Dr.

Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 1 of 21

Engg. Math. I (Unit-III)

Calculus of Matrices

Syllabus. Matrices, determinants, rank, normal form. Systems of linear equa-

tions and their solutions.

Vectors and their linear combination and generated space. We consider the three
dimensional Euclidian space and denote it by R3 .

Each vector of this space can be represented by its position vector. For example, if
−→
O is the origin and OP is the vector with tail O and head P , where coordinates of
−→
P are (x1 , x2 , x3 ), then OP = x1 î + x2 ĵ + x3 k̂ is completely described by its coordi-
−→
nates (x1 , x2 , x3 ), i.e., all the information about OP is contained in the coordinates
(x1 , x2 , x3 ). Therefore, all the vectors of R3 are represented by their coordinates and
we write
R3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ) : x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R}.
In further discussion, we represent a vector by:
 
x1
X =  x2 
x3

since it same as (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in the sense that both the notations give same information
about vector. The vector  
x1
X =  x2 
x3
is also called a column vector or column matrix. Similarly, we can define a row
vector of row matrix by X 0 = [ x1 , x2 , x3 ].
Suppose that    
1 1
X1 =  0  , X2 =  1 
0 0
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 2 of 21

are two three dimensional vectors and a1 , a2 ∈ R. Then, the expression

     
1 1 a1 + a2
X = a1 X1 + a2 X2 = a1  0  + a2  1  =  a2 
0 0 0

is called a linear combination of the vectors X1 , X2 . Obviously, by changing the

values of a1 and a2 we can find infinitely many linear combinations of X1 and X2 .
The set of all linear combinations of X1 and X2 is called the space generated by
the vectors X1 and X2 . These notions can be generalized for arbitrary number of
vectors of n-dimensional vectors.
Linear independence and dependence of vectors. Vectors X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are called
linearly dependent if any one of them is a linear combination of other vectors,
otherwise vectors are called linearly independent.
Echelon form of a matrix. We can always reduce the given matrix into a matrix
which is in the following form:

(1) All nonzero rows are above any zero row;

(2) the pivot (first nonzero entry from the left) of any row is always strictly to the
right of the pivot of the row above it.

Such a form of matrix is called the echelon form.

Rank of a matrix. Suppose that
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
A=  ... .. ..  = [X1 X2 . . . Xn ]
. ··· . 
am1 am2 · · · amn
     
a11 a21 a1n
 a21   a22
 . . ., Xn =  a2n
  
where X1 =   ... , X2 =  ...
 
  ... . Then the number of


am1 am2 amn

linearly independent column vectors in X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn is called the  column
 rank
X10
 X20 
of matrix A. Similarly, the matrix A can be written as A =   ...  where

0
Xm
X10 = [a11 a12 · · · a1n ], X10 = [a21 a22 · · · a2n ] , . . . , Xm0
= [am1 am2 · · · amn ]. Then, the
0 0 0
number of linearly independent row vectors in X1 , X2 , . . . , Xm is called the row rank
of matrix A. An interesting property of matrices says that the row and column ranks
of a matrix are always equal and this common value is called the rank of matrix and
denoted by ρ(A).
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 3 of 21

How to find the rank of a matrix. We use the following two methods of finding
the rank of matrices:
(I). Method of determinants. The rank of a matrix can also be calculated
using determinants. The rank of a matrix is the order of the largest square
submatrix of the given matrix with nonzero determinant. To find this, we
search a submatrix with nonzero determinant, and we start with the largest
possible submatrix of the given matrix. If this largest submatrix has a nonzero
determinant, then the order of the submetrix is the rank of the given matrix.
If the determinant of largest is zero, then we go to the submatrix of order
less than 1 from the largest submetrix, and repeat this process till we get a
submetrix with nonzero determinant.
(II). Method of echelon form. In this method, we first reduce the given metric
into echelon form by applying the elementary transformations, and then, the
number of nonzero rows in the reduced echelon form is the rank of the given
matrix.

cos α sin α
Example 1. Find the rank of the matrix A = .
− sin α cos α

Sol. We start with the highest order minor, i.e., the minor of order 2

cos α sin α
|A| =
− sin α cos α
= cos2 α − − sin2 α

= cos2 α + sin2 α
= 1 6= 0

for all values of α. Thus, the highest order nonzero minor of A is of order 2, and so,
ρ(A) = 2.
Example
 2. Find
 one nonzero minor of highest order of the matrix A =
1 −2 3
 −2 4 −1  , hence find its rank.
−1 2 7

Sol. We start with the highest order minor, i.e., the minor of order 3

1 −2 3
|A| = −2 4 −1
−1 2 7
= 1(28 + 2) + 2(−14 − 1) + 3(−4 + 4)
= 30 − 30 = 0.

