its
authenticity.

References
1. National Dairy Council. 1993. Newer Knowledge of Milk and Other Fluid
Dairy Products. The Council, Rosemont, IL.
2. Varnum, A. H., and Sutherland, J. P. 1994. Milk and Milk Products. Chapman
& Hall, New York.
3. Harper, W. J., and Hall, C. W. 1976. Dairy Technology and Engineering. Avi
Publishing Co., Westport, CT.
4. Wong, N. P., Jenness, R., Keeney, M., and Marth, E. H., Eds. 1988.
Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry, 3rd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
5. Goff, H. D., and Hill, A. R. 1993. Chemistry and physics. In: Dairy Science
and Technology Handbook, Vol. 1. Y. H. Hui, Ed. VCH Publishers, New
York.
6. Robin, O., Turgeon, S., and Paquin, P. 1993. Functional properties of milk
proteins. In: Dairy Science and Technology Handbook, Vol. 1. Y. H. Hui, Ed.
VCH Publishers, New York.
7. Riel, R. 1985. Composition and physicochemical structure of milk. In: Dairy
Science and Technology, Principles and Application. Les Presses de L’ Universite
Laval, Quebec, Canada.
8. Walstra, P., and Jenness, R. 1984. Dairy Chemistry and Physics. John Wiley,
New York.
9. Singh, H., McCarthy, O. J., and Lucey, J. A. 1997. Physicochemical proper-
ties of milk. In: Advanced Dairy Chemistry, Vol. 3. P. F. Fox, Ed. Chapman &
Hall, New York.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK
COLOR: The colour of milk is perceived by consumers to be indicative of purity and richness. Its white colour is due
to the scattering of reflected light by the inherent ultramicroscopic particles, fat globules, colloidal casein micelles,
and calcium phosphate. The intensity of white colour is directly proportional to the size and number of particles in
suspension. Homogenization increases the surface area of fat globules significantly as a result of the breakup of
larger globules. Accordingly, homogenized milk and cream are whiter than their un-homogenized counterparts. Lack
of fat globules gives skim milk a blue tinge.
Cow’s milk contains the pigments carotene and xanthophyll, which tend to give a golden yellow colour to the milk-
fat.
FLAVOUR: The flavour of milk is a property difficult to define, but there is no doubt that taste and aroma are critical
to the assessment of milk. Flavour constitutes a critical criterion of quality for the consumer. It is a sensory property
in which odour and taste interact. The sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chloride, and both
are somewhat moderated by proteins.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY: Density: Mass per unit volume. Specific gravity: Ratio of the density of a product
and the density of water at the same temperature. The density of milk with 3–5% fat averages 1.032 g/cm3.
Accordingly, the weight of 1 L of milk is 1.03 kg. The average specific gravity of milk at 15.5°C (60°F) is 1.032.
SURFACE TENSION: Forces causing a reduction in surface area is known as Surface tension, which is a characteristic
property of liquid. Its surface tension approximates 70% of that of water. The surface tension of whole milk is usually
about 50–52 mN/m (or dyn/cm) at 20°C. The surface tension of skim milk is 55–60 mN/m. For cream, it is
approximately 46–47 mN/m. Surface tension decreases as milk temperature rises. Processing treatments such as
heating, homogenization, and shear tend to increase surface tension.
FOAMING: Foaming of milk is at a minimum at 30–35°C. At 60°C, the foam volume is independent of the fat content.
Below 20°C and above 30°C, the foaming tendency appears to increase. Foaming properties affect handling of milk
products and how dairy-based ingredients are incorporated into other products.
VISCOSITY: Viscosity is the resistance to flow and is a measure of the friction between molecules as they slide past
one another. Whole milk and skim milk display viscosities of 2.0–2.1 and 1.5–1.8 cP (or mPa/sec) at 20°C,
respectively. The casein micelles of milk contribute more to the viscosity of milk than any other constituent.
SPECIFIC HEAT: Number of calories required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1°C is known as
specific heat. The specific heat of milk products is a function of their composition. The values for whole milk, skim
milk, 40% cream, butter, and whey at 15°C are 0.93, 0.95, 0.68, 0.53, and 0.97 BTU/lb-°F, respectively (3.89, 3.97,
3.35, 2.21, and 4.06 kJ/kg-K, respectively).
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of electrical resistance exhibited by a 1 cm3 of
conductor (solution containing electrolytes). Current passes through the milk by virtue of the activity of its ionic
mineral constituents, of which the chloride ions carry 60–68% of the current. There is therefore a close correlation
between the electrical conductivity of milk and its chloride content. The electrical conductivity of normal milk
corresponds to that of approximately 0.25% sodium chloride solution (w/w) and ranges from 45 to 55 A-v–1m–1 or
45–55×10-4 mho. Conductivity of milk is the basis of the new ohmic process for sterilizing milk.
FREEZING POINT: The freezing point of milk is generally expressed as degrees Hortvet (H), reflecting the commonly
used Hortvet crysoscope procedure. Determination of freezing point is a parameter widely used in the industry for
detection of adulteration of milk with water. The freezing point of milk has a relatively narrow range (from –0.520 to
–0.560°C, the average being –0.540°C). It corresponds to the freezing point of an 0.85% sodium chloride solution
(w/w). Addition of water raises the freezing point, and readings above –0.520 support strong suspicion of watering
the milk. Lactose and chloride are the major milk constituents responsible for 70–80% of the overall depression in
the freezing point of milk.
BOILING POINT: The boiling point of milk is 100.17°C.
REFRACTIVITY: Refractive index is a physical property of a substance that relates to how light is refracted from the
material. Generally used to indirectly measure some other property such as concentration. The components of milk
contributing to its refractive index in descending order of importance are water, proteins, lactose, and minor
constituents. Whey proteins are more important than casein. The refractive index of milk at 20°C is 1.3440–1.3485.
PASTEURIZATION

