Department of Mathematics

UNIT-I

ELEMENTARY LINEAR ALGEBRA

Topic Learning Objectives:

With Completion of this unit, students will be able to:

• Understand the fundamentals of the rank of a matrix, echelon
form of the matrix.
• Check the consistency of system of linear equations.
• Apply elementary operations to solve homogeneous and non-
homogeneous linear equations.
• Solve system of linear equations by using Gauss elimination,
Gauss Jordan and Gauss Seidel methods.
• Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a given square matrix
• Properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
• Apply power method to obtain largest eigenvalue.

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Basic concepts and definitions:

Definition: A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers in rows
 a11 a12 . . . a1n 
a . a2 n 
 21 a22 . .
 .     . 
and columns represented by  .
 .     . 
 .     . 
 
 am1 am 2 . . . amn 

If a matrix has m rows and n columns, then it is said to be of order

m  n (read as “ m by n ” matrix). The elements a ij of a matrix are

identified by double subscript notation i j , where i denotes the row

and j denotes the column.

Elementary row transformations:

These are operations that are carried out on the rows of a given matrix.
The following operations constitute the three row transformations.

1. Interchange of ith and j th rows: Ri j or Ri  R j

2. Multiplying each element of the ith row by a non-zero constant

k: 𝑅𝑖′ → 𝑘𝑅𝑖 .
3. Adding a constant k multiple of j th row to ith row:

Ri → Ri + kR j .
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Example:

2 8 6 7 
Let A = 1 5 6 7 
 3 1 4 2 

Performing row operation R13 (i.e., R 1  R 3 ) of A , results

3 1 4 2
A 1 5 6 7 
 
 2 8 6 7 

1
Next, by performing row operation on R2 of A by multiplying to it
3
1
(i.e., R '2 → R 2 ), we get.
3
3 1 4 2
1 5 7 
A  2
3 3 3
2 8 6 7 


The row operation R '2 → R 2 + (-2) R 3 on A gives the matrix

3 1 4 2 
A  −3 −16 −12 −14 

 2 8 6 7 

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
Department of Mathematics

Equivalent matrices:
Two matrices are said to be equivalent if one of these can be obtained
by applying a finite number of successive elementary row/column
transformations to the other.

Rank of a matrix:
A matrix is said to be of rank r if
1. It has at least one non-zero minor of order r and
2. Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
The rank of a matrix A is denoted by  (A) .

Echelon form or Row Echelon Form:

A non-zero matrix A is an echelon matrix, if the number of zeros
preceding the first non-zero entry of a row increases row by row until
zero rows remain.
Example:
1 3 1 5 0
0 5  is
B=
1 5 1 in row-echelon form.
0 0 7 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0

Note: The rank of an echelon matrix is the number of non-zero rows in

it. i.e.,  ( B) = 3
Problems:
1. Determine the rank of the matrix
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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1 2 3 − 2
A = 2 − 2 1 3
3 0 4 1 
.
Solution: Since the given matrix A is of order 3  4 , ρ(A)  3.
Consider all the minors of order 3.
They are
1 2 3 2 3 -2 1 3 -2 1 2 -2
2 − 2 1 = 0, - 2 1 3 = 0, 2 1 3 = 0, 2 - 2 3 = 0
3 0 4 0 4 1 3 4 1 3 0 1
.
Therefore, the rank is less than 3 .
Now consider all minors of order 2 .
1 2
= −6  0
2 -2

(we considered only one minor of order 2 since its non-zero).

Therefore,  ( A) = 2 .
Note: The method of finding the rank of a matrix by using the
definition of the rank of a matrix is very tedious. However, it would be
better to apply the definition to find the rank, after bringing the given
matrix to echelon form.
2. Determine the rank of the matrix

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
Department of Mathematics

2 3 −1 − 1
1 −1 −2 − 4
A=
3 1 3 − 2
 
6 3 0 − 7 .

Solution: The rank of the matrix can be obtained by reducing it to row

echelon form.
Given matrix
2 3 −1 − 1
1 −1 −2 − 4
A=
3 1 3 − 2
 
6 3 0 − 7

Perform R12 i.e., interchanging row 1 and row 2 we get

1 −1 − 2 − 4
2 3 −1 − 1
A ~
3 1 3 − 2
 
6 3 0 − 7
R '2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3' → R 3 − 3R1 , R '4 → R 4 − 6R1
1 −1 − 2 − 4
0 5 3 7 
A ~
0 4 9 10 
 
0 9 12 17 

R 3' → 5R 3 − 4R 2 , R '4 → 5R 4 − 9R 2

1 −1 − 2 − 4
0 5 3 7 
A ~
0 0 33 22 
 
0 0 33 22 

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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R '4 → R 4 − R 3

1 −1 − 2 − 4
0 5 3 7 
A ~
0 0 33 22 
 
0 0 0 0 

As there are no elements below the fourth diagonal element the

process is complete.
 ( A) = Rank of A = number of non-zero rows = 3 .