Therefore, the highest minor of order 3 is zero. We next consider the second highest
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 4 of 21

order minor, i.e., the minor of order 2:

−2 3
= = 2 − 12 = −10 6= 0.
4 −1

Thus, the highest order nonzero minor of A is of order 2, and so, ρ(A) = 2.

Example
 3. In each
 case, find the rank of the matrix A =
1 1 1
 b+c c+a a+b 
bc ca ab

Sol. Again, we start with the highest order minor of A, then:

1 1 1
|A| = b+c c+a a+b
bc ca ab
1 0 0
= b+c a−b a−c (applying C2 → C2 − C1 , C3 → C3 − C1 )
bc c(a − b) b(a − c)
a−b a−c
=
c(a − b) b(a − c)
= −(a − b)(b − c)(c − a).

We consider the following cases:

Case I. When a = b = c. In this case |A| = 0, and so, ρ(A) < 3. Also, for a = b = c
1 1 1
we have A = 2a 2a 2a . Clearly, all the minors of order 2 of A are zero, and so,
a2 a2 a2
ρ(A) < 2. Now, clearly the minor of order 1 of A is nonzero , therefore ρ(A) = 1.
Case II. When a = b 6= c. In this case |A| = 0, and so, ρ(A) < 3. Also, for a = b 6= c
1 1 1
1 1
we have A = a + c a + c 2a , and a minor of order 2 = = a−c 6= 0.
a + c 2a
ac ac a2
Therefore, ρ(A) = 2. Since A is symmetric in a, b, c, therefore, if any two of a, b, c
are equal, and the remaining is not equal to the first two, the rank of A remains 2.
Case III. When a 6= b 6= c. In this case |A| =
6 0, and so, ρ(A) = 3.
Nullity of a square matrix. The nullity of a matrix is the excess of the order of
matrix over its rank, and it is denoted by ν(A). If A is a square matrix of order n
and ρ(A) = r, the ν(A) = n − ρ(A) = n − r.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 5 of 21

Example 4. Determine the rank and nullity of the following matrices:

 2 
1 22 32 42
 22 32 42 52 
A=  32
.
42 52 62 
42 52 62 72
 
1 4 9 16
 4 9 16 25 
Sol. Given matrix is: A = 
 9 16
.
25 36 
16 25 36 49
Applying R4 → R4 − R3 , R3 → R3 − R2 ; R2 → R2 − R1 we obtain:
 
1 4 9 16
3 5 7 9 
A∼  5 7 9 11  .

7 9 11 13

Applying R4 → R4 − R3 , R3 → R3 − R2 ; R2 → R2 − R1 we obtain:
 
1 4 9 16
 2 1 −2 −7 
A∼  2 2 2 2 .

2 2 2 2

Applying R3 → 21 R3 ; R3 ↔ R1 we obtain:
 
1 1 1 1
2 1 −2 −7 
A∼ 1 4
.
9 16 
2 2 2 2

Applying R4 → R4 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 ; R2 → R2 − 2R1 we obtain:

 
1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −4 −9 
A∼ 0 3 8 15  .

0 0 0 0

Applying R3 → R3 + 3R2 we obtain:

 
1 1 1 1
 0 −1 −4 −9 
A∼  0 0 −4 −12  .

0 0 0 0

The above matrix is in the echelon form, therefore, the rank of matrix A;
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 6 of 21

ρ(A) = no. of nonzero rows in the echelon form= 3 and ν(A) = 4 − 3 = 1.

Example 5. Determine the rank and nullity of the following matrices:

 
  0 1 −3 −1
1 2 3 1 0 1 1 
(i) 1 4 2 
 (ii) 
3 1 0 2 

2 6 5
1 1 −2 0
 
1 2 3
Sol. (i). Let A =  1 4 2  . Applying the transformation R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 →
2 6 5
R3 − 2R1 we have:  
1 2 3
A ∼  0 2 −1  .
0 2 −1
Applying the transformation R3 → R3 − R2 we have:
 
1 2 3
A ∼  0 2 −1  .
0 0 0
The above matrix is in the echelon form, therefore, the rank of matrix A;
ρ(A) = no. of nonzero rows in the echelon form= 2 and ν(A) = 3 − 2 = 1.
 