Liquid milk can be delivered to the consumer after various heat treatments: none (raw milk), pasteurized or sterilized, and either packaged
or not (although sterilized milk is, of course, always packaged). The properties of liquid milk that require the most attention are safety to
the consumer, shelf life, and flavour.
Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment that is used on a wide range of different types of food products. The pasteurization process
was developed by Louis Pasteur. It has been described as the process of heating milk to such temperature and for such periods of time as
are required to destroy any pathogens which may be present, whilst causing minimum changes in the composition, flavour and nutritive
value. The two primary aims of pasteurization are to remove pathogenic bacteria from foods, thereby preventing disease, and to remove
spoilage (souring) bacteria to improve its keeping quality.
Pasteurization ensures the safety and greatly enhances the shelf life of the product. This heat treatment, kills all pathogens that
may be present (especially Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella spp., enteropathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Listeria
monocytogenes) to such an extent that no health hazard is left. Such pasteurization inactivates alkaline phosphatase to the extent as to be no
longer detectable. Most of the spoilage microorganisms in raw milk, such as coliforms, mesophilic lactic acid bacteria, and psychrotrophs,
are also killed by pasteurization.
As per FSSA, the term “Pasteurization”, “Pasteurised” and similar terms shall be taken to refer to the process of heating every
particle of milk of different classes to at least 63°C and holding at such temperature continuously for at least 30 minutes or heating it to at
least 71.5°C and holding at such temperature continuously for at least 15 seconds or an approved temperature time combination that will
serve to give a negative Phosphatase test.
All pasteurised milk of different classes shall be cooled immediately to a temperature of 10°C, or less.
As per International Dairy Federation (IDF), “Pasteurization is a process applied to a product with the objective of minimizing
possible health hazards arising from pathogenic microorganisms associated with the product (milk) which is consistent with minimal
chemical, physical, and organoleptic changes in the product.” This definition is also applicable to products other than milk, including,
creams, ice cream mix, eggs, fruit juices, fermented products, soups, and other beverages.
Pasteurization does not inactivate all microorganisms; those that survive pasteurization
are termed thermodurics and those that survive a harsher treatment at 80-100°C for 30 min are
termed spore formers. Traditionally, pasteurization was carried out in a batch process - the
Holder process - at 63°C for 30 min, but this was replaced by the introduction and acceptance of
continuous HTST processes.
General overview of the pasteurization process: The milk starts at the left and enters
the piping with functioning enzymes that, when heat treated, become denatured and stop the
enzymes from functioning. This helps to stop pathogen growth by stopping the functionality of
the cell. The cooling process helps stop the milk from undergoing the Maillard reaction and
caramelization. The pasteurization process also has the ability to heat the cells to the point that
they burst from pressure build up.

Batch/Vat/Holding Pasteurization or Low-Temperature-Long-Time (LTLT) method:

This process is not popular in the dairy industry any more after HTST system was introduced. The milk and milk products are heated or
cooled in batches in one, two, or three tanks. The process involves heating the milk to a temperature between 62.8 and 65.6°C, holding it at
that temperature for 30 min, and rapidly cooling it to below 10°C. Batch processing involves filling the vessel, heating, holding, cooling,
emptying the vessel and filling into containers, and cleaning the vessels.
The heating and cooling of the product is done through a metal wall. The milk is heated in open vats by using steam or hot water.
Then the product is heated or cooled, gentle agitation is done for rapid heat transfer. The pasteurizers may be of three types:
1. Water-jacketed vat: This is double walled around the sides and bottom in which hot water or steam under partial vacuum
circulates for heating, and cold water for cooling. The outer wall (lining) is usually insulated to reduce heat loss. The heat-
exchange takes place through the wall of the inner lining. The difference between the temperature of the heating water and the
milk is kept to a minimum. The milk is agitated by slowly moving (revolving) propellers. When heating, the vat cover is left open
for escape of off flavours; and when holding, the cover is closed. During the holding period, an air space/foam heater (steam or
electrically heated) prevents surface cooling of milk.
2. Water-spray type: A film of water is sprayed from a perforated pipe over the surface of the tank holding the product. The product
is agitated as above. A rapidly moving continuous film of water provides rapid heat transfer.
3. Coil-vat type: The heating/cooling medium is pumped through a coil placed in either a horizontal or vertical position, while the
coil is turned through the product. The turning coil agitates the product (but additional agitation may be necessary).
The batch pasteurizers are relatively cheap, simple and well suited for small plants and for low volume products.

High temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization:

This was first developed by A.P.V. Co. in the United Kingdom in 1922. The HTST pasteurizer gives a continuous flow of milk. The HTST
process involves heating milk to 72-75°C with a 15 second holding time before it is cooled.
One of the main advantages of continuous systems over batch systems is that energy can be recovered in terms of regeneration.
Regeneration efficiencies up to 95% can be obtained, which means that a pasteurized product requiring heating to 72°C would be heated up
to more than 68°C by regeneration when initial temperature of milk is 4°C. Although high regeneration efficiencies result in considerable
saving in energy, they necessitate the use of larger surface areas because of the lower temperature driving force and there is a slightly
higher capital cost for the heat exchanger.
The following parts and functions are involved as milk passes through the HTST pasteurization systems:
1. Float-Controlled Balance Tank (FCBT): Maintains a constant head of milk for feeding the raw milk pump; also receives any sub-
temperature milk diverted by flow diversion valve (FDV).
2. Pump: Either a rotary positive pump between the regenerator and heater, or a centrifugal pump with a flow control device to
ensure constant output, after FCBT is used.
3. Plates: The Plate Heat Exchanger is commonly used in the HTST system, especially for heating to temperatures which are below
the boiling point of milk. The plate heat exchanger is a compact, simple, easily cleaned and inspected unit. Its plates may be used
for heating, cooling, regeneration and holding. A space of approximately 3 mm is maintained between the plates by a non-
absorbent rubber gasket or seal.
4. Regeneration (Heating): The raw cold incoming milk is partially and indirectly heated by the hot outgoing milk (milk-to-milk
regeneration). This adds to economy of the HTST process, as the incoming milk requires less heating by hot water to raise its
temperature for holding.
5. Filter: Variously shaped filter units to connect directly to the HTST system are placed after the pre-heater or regenerative
(heating) section. These units, using 40-90 mesh cloth, are usually cylindrical in shape. Usually two filters are attached but they
are used at a time.
6. Holding: The holding tube or plates ensures that milk is held for a specified time, not less than 15 sec, at the pasteurization
temperature of 72°C or more
7. Flow diversion valve (FDV): This routes the milk after heat treatment. If the milk has been properly pasteurized, it flows forward
through the unit; that which is unpasteurized, it flows forward through the unit; that which is unpasteurized is automatically
diverted back to FCBT for reprocessing. It is usually operated by air pressure working against a strong spring.
8. Regeneration (cooling): The pasteurized hot outgoing milk is partially and indirectly cooled by the incoming cold milk. This
again adds to the economy of the HTST process.
9. Control panel: Contains instruments, controls, FDV mechanism and holding system, all centralized in one moisture proof panel.
10. Hot water set: Circulates hot water through the heating section of the machine to maintain the correct milk temperature within
very fine limits.
11. Automatic control devices: These include steam pressure controller and water temperature controller.
Steam pressure controller: Maintains a constant hot water temperature for heating milk accurately to the required pasteurization
temperature.
Water temperature controller: Regulates the amount of milk leaving the holding tube/ plate. This is an electric contact instrument
that operates either a FDV or a milk pump, automatically preventing milk from leaving the holding section at required temperature. Both
the frequency and duration of the flow diversion and the temperature of the milk leaving the holder are recorded on the thermograph
(recording chart) by means of two separate pens.
Advantages of HTST pasteurization:
 Large volume of milk may be processed continuously.
 Automatic precision controls assure positive pasteurization.
 The equipment requires a relatively small amount of floor and plant space.
 The system adapts itself well to CIP cleaning.
 Filling operations may begin almost simultaneously.
 The HTST method is economical, as it uses regenerator.
 The entire system is simple, requiring little supervisory attention.
 The capacity may be increased by increasing the number of plates without sacrificing floor space.
 It is well suited for regenerative heating and cooling.
 The closed unit keeps the processing losses to a
minimum. Disadvantages of HTST system:
 The system is not well-adapted to handling small quantities of several liquid milk products.
 Gaskets require constant observation for possible leakage and lack of sanitation.
 It requires precision instruments of control.
 Complete drainage is not possible without losses.
 Long run pasteurisers may give rise to serious bacteriological problems; plant should be efficiently cleaned every six to
eight hours to avoid these.

Ultra High Temperature Pasteurizer (UHT):

Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization involves heating milk or cream to 138 to 150°C (280 to 302°F) for one or two seconds.
Packaged in sterile, hermetically sealed containers, UHT milk may be stored without refrigeration for months. Ultrapasteurized milk and
cream are heated to at least 138°C for at least two seconds, but because of less stringent packaging they must be refrigerated. Shelf life is
extended to 60–90 days. The milk pump pushes the milk through regeneration unit in which steam having temperature 138°C is supplied.
The second unit i.e. homogenizer receives the hot milk from the plate heat exchanger at the required temperature of 138°C. The milk is
then passed through holding section (tube) and subsequently cooled down in a recirculation water section, regeneration section and finally
in cold water section. The processed milk is discharged into aseptic tank through aseptic barrier.
HOMOGENIZATION

- Compiled by Lalita Oraon

MT (PPD)

Milk is an oil-in-water type emulsion in which the butter fat is dispersed as

fat globules in the skim milk portion. The greater part of the fat volume
consists of globules with a diameter ranging from 2 to 6 µm. A few fat
globules may exist which have a diameter of 10 µm. Milk fat contains also a
large number of small fat globules with diameters down to 0.1 µm, but this
do not greatly increase the total volume of the fat (Ahmad, 2012).