0 1 −3 −1
1 0 1 1 
 3 1 0 2  . Applying the transformation R1 ↔ R2 we have
(II). Let A =  
1 1 −2 0
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
A∼  3 1 0 2 .

1 1 −2 0
Applying R3 → R3 − 3R1 , R4 → R4 − R1 we have:
 
1 0 1 1
0 1 −3 −1 
A∼ .
0 1 −3 −1 
0 1 −3 −1
Applying R3 → R3 − R2 , R4 → R4 − R2 we have:
 
1 0 1 1
 0 1 −3 −1 
A∼ 0 0 0 0
.

0 0 0 0
The above matrix is in the echelon form, therefore, the rank of matrix A;
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 7 of 21

ρ(A) = no. of nonzero rows in the echelon form= 2 and ν(A) = 4 − 2 = 2.

Normal form of a matrix. By elementary row and column transformation every
matrix can be reduced into one of the following forms:

Ir 0 Ir
; ; Ir 0 ; [Ir ]
0 0 0
where r is the rank of the matrix. The above four forms are called the normal form
of the matrix.
Example 6. Reduce the matrix into the normal form and find its rank and
nullity:  
2 3 −1 −1
 1 −1 −2 −4 
A=  3 1 3 −2  .

6 3 0 −7

Sol. Applying R1 ↔ R2 :
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 2 3 −1 −1 
A∼
 3 1 3 −2  .

6 3 0 −7
Applying R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − 3R1 , R4 → R4 − 6R1 :
 
1 −1 −2 −4
0 5 3 7 
A∼ 0 4 9
.
10 
0 9 12 17
Applying R2 → R2 − R3 :
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 0 1 −6 −3 
A∼
 0 4 9 10  .

0 9 12 17
Applying R3 → R3 − 4R2 , R4 → R4 − 9R2 :
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 0 1 −6 −3 
A∼  0 0 33
.
22 
0 0 66 44
Applying R4 → R4 − 2R3 :
 
1 −1 −2 −4
 0 1 −6 −3 
A∼
 0 0 33 22  .

0 0 0 0
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 8 of 21

Applying the following series of operations in order:

C2 → C2 + C1 , C3 → C3 + 2C1 , C4 → C4 + 4C1 ;
2 1
C3 → C3 + 6C2 , C4 → C4 + 3C2 ; C4 → C4 − C3 ; C3 → C3 :
3 33
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0  I3 0
A∼ 0 0 1 0
= .
 0 0
0 0 0 0
It is the required normal form of the matrix and:
ρ(A) = 3 and ν(A) = 4 − 3 = 1.

Example 7. Reduce the matrix into the normal form and find its rank and
nullity:  
1 2 3 2
A =  2 3 5 1 .
1 3 4 5

Sol. Applying R2 ↔ R2 − 2R1 and R3 ↔ R3 − R1 :

 
1 2 3 2
A∼ 0  −1 −1 −3  .
0 1 1 3

Applying R3 → R3 + R2 :
 
1 2 3 2
A ∼  0 −1 −1 −3  .
0 0 0 0

Applying the following series of operations in order:

C2 → C2 − 2C1 , C3 → C3 − 3C1 , C4 → C4 − 2C1 ;
C3 → C3 − C2 , C4 → C4 − 3C2 ; C2 → (−1)C2 :
 
1 0 0 0
I2 0
A∼0 1 0 0= .
0 0
0 0 0 0
It is the required normal form of the matrix and ρ(A) = 2. Since the matrix A is
not a square matrix, hence its nullity is not defined.
Inverse of matrix by elementary operations. Suppose A be an invertible matrix
of order n. Then, to find the inverse of A by elementary row operations, write
A = In A (1)
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 9 of 21

where In is the unit matrix of order n. Now we convert this equation into the form
In = BA by applying a sequence of elementary row operation on equation (1). In
the new equation B is the inverse of A. To find B, we apply same sequence of row
operations on In (of R.H.S. of equation (1)) which we apply on A (of L.H.S. of (1)),
so that In of R.H.S. is converted into B. If we want to apply elementary column
operations we write A = AIn , now we repeat whole process keeping in mind that
the sequence of column operations is now applied to the In .
Example
 8. Use elementary
 transformations and find the inverse of the matrix
1 1 3
A=  1 3 −3 .
−2 −4 −4

Sol. We have A = IA, i.e.,

   
1 1 3 1 0 0
 1 3 −3  =  0 1 0  A.
−2 −4 −4 0 0 1

Applying R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 + 2R1
   
1 1 3 1 0 0
 0 2 −6  =  −1 1 0  A.
0 −2 2 2 0 1

Applying R3 → R3 + R2
   
1 1 3 1 0 0
 0 2 −6  =  −1 1 0  A.
0 0 −4 1 1 1

Applying R3 → − 41 R3
   
1 1 3 1 0 0
 0 2 −6  =  −1 1 0  A.
0 0 1 −1/4 −1/4 −1/4

Applying R1 → R1 − 3R3 , R2 → R2 + 6R3

   
1 1 0 7/4 3/4 3/4
 0 2 0  =  −5/2 −1/2 −3/2  A.
0 0 1 −1/4 −1/4 −1/4

Applying R2 → 12 R2
   
1 1 0 7/4 3/4 3/4
 0 1 0  =  −5/4 −1/4 −3/4  A.
0 0 1 −1/4 −1/4 −1/4
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 10 of 21

Applying R1 → R1 − R2
   
1 0 0 3 1 3/2
 0 1 0  =  −5/4 −1/4 −3/4  A
0 0 1 −1/4 −1/4 −1/4
 
3 1 3/2
i.e., I = BA, where B =  −5/4 −1/4 −3/4  is the inverse of A.
−1/4 −1/4 −1/4

Example 9. Prove that the points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) are collinear if
the rank of the following matrix is less than three and vice-versa:
 
x 1 y1 1
A =  x 2 y2 1  .
x 3 y3 1

Sol. First suppose that the points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) are collinear. Then,
we know that the area of triangle formed by these points must be zero, i.e.:

1 x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1 = 0
2 x y 1
3 3
1
=⇒ |A| = 0
2
=⇒ |A| = 0.
Therefore, the minor of highest order 3 is zero, hence rank of A is less than three.
Conversely: Suppose that the rank of A is less than three. Then we know that
the minor of highest order, i.e., |A| must be zero. Hence:
|A| = 0
1
=⇒ |A| = 0
2
1 x 1 y1 1
=⇒ x2 y2 1 = 0.
2 x y 1
3 3

This shows that the points (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) are collinear.

Exercise (Assignment)

(Q.1) Find the rank and nullity of the following matrix:

1 3
A=
2 4
Ans. ρ(A) = 2.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 11 of 21

(Q.2) Find the rank and nullity (if defined) of the following matrix:
 
1 3 4 3
A∼ 3  9 12 3 
1 3 4 1
Ans. ρ(A) = 2.
 
1 1 1
(Q.3) Find the rank and nullity of the matrix A =  a b c  .
a3 b3 c3
Ans. (i) If a = b = c, then ρ(A) = 1 (ii) if a = b 6= c, then ρ(A) = 2 (iii) if
a 6= b 6= c, but a + b + c = 0, then ρ(A) = 2 (iv) if a 6= b 6= c, but a + b + c 6= 0,
then ρ(A) = 3.
(Q.4) Find the rank and nullity of the matrix for zero and nonzero values of a, b, c
 
a b c
A =  ab bc ca  .
a2 b2 c2
Ans. (i) If a = b = c = 0, then ρ(A) = 0 (ii) if any one of a, b, c is zero and
other two are nonzero, then ρ(A) = 2 (iii) if any two of a, b, c are zero and the
remaining one is nonzero, then ρ(A) = 1.
(Q.5) Reduce the matrix into the normal form and find its rank and nullity:
 
8 1 3 6
A =  0 3 2 2 .
−8 −1 −3 4
Ans. ρ(A) = 2 and nullity is not defined.
(Q.6) Reduce the matrix into the normal form and find its rank:
 
1 2 −1 4
 2 4 3 4 
A=  1 2 3 4 .

−1 −2 6 −7

Ans. ρ(A) = 3.
(Q.7) Reduce the matrix into the normal form and find its rank and nullity:
 
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6 
A= 4
.
5 6 7 
9 10 11 12

Ans. ρ(A) = 2.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 12 of 21

(Q.8) Use row (or column) transformation and find the inverse of the matrix:
   
2 3 4 5 −2 4
(i) A = 4 3 1
  (ii) A = −2 1
 1 .
1 2 4 4 1 0
   
−2 4/5 9/5 1  1 −4 6
Ans. (i) A−1 =  3 −4/5 −14/5  (ii) A−1 = −4 16 13  .
−1 1/5 6/5 37 6 13 −1

Solution of system of linear equations. Consider a system of m linear equations in

n variables:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn

= b2 
.. (2)
. 