Homogenization refers to the process of forcing the milk through a

homogenizer with the object of sub-dividing the fat globules (De, 2001).
Homogenization has become a standard industrial process, universally
practised as a means of stabilising the fat emulsion against gravity
separation (Bylund, 2003). Gaulin, who invented the process in 1899,
described it in French as “fixer la composition des liquides” which means it
makes liquid composition stable.

The purpose of homogenization is to disintegrate or finely distribute the fat

globules in the milk, in order to reduce creaming. Homogenization primarily
causes disruption of fat globules into much smaller ones. Consequently, it
diminishes creaming and mayalso diminish the tendency of globules to
clump or coalesce. Essentially, all homogenised milk is produced by
mechanical means.

Homogenized milk

According to the United States Public Health Service, homogenized milk is

milk which has been treated in such a manner as toensure breakup of the
fat globules to such an extent that after 48 hours’ quiescent storage no
visible cream separation occurs on the milk; and the fat percentage of the
milk in the top 100 ml of milk in a quart bottle, or of proportionate volumes
in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10 per cent of itself
from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough
mixing (De, 2001).

Objectives of Homogenization

Homogenization results in milk or milk products in which the fat globules

are reduced in size tosuch an extent that no visible cream separation occurs
in the milk. This process basically results in milk of uniform composition or
consistency and palatability without removing or adding any constituents.
Homogenization increases the whiteness of milk, because the greater
number of fat globules scatters light more effectively. Homogenized milk is
less susceptible to oxidized flavor, and the softer curd formed by it when
entering the stomach aids digestion (Miller et al., 2007).

Homogenization is applied for any of the following reasons:

1. Counteracting creaming: To achieve this, the size of the fat globules

should be greatly reduced. A cream layer in the product may be a nuisance
for the user, especially if the package is nontransparent.

2. Improving stability toward partial coalescence: The increased

stability of homogenized fat globules is caused by the reduced diameter and
by the acquired surface layer of the fat globules. Moreover, partial
coalescence especially occurs in a cream layer, and such a layer forms much
more slowly in homogenized products.

3. Creating desirable rheological properties: Formation of homogenization

clusters can greatly increase the viscosity of a productsuch as cream.
Homogenized and subsequently soured milk (e.g., yogurt) has a higher
viscosity than unhomogenized milk. This is because the fat globules that are
now partly covered with casein micelles in the aggregation of the casein
micelles.

4. Recombining milk products: At one stage of the process, butter oil must
be emulsified in a liquid suchas reconstituted skim milk. A homogenizer,
however, is not an emulsifying machine. Therefore, the mixture should first
be pre-emulsified, for example, by vigorous stirring; the formed coarse
emulsion is subsequently homogenized (Walstra et al., 2006).

Homogenizer

Homogenizers are high pressure, reciprocating pumps each having a

sanitary head upon which the homogenizing valves are mounted. Positive
displacement pumps are necessary to supply the feed to the valve.
Homogenizers generally have either three or five pistons, driven from a
crank shaft through connecting rods (Ahmad, 2012).

This is a machine which causes the sub-division of fat globules. It consists

of a high pressure through a narrow opening between the homogenizing
valve and its seat; the fat globules in the milk are thereby sub-divided into
smaller particles of more uniform size. The homogenizing valve is held down
by a heavy pressure spring against the seat of the valve. The valve and its
seat are made of extremely hard material (e.g. stelite) and the contact faces
are carefully ground so that the valve sits accurately on its seat.
Homogenizers are either single stage or double stage (De, 2001).

Operation of the Homogenizer

Homogenizers of the common type consist of a high-pressure pump that
forces the liquid through a narrow opening, the so-called homogenizer valve.

The disintegration of the original fat globules is achieved by acombination of

contributing factors such as turbulence and cavitation. This is accompanied
by a four- to six-fold increase in the fat/plasma interfacial surface area. The
newly created fat globules are no longer completely covered with the original
membrane material. Instead, they are surfaced with a mixture of proteins
adsorbed from the plasma phase (Figure 1).

Homogenization is done by forcing all of the milk at high pressures through

a narrow slit, which is only slightly larger than the diameter of the globules
themselves. The velocity in the narrowest slit can be 100 to 250 m/s. This
can cause high shearing stresses, cavitation and micro-turbulence. The
globules become deformed, then become wavy and then break up (Ahmad,
2012).

Figure 1. Effect of homogenization on fat and casein fractions in fluid milk

Homogenization theories

Many theories of the mechanism of high pressure homogenization have been

presented over the years. For an oil-in-water dispersion like milk, where
most of the droplets are less than 1 μm in diameter, two theories have
survived. Together, they give a good explanation of the influence of different
parameters onthe homogenising effect.

The theory of globule disruption by turbulent eddies (“micro whirls”) is

based on the fact that a lot of small eddies are created in a liquid travelling at
a high velocity. Higher velocity gives smaller eddies. If an eddy hits an oil
droplet of its own size, the droplet will break up. This theory predicts how
the homogenising effect varies with the homogenising pressure. This
relation has been shown in many investigations.

The cavitation theory, on the other hand, claims that the shock waves
created when the steam bubbles implode disrupt the fat droplets. According
to this theory, homogenization takes place when the liquid is leaving the
gap, so the back pressure which is important to control the cavitation is
important to homogenization. This has also been shown in practice.
However, it is possible to homogenize without cavitation, but it is less
efficient (Bylund, 2003).

The homogenizer in a processing line

In general, the homogenizer is placed upstream, i.e. before the final heating
section in a heat exchanger. In production of UHT milk, the homogenizer is
generally placed upstream in indirect systems but always downstream in
direct systems, i.e. on the aseptic side after UHT treatment. In the latter
case, the homogenizer is of aseptic design with special piston seals, sterile
steam condenser and special aseptic dampers.

However, downstream location of the homogenizer is recommended for

indirect UHT systems when milk products with a fat content higher than 6-
10 % and/or with increased protein content are going to be processed. The
reason is that with increased fat and protein contents, fat clusters and/or
agglomerates (protein) form at the very high heat treatment temperatures.
These clusters/agglomerates are broken up by the aseptic homogenizer
located downstream (Bylund, 2003).

Full stream homogenization

Full stream or total homogenization is the most commonly used form of

homogenization of UHT milk and milk intended for cultured milk products.

The fat content of the milk is standardized prior to homogenization, as is the

solids-non-fat content in certain circumstances, e.g. in yoghurt production.

Partial homogenization

Partial homogenization is used to save on energy and machinery. The milk is

separated into skim milk and cream, and the cream is homogenized and
mixed with the separated milk (Walstra et al., 2006).

Partial stream homogenization means that the main body of skim milk is not
homogenized, but only the cream together with a small proportion of skim
milk. This form of homogenization is mainly applied to pasteurised market
milk. The basic reason is to reduce operating costs. Total power
consumption is cut by some 80% because of the smaller volume passing
through the homogenizer (Bylund, 2003).

Single-stage and two-stage homogenization

Homogenizers may be equipped with one homogenising device or two

connected in series, hence the names single-stage homogenization and two-
stage homogenization.

In both single-stage homogenization and two-stage homogenization, the

whole homogenization pressure (P1) is used over the first device. In single-
stage homogenization, the back pressure (P2) is created by the process. In
two-stage homogenization the back pressure (P2) is created by the second
stage. In this case the back pressure can be chosen to achieve optimal
homogenization efficiency. Using modern devices, the best results
areobtained when the relation P2/P1 is about 0.2. The second stage also
reduces noise and vibrations in the outlet pipe (Bylund, 2003).

Single-stage homogenization may be used for homogenization of products

with high fat content demanding a high viscosity (certain cluster formation).

Two-stage homogenization is used primarily to reach optimal

homogenization results and to break up fat clusters in products with a high
fat content.

Factors affecting Homogenization

1. Temperature of homogenization: The milk should, at the time of

homogenization, be at a temperature above the melting point of fat, viz.,
above 330C. This is because fat should be in the liquid state for proper sub-
division. The enzyme lipase should be inactivated, preferably prior to
homogenization or immediately afterwards. This can be achieved by heating
the milk to a temperature of 550C. In routine practice, the milk is heated to
65-700C for homogenization. The danger zone for lipase activity, viz.,
temperature 38-490C, should be avoided during or after homogenization (De,
2001).

2. Pressure of homogenization: In a single stage, up to 6 per cent fat milk,

usually 2000-2500 psi pressure is sufficient. Higher pressures may increase
the tendency for the milk to curdle when cooked, due to the increased
destabilizing effect on milk-proteins. For liquid products with more than 6
per cent fat, two-stage homogenization is needed to prevent fat clumping:
2000 psi at the first stage and 500 psi at the second stage (De, 2001).

Effect of homogenization
The effect of homogenization on the physical structure of milk has many
advantages:

 Smaller fat globules leading to less cream-line formation

 Whiter and more appetizing colour
 Reduced sensitivity to fat oxidation
 More full-bodied flavour, and better mouth feel
 Better stability of cultured milk products
 No formation of cream layer/plug
 Produces soft curd and is better digested; hence recommended for
infant feeding

However, homogenization also has certain disadvantages

 Increased cost of production

 Increased sensitivity to light influences, leading to taste defects such
as “rancid”, “soapy” or “oxidized”.
 The milk might be less suitable for production of semi-hard or hard
cheeses because the coagulum will be too soft and difficult to dewater.
 Raw milk is unsuitable for homogenization as the flavour deteriorates
rapidly due to lipase action.

Homogenization efficiency

Homogenization must always be sufficiently efficient to prevent creaming.

The result can be checked by determining the homogenization index, which
can be found in the manner described in the following example:

A sample of milk is stored in a graduated measuring glass for 48 hours at a

temperature of 4-60C. The top layer (1/10 of the volume) is siphoned off, the
remaining volume (9/10) is thoroughly mixed, and the fat content ofeach
fraction is then determined. The difference in fat content between thetop and
bottom layers, expressed as a percentage of the top layer, isreferred to as the
homogenization index. The index for homogenised milk should be in the
range of 1 to 10 (Bylund, 2003a).