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .

 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a12 a22 · · · a2n 
In matrix form this system can be written as AX = B, where A =   ... .. . . . .. 
. . 
  am1 am2 · · · amn
x1 b1
 x2   b2 
is the coefficient matrix, X = 
 ... 
 is the variable vector and b =  ..  is the
 . 
xn bn
constant vector.
We denote the augmented matrix by A B and
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
 a12 a22 · · · a2n b2 
A B =
 ... .. . . . .. ..  .
. . . 
am1 am2 · · · amn bn

Then, we follow the following procedure to test the consistency and obtain the
solution of the system (2):

(A) If ρ A B 6= ρ(A), then system is inconsistent, and has no solution.

(B) If ρ A B = ρ(A) = n, then system is consistent, and has a unique solu-
tion.

(C) If ρ A B = ρ(A) < n, then system is consistent, and has infinitely many
solutions with n − ρ(A) independent variables.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 13 of 21

Example 10. Show that the following system is consistent and solve it:
x+y+z = 3
x + 2y + 3z = 4
x + 4y + 9z = 6.
     
1 1 1 x 3
Sol. Write the system as: AX = B, A = 1 2 3 , X = y , B = 4  .
    
1 4 9 z 6
Now, augmented matrix will be
 
1 1 1 3
A B =  1 2 3 4 .
1 4 9 6

Applying R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 1 1 3
A B ∼  0 1 2 1 .
0 3 8 3
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 14 of 21

Applying R3 → R3 − 3R2
 
1 1 1 3
A B ∼  0 1 2 1 .
0 0 2 0

It is the echelon form of the augmented matrix and it is clear that ρ A B =
ρ(A) = 3, which is equal to the number of unknown variables. Therefore, the given
system is consistent and has a unique solution. From the echelon form we have the
equations:
x+y+z = 3
y + 2z = 1
2z = 0.
Therefore, the solution will be:
x = 2, y = 1, z = 0.

Example 11. Test for consistency and solve (if consistent):

5x + 3y + 7z = 4
3x + 26y + 2z = 9
7x + 2y + 10z = 5.
     
5 3 7 x 4
Sol. Write the system as: AX = B, A =  3 26 2  , X =  y  , B =  9  .
7 2 10 z 5
Now, augmented matrix will be
 
5 3 7 4
A B =  3 26 2 9  .
7 2 10 5
Applying R1 → R1 − 2R2
 
−1 −49 3 −14
A B ∼  3 26 2 9 .
7 2 10 5
Applying R2 → R2 + 3R1 , R3 → R3 + 7R1
 
−1 −49 3 −14
A B ∼  0 −121 11 −33  .
0 −341 31 −93
31
Applying R3 → R3 − 11 R2
 
−1 −49 3 −14
A B ∼  0 −121 11 −33  .
0 0 0 0
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 15 of 21

It is the echelon form of the augmented matrix and it is clear that ρ A B =
ρ(A) = 2, which is less than the number of unknown variables (3). Therefore, the
given system is consistent and has infinitely many solution. Since n−ρ(A) = 3−2 =
1, so one variable in the given system id independent. From the echelon form we
have two equations:
−x − 49y + 3z = −14
−121y + 11z = −33.
Since one variable is independent, let z = k, then from the above equations we get
7 16 3+k
x= − k, y = , z = k.
11 11 11

Example 12. Show that the following system is inconsistent:

x − 2y + z − w = −1
3x − 2z + 3w = −4
5x − 4y + w = −3.