Determination of creaming Index

Low creaming index is an indication of good homogenization. Sterilized milk

may be graded as under for the quality of homogenization, as described in
BIS, (1981):

Quality of homogenization Creaming index

Excellent Upto 10
Good 11 to 20
Fair 21to 30
Bad Over 30

Procedure

50 ml of milk sample at 20±10C added in three glass tubes (with outside

diameter 24 mm, length with stopper 245 mm and graduated from 0 to 50
ml). Centrifuge for 15 min at 1000 rev/min. Using separate pipette, take 5
ml sample from upper part of tubes, carefully taking the cream that adheres
to walls o the tube and transfer into a container (sample I). The empty the
three tubes into a separate container (sample II). Measure the fat content of
sample I and II by Gerber method.

Calculation

𝐴−
𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵 𝑋 100
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝐵
Where,

A= Fat content of sample I, and

B= Fat content of sample II

Farrall Index

The homogenization efficiency of milk also analysed using the Farrall index
method as outlined by Trout (1950). It is a microscopic method. A Farrall
index ranging from 5 to 7 implied “excellent” homogenization efficiency.
Index exceeding 10 indicates inefficient homogenization (Patel, 1999).

References

Ahmad T (2012). Homogenization-Centrifugation. In: Dairy Plant

Engineering and Management. 10th chapter. 8th Edn. Kitab Mahal,
Allahabad, India. pp. 237-247.

Bylund G (2003). Homogenizers. In: Dairy Processing Handbook. Chapter

6.3. Teknotext AB (Ed.) Tetra Pak Processing Systems ABS-221 86 Lund,
Sweden. pp. 115-122.

Bylund G (2003a). Pasteurized Milk Products. In: Dairy Processing

Handbook. Chapter 8. Teknotext AB (Ed.) Tetra Pak Processing Systems
ABS-221 86 Lund, Sweden. p217.

De S (2001). Special Milks. In: Outlines of Technology. 1st Ed., Oxford

University Press- New Delhi. pp 93-97.
Bureau of Indian Standards (1981). Hand book of Food Analysis. Part XI,
Dairy Products. Manak Bhawan-9, Bahadur shah Jafar Marg, New Delhi,
India. p. 115.

Miller G D, Jarvis J K and McBean L D (2007). The Importance of Milk and

Milk Products in the Diet. In: Hand book of Dairy Foods and Nutrition. 3 rd
Edn. Chapter 1. National Dairy Council. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. Boca
Raton London New York. p. 21.

Patel H G (1999) Process standardization for manufacture of Basundi. Pd.D.,

Thesis. S M C College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University,
Anand, Gujarat, India.

Trout G M (1950). Homogenized Milk. A Review and Guide, Michigan State

College Press, Michigan.

Walstra P, Wouters J T M and Geurts T J (2006). Homogenization. In:

Dairy Science and Technology. Second Edn. Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Boca Raton London New York. p. 279
STERILIZATION

Sterilization is the process by which all microorganisms are destroyed from food items, other substances, utensils &
equipment, or surfaces, by using a sterilant such as a chemical and / or physical agents like high heat, high pressure,
filtration or radiation to achieve sterility.
The Food Safety & Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations, 2011, indicates
that the term “Sterilization” when used in association with milk, means heating milk in sealed container
continuously to a temperature of either 115°C (239°F) for 15 minutes or at least 130°C (266°F) for a period of 1
second or more in a continuous flow and then packed under aseptic condition in hermetically sealed containers to
ensure preservation at room temperature for a period not less than 15 days from the date of manufacture.

Difference between Sterilization and Pasteurization:

STERILIZATION PASTEURIZATION
Kills all microorganisms Kills viable pathogens that may cause disease and /
or spoilage of food
Chemical agents and / or physical agents (heat, Only heat is involved
pressure, filtration, radiation) are involved
Can adversely alter the taste of the food Does not appreciably alter the taste of the food items
Non-food items can also be subjected to Only limited number of food-items can be subjected
sterilization to pasteurization
FLAVOUR AND ODOUR DEFECTS
IN MILK AND OTHER DAIRY PRODUCTS
Good quality milk should have a pleasantly sweet and clean flavour with no distinct aftertaste. Because of the perishability of milk and the
nature of milk production and handling procedures, the development of off-flavours/odours is not uncommon. To prevent flavour/odour
defects in milk, proper milk handling procedures from the farm to the consumer are essential. This guideline will describe the common
flavour and odour defects found in milk and their potential causes. These defects can be classified according to the flavouring system
(lacks flavour or too high flavour, unnatural flavour), the sweetening system (lacks sweetness or too sweet), processing related flavour
defects (cooked), dairy ingredient flavour defects (acid, salty, old ingredient, oxidized/metallic, rancid, or whey flavours), and others
(storage/ absorbed, stabilizer/emulsifier, foreign). Another common classification is according to the ABC’s of off-flavours:
Absorbed/Transmitted
Bacterial/Microbial
Chemical/Enzymatic/Processing
Absorbed: Feedy, barny, cowy, weedy, unclean, lacks freshness, stale, refrigerator/cooler odours.
Raw or pasteurized milk products can absorb flavours during production, storage and distribution. On the farm, off-flavours can be
absorbed, or more correctly transmitted, through the bloodstream of the cow from the lungs and/or rumen into the milk in the udder (e.g.,
onion/garlic, feedy, barny, cowy). Similar off-flavours may be absorbed into the milk during farm storage if ventilation is poor and the
milk is not protected. Pasteurized milk can absorb flavours during refrigeration storage, especially in paperboard or low barrier cartons.
Examples of off-flavours that might be absorbed include volatile compounds of fruits or vegetables or unclean odours associated with
poorly cleaned milk coolers. Absorption of flavours by packaged milk can occur at the plant, in the supermarket or in the consumers’ home
refrigerators.

Bacterial: Acid, bitter, malty, lacks freshness, unclean, fruity/fermented, putrid and rancid.
Bacterial and other microbial (i.e., yeast or moulds) off-flavours result from the growth of microorganisms that are present in milk due
to poor sanitation and/or milk handling practices. Bacteria that are able to grow at refrigeration temperatures (≤45°F/7.2°C), or
psychrotrophic bacteria, are most often responsible for spoiling refrigerated milks. The type of spoilage (e.g., fruity, rancid, acid) depends
on the predominant type(s) of bacteria present and generally occurs when bacterial numbers (i.e., Standard Plate Count) exceed one to ten
million per millilitre. The time it takes for bacteria counts to reach spoilage levels depends on the initial numbers of bacteria and the
temperature of storage; the warmer the storage temperature, the quicker bacteria grow and produce off-flavours and the shorter the shelf-
life. If the raw milk quality is good and post-pasteurization contamination is prevented during processing, the numbers of microorganisms
should not reach spoilage levels before 14-21 days when milk is held under proper refrigeration. Bacterial and other microbial defects can
occur in raw or pasteurized milk and in other dairy products.

Chemical: Cowy (ketosis), salty, rancid, bitter, oxidized, sunlight, foreign, astringent, medicinal, flat, cooked.
Chemical and enzymatic defects can occur in both raw and pasteurized milk. The cows may be suffering from ketosis (rare) or
mastitis, which can affect milk flavour. Abusive handling of raw milk may result in a rancid flavour from the action of the naturally
occurring lipase enzyme, which breaks down butterfat to free fatty acids (i.e., butyric acid is perceived as “rancid”). Oxidized flavours can
be induced by heavy metals, particularly copper, or by exposure to sunlight and fluorescent lights. Chemical or foreign off-flavours can
also occur due to contamination with cleaning chemicals, sanitizers, medicines, or other substances during production or processing.
Processing parameters, if not managed properly, can result in off-flavours including cooked (from high heat) or flat (from added water).
CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK OFF-FLAVOURS
Typical Milk: No criticism. Very little distinct odour, pleasantly sweet and clean with no aftertaste.