Sol. The augmented matrix of given system is:

 
1 −2 1 −1 −1
A B =  3 0 −2 3 −4  .
5 −4 0 1 −3

Applying R2 → R2 − 3R1 , R3 → R3 − 5R1

 
1 −2 1 −1 −1
A B ∼  0 6 −5 6 −1  .
0 6 −5 6 2

Applying R3 → R3 − R2
 
1 −2 1 −1 −1
A B ∼  0 6 −5 6 −1  .
0 0 0 0 3

It is the echelon form of the augmented matrix and it is clear that ρ A B =
3 6= ρ(A) = 2. Therefore, the given system is inconsistent and has no solution.
Example 13. Investigate the values of λ and µ so that the equations:
x+y+z = 6
x + 2y + 3z = 10
x + 2y + λz = µ,

have (i) no solution and (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of solu-
tions.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 16 of 21

   
1 1 1 x
Sol. Write the system as: AX = B, where A =  1 2 3  , X =  y  , B =
1 2 λ z
 
6
 10  . Now, augmented matrix will be
µ
 
1 1 1 6
A B =  1 2 3 10  .
1 2 λ µ

Applying R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 1 1 6
A B ∼0 1 2 4 .
0 1 λ−1 µ−6

Applying R3 → R3 − R2
 
1 1 1 6
A B ∼0 1 2 4 .
0 0 λ − 3 µ − 10

It is the echelon form of the augmented matrix. Now, we consider the following
cases:

(i) System has no solution: It is possible only when ρ A B 6= ρ(A), i.e.,
when λ = 3 and µ 6= 10.

(ii) System has a unique solution: It is possible only when ρ A B = ρ(A) =
3, i.e., λ 6= 3 and µ ∈ R.

(iii) System has infinitely many solutions: It is possible only when ρ A B =
ρ(A) < 3, i.e., λ = 3 and µ = 10.

Example 14. For what value(s) of k the equations:

x+y+z = 1
x + 2y + 4z = k
x + 4y + 10z = k 2 ,
have a solution and solve completely in each case.

Sol. The augmented matrix of given system is:

 
1 1 1 1
A B =  1 2 4 k .
1 4 10 k 2
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 17 of 21

Applying R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 1 1 1
A B ∼  0 1 3 k − 1 .
0 3 9 k2 − 1

Applying R3 → R3 − 3R2
 
1 1 1 1
A B ∼0 1 3 k−1 . (3)
2
0 0 0 k − 3k + 2

The system of equations will have a solution if it is consistent, i.e., if ρ A B =
2
ρ(A), and it is possible
when k − 3k + 2 = 0, i.e., k = 1 or k = 2. In both the
only
cases we have ρ A B = ρ(A) = 2 < 3 (no. of variables). Therefore, in both
the cases we have 3 − 2 = 1 independent variable and infinitely many solutions of
the given system. We consider the following cases:
Case I. If k = 1, then from (3) we have the following equations:

x+y+z = 1
y + 3z = 0.

Since one variable is independent, choose z = a we have the following solution:

x = 1 + 2a, y = −3a, z = a.

Case I. If k = 2, then from (3) we have the following equations:

x+y+z = 1
y + 3z = 1.

Since one variable is independent, choose z = b we have the following solution:

x = 2b, y = 1 − 3b, z = b.

Example 15. For what value of k the equations:

2x − 3y + 6z − 5t = 3
y − 4z + t = 1
4x − 5y + 8z − 9t = k,

(i) have no solution (ii) have infinitely many solutions.

Sol. The augmented matrix of given system is:

 
2 −3 6 −5 3
A B =  0 1 −4 1 1  .
4 −5 8 −9 k
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 18 of 21

Applying R3 → R3 − 2R1
 
2 −3 6 −5 3
A B ∼  0 1 −4 1 1 .
0 1 −4 1 k − 6
Applying R3 → R3 − R2
 
2 −3 6 −5 3
A B ∼  0 1 −4 1 1 .
0 0 0 0 k−7

The system of equations will have a solution if it is consistent, i.e., if ρ A B =
ρ(A), it is possible only when k − 7 = 0, i.e., k = 7. In this case we have
and
ρ A B = ρ(A) = 2 < 4 (no. of variables). Therefore, we have 4 − 2 = 1
independent variables and infinitely many solutions of the given system. Now, for
k=7, the above system reduces to:
2x − 3y + 6z − 5t = 3
y − 4z + t = 1.
Since two variables are independent, choose z = a and t = b we have the following
solution:
x = 3 + 3a + b, y = 1 + 4a − b, z = a, t = b.

Homogeneous system of equations.

We consider the following system of equations:


a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0 
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn

= 0 
.. (4)
. 

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0.


Note that, in the above system all the constant of R.H.S. are zero and such a
system is called the homogeneous system. In matrix form it can be written as
AX = 0, where A is the coefficient matrix and
X isthe variable vector. In such
systems the augmented matrix is A B = A 0 . Note that, in any case the
rank of coefficient matrix A and the rank of augmented matrix A B are equal.
Therefore, homogeneous systems are always consistent and have a solution, namely,
x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0 is always a solution of system (4) and it is called the zero
solution or trivial solution.
Note. (A) If ρ(A) = n =number of variables, then system (4) has only the
trivial solution.
(B) If ρ(A) < n =number of variables, then system (4) has a nontrivial solution.