Acid: Basic taste sensation. Sour, tart, may cause tingling sensation on tongue. “Cultured milk” or “sour” odour may be present.
Cause: Growth of lactic acid producing organisms such as Lactococcus lactis, due to poor refrigeration, especially when temperatures
exceed 70°F (21°C). “Malty” milks may be acid also.
Astringent: Peculiar mouth-feel, tongue & mouth lining feel shrivelled, puckered, chalky (e.g., cranberry juice). Cause: Associated
with denatured proteins due to high heat treatments or with staleness (e.g., milk powder). May be more pronounced in skim milks and in
Ultra High Temperature (UHT) or Ultra-Pasteurized (UP) products. Occasionally occurs with slight rancid, bitter or acid milk.
Barny: Unpleasant odour and taste of a poorly maintained barn or unpleasant feed. May be perceived as “unclean.” “Cowy” or
“cow’s-breath” may present a similar defect but generally with an unpleasant medicinal or chemical (i.e., acetone) aftertaste. Cause:
absorbed, transmitted odour/flavour due to cow inhaling barn odours associated with poor ventilation and unclean barn conditions. Similar
defect may be due to ketosis in cows, but with more of a medicinal or chemical aftertaste (see cowy).
Bitter: Basic taste sensation. Pure bitter has no odour. Taste sensation is detected on the tongue after expectoration (delayed) and
tends to persist. (e.g., hops in beer, coffee may be bitter). Cause: enzymatic breakdown (microbial or milk enzymes) of milk proteins to
short bitter peptides. Certain weeds ingested by cows may also cause bitterness although this is rare.
Cooked: Note odour and flavour. Varies in intensity from sweet, pleasant, with slight sulphurous or custard notes, to caramelized or
cabbage-like, which may be objectionable. Flavour usually becomes less intense over time but may persist depending on packaging
material. Cause: Higher pasteurization temperatures and/or longer holding times. Intensity depends on the severity of heat treatment.
Cooked flavours tend to be more pronounced in batch-pasteurized than HTST milk; most pronounced in Ultra High Temperature (UHT) or
Ultra Pasteurized (UP) products.
Cowy: Unpleasant odour & flavour; “acetone” or “cow’s-breath”; unpleasant medicinal or chemical aftertaste. Cause: metabolic
disorder in cows such as acetonemia or ketosis. Rare in commingled bulk supplies. Similar defect may be transmitted/absorbed odours of
poor barn conditions (i.e., barny).
Feed: Odour & flavour is characteristic of associated feed; silage, hay, grassy, etc. Can be slightly sweet, generally not unpleasant,
although could be unclean when strong or feed quality is poor. Most feed flavours clear up readily after milk is discharged from mouth.
Common, though most often slight. Cause: cows consume particular feed or inhale feedy odours prior to milking; transmitted to the milk.
Feeding should be done after milking when practical, barns should be well ventilated.
Flat: No odour. Lacks mouth-feel, flavour fullness, and/or sweetness of fresh milk. Watery characteristic. Cause: adulteration with
water or low milk solids content. Older milk may be “flat.”
Foreign: May have odour and/or flavour that is not commonly associated with milk. Often “chemical” in nature. Depends on causative
agent; sanitizers, detergents, exhaust fumes, cow medications, citrus fruits, etc. Chloro-phenol compounds may give “medicinal” or
“bandage-like” flavour. Cause: Contamination of milk with foreign substance. May be direct contamination of the milk (e.g., udder
ointment/chemical sanitizers, phenols/chlorine); may be transmitted through the cow or absorbed during raw storage or through retail
packages in plant, store or home refrigerators.
Fruity/ Fermented: Odour and flavour is usually pronounced, similar (not exact) to pineapple, apple, strawberry or other fruit (fruity);
may have more of a sauerkraut or vinegar-like odour or flavour (fermented). Cause: growth of psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria, especially
certain psychrotrophic Pseudomonas species or some of the spore-forming organisms (e.g., Bacillus, Paenibacillus).
Garlic/Onion: Characteristic pungent odour and flavour. Highly objectionable. Cause: Animals ingesting wild onion or garlic weed;
may also be absorbed through packaging during refrigeration storage with onion or garlic containing foods.
Lacks-Freshness: Lacks fine, pleasing flavour. Mild off-flavour that lacks specific characteristic to make identification easy. May be
“stale” or less sweet (e.g., “flat”). Generally not intense enough to fail product. Cause: Usually due to age, staleness, residual milk enzymes
or initial stage of microbial spoilage (e.g., psychrotrophic bacterial off-flavours such as unclean, bitter and rancid).
Malty: Malt-like aroma or taste (like malted milk or Grape-Nuts®). May be similar to feed or cooked odours, but is considered a
severe defect as microbial spoilage. Milk often is acid as well. Cause: Growth of Lactococcus lactis var. maltigenes (or possibly other
organisms) due to poor refrigeration. May be followed by “acid” or “unclean” flavours.
Oxidized/Light-Induced: Odour and taste of burnt-protein, burnt-feathers, or medicinal or plastic-like taste. May progress to metallic
or lipid oxidized type flavour due to fat oxidation. Cause: exposure of milk to sunlight or fluorescent lights resulting in protein degradation
and/or lipid oxidation. Milk in unprotected or transparent milk jugs/bottles is more susceptible although this defect may occur in paper
packaging if the light is intense and exposure time is sufficient.
Metallic-Oxidized: Wet cardboard, oily, tallowy, chalky, or fishy flavour. Odour (old veg. oil) is pronounced when defect is intense.
May have a lingering greasy or puckery mouth-feel. Sensation comes quickly. Cause: milk fat oxidation catalysed by copper or certain
other metals contacting milk (e.g., copper pipe, white metal, metallic water supply). May be associated with raw milk of cows fed high fat
feeds (e.g., soybeans) and/or lack of antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E). Sometimes occurs spontaneously. Raw or cream-line milk is more
susceptible than pasteurized homogenized.
Carton/ Paperboard: Plastic like or wet paper flavour. Subtle, rarely pronounced unless there is evidence of carton burning during
the sealing process. Cause: associated with paper-board packaging with heat used to seal HDPE polymer coating. Generally more apparent
in half-pints due to increased package surface area-to-volume ratio.
Rancid: Pungent odour when extreme. Taste soapy, unclean, bitter, blue cheese-like or “baby vomit.” Provolone cheese has a rancid
flavour profile. Pronounced lingering aftertaste. Sensitivity varies. Cause: free fatty acids (e.g., butyric acid) released from milk-fat by
natural or microbial enzymes (lipase). In raw milk it’s associated with excessive agitation, temperature abuse or cow factors (e.g., poor
health and/or nutrition). Pasteurization destroys natural enzyme (lipase), but spoilage microorganism may have similar enzymes that cause
rancidity.
Salty: Basic taste sensation. No odour. Generally easily detected. Clean mouth-feel. Cause: associated with late lactation or mastitic
cows. Would be rare in bulk supplies.
Unclean: Unpleasant odour and taste. Mouth fails to clean up after expectorated. Suggestive of mustiness, putrid, “dirty dish-rag” or
other “unclean” flavours. Cause: generally due to growth of spoilage microorganisms in milk or on excessively dirty equipment. Can occur
due to milk absorbing odours from dirty coolers or environment.