(C) For homogeneous system, we find the rank of only A, not of A B .
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 19 of 21

Example 16. Solve the equations: x + 3y − 2z = 0, 2x − y + 4z = 0, x − 11y +

14z = 0.

Sol. The coefficient matrix of the given system is:

 
1 3 −2
A =  2 −1 4 
1 −11 14
Applying R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 3 −2
A ∼  0 −7 8  .
0 −14 16
Applying R3 → R3 − 2R2  
1 3 −2
A ∼  0 −7 8  .
0 0 0
It is the echelon form. Clearly, ρ(A) = 2 < 3 =number of variables. Therefore,
system has a nontrivial solution and n − ρ(A) = 3 − 2 = 1 variable is independent.
By the echelon form we have the following equations:
x + 3y − 2z = 0
−7y + 8z = 0.
Since one variable is independent, choose z = k, we obtain from the above equations:
10k 8k
x=− , y = , z = k.
7 7
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 20 of 21

Example 17. For which value of ‘b’ the following system:

2x + y + 2z = 0
x + y + 3z = 0
4x + 3y + bz = 0

has (i) trivial solution (ii) nontrivial solution. Find the nontrivial solution.

Sol. The coefficient matrix of the given system is:

 
2 1 2
A= 1  1 3
4 3 b
Applying R1 ↔ R2 ; then R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − 4R1
 
1 1 3
A ∼  0 −1 −4  .
0 −1 b − 12
Applying R3 → R3 − R2  
1 1 3
A ∼  0 −1 −4  .
0 0 b−8
It is the echelon form. We consider the following cases:
(i) If b 6= 8, then obviously ρ(A) = 3 =number of variables and so system has a
trivial solution.
(ii) If b = 8, then obviously ρ(A) = 2 < 3 =number of variables and so system has
nontrivial solution. In this case n − ρ(A) = 3 − 2 = 1 variable will be independent.
By the echelon form we have the following equations:
x+y+z = 0
−y − 4z = 0.
Since one variable is independent, choose z = k, we obtain from the above equations:
x = k, y = −4k, z = k.

Exercise (Assignment)

(Q.1) Investigate the values of λ and µ so that the equations:

2x + 3y + 5z = 9
7x + 3y − 2z = 8
2x + 3y + λz = µ,
have (i) no solution and (ii) a unique solution (iii) an infinite number of
solutions. Ans. (i) λ = 5, µ 6= 9 (ii) λ 6= 5, µ ∈ R (iii) λ = 5, µ = 9.
Dr. Satish Shukla Differential Calculus 21 of 21

(Q.2) Test the consistency of the system:

x + 2y − z = 3
2x − 2y + 3z = 2
3x − y + 2z = 1
x−y+z = −1.
Ans. Consistent and has a unique solution x = −1, y = 4, z = 4.
(Q.3) Show that the following system is consistent and sole it:
x + 2y − 5z = −9
3x − y + 2z = 5
2x + 3y − z = 3.
Ans. Consistent and has a unique solution x = 1/2, y = 3/2, z = 5/2.
(Q.4) Examine the consistency of the following system:
5x + 3y + 14z = 4
y + 2z = 1
x − y + 2z = 0
2x + y + 6z = 2.
Ans. Inconsistent (has no solution).
(Q.5) Show that the system of equations as given below is consistent if and only if
a + c = 2b and find the solution(s) when exists:
3x + 4y + 5z = a
4x + 5y + 6z = b
5x + 6y + 7z = c.

(Q.6) Find the values of λ so that the system of equations has non trivial solution
and hence find the non trivial solution:
(λ − 1)x + (3λ + 1)y + 2λz = 0
(λ − 1)x + (4λ − 2)y + (λ + 3)z = 0
2x + (3λ + 1)y + 3(λ − 1)z = 0.
Ans. λ = 0, 1, 3.
(Q.7) Solve the following system of equations completely:
2w + 3x − y − z = 0
4w − 6x − 2y + 2z = 0
−6w + 12x + 3y − 4z = 0.
k1 k2
Ans. w = 2, x= 2, y = k1 , z = k2 .