3. Reduce the following matrix to echelon form and hence find the
0 1 2
1 2 1 
rank of the matrix A =  .
2 3 5
 
3 5 6
Solution: Given matrix is
0 1 2
1 2 1 
A= .
2 3 5
 
3 5 6

Perform R12 i.e., interchanging row 1 and row 2 we get

1 2 1
0 1 2
A 
2 3 5
 
3 5 6
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Perform R 3' → R 3 − 2R1 , R '4 → R 4 − 3R1

1 2 1
0 1 2 
A 
0 −1 3
 
0 −1 3

Perform R 3' → R 3 + R 2 , R '4 → R 4 + R 2

1 2 1
0 1 2
A 
0 0 5
 
0 0 5
Perform R '4 → R 4 − R 3
1 2 1
0 1 2
A 
0 0 5
 
0 0 0
Above matrix is in the echelon from, therefore rank of matrix A = 3
(no. of non-zero rows).

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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4. Using the elementary transformations find the rank of the matrix

 −1 2 3 −2 
 2 −5 1 2 
B= 
 3 −8 5 2 
 
 5 −12 −1 6 
Solution: Given matrix is
 −1 2 3 −2 
 2 −5 1 2 
B= 
 3 −8 5 2 
 
 5 −12 −1 6 
R '2 → R 2 +2R1 , R 3' → R 3 + 3R1 , R '4 → R 4 + 5R1

 −1 2 3 −2
 0 −1 7 −2 
B  
 0 −2 14 −4 
 
 0 −2 14 −4 
R 3' → R 3 −2R 2 , R '4 → R 4 − 2R 2 , we get

 −1 2 3 −2 
 0 −1 7 −2 
B 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
Rank of matrix B = 2 .

Exercise:

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
Department of Mathematics

Objective type of questions:

1. If A is a 3  4 matrix then rank of A cannot exceed ____________.
2. Rank of the matrix 1 0 0 0 is __________.
0 0 0 1
 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0

3. Rank of identity matrix of order 5 is ___________.

1 2 3
 7  is__________________.
4. The rank of the matrix  2 4
3 6 10
5. If every minor of order r of a matrix A is zero, then rank of A
is__________.
6. If the rank of the transpose matrix A is 3 then the rank of matrix A
is _________.
2 −1 0 5
7. If A =   then  ( A) = _________________.
 0 3 1 4 
8. Rank of singular matrix of order 5 is_________________.

1 1 1
 3 ,  (A) = __________.
9. If A = 1 2
1 1 1

10. Let A =  ai j  be the matrix; ai j = k  0 , for every i, j then rank of

A is________.
Descriptive type of questions:

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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1 2 3 4
1. Reduce the following matrix into echelon form 1 3 4 2 .
 
1 3 4 2

2 − 1 3
2. Find the rank of the matrix 1 4 − 2 .
 
5 2 4 

 1 2 3 
3. Find the rank of the matrix  3 2 4  .
 
− 4 3 1 
 
− 6 − 4 − 8 

4. Find the rank of the following matrices by reducing to echelon form.

8 2 1 6  1 − 2 −1 3 
 3 − 1 2 2 1 0 1 2 5 − 4 7 
 
(i ) − 6 2 4
(ii ) (iii)
3 0 1 3 − 1 − 2 − 1 2 
 − 3 1 2    
5 1 1 4 3 3 − 5 10

 1 2 3 −4
(iv) − 2 3 7 − 1 
 1 9 16 − 13

1 5 4
5. Find the value of b in the matrix 0 3 2  given that its rank is 2 .

b 13 10

1 1 1 1
6. Find the values of k in the matrix 1 2 4 k  such that the rank of

1 4 10 k 2 

the matrix is equal to (a) 3 (b) 2 .

Answers:
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
Department of Mathematics

Objective type of questions:

1) 3 4) 2 7) 2 10) 1
2) 3 5) <r 8) ≤ 4
3) 5 6) 3 9) 2
Descriptive type of questions:

1 2 3 4 
1) 0 1 1 − 2 
 
0 0 0 0 

2) 2
3) 3
4) (i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 3 (iv) 2
5) b=2
6) Rank=3 if 𝑘 ≠ 1, 𝑘 ≠= 2, Rank=2 if 𝑘 = 1 or 𝑘 = 2

Applications:
1. One useful application of calculating the rank of a matrix is in the
computation of solutions of a system of linear equations.
2. In the area of source enumeration.
3. In the classification of an image.
4. If we view a square matrix as specifying a transformation, the
rank tells you about the dimension of the image.

Solution of simultaneous linear equations:

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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A linear system of simultaneous equations of m equations in n

unknowns can be expressed as
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
The above system in the matrix equivalent form can be expressed
as  =  , where
 a11 a12 . . . a1n 
a a22 . . . a2n 
A=  21
is called the coefficient matrix,
 
 
am1 am 2 . . . amn  mn
 x1   b1 
x  b 
X =  2  is called the matrix of unknowns and B =  2  is column
   
   
 xn  n1 bm  m1
matrix of constants.
If all bi ’s for i = 1 m are zero i.e., b1 = b2 = = bm = 0 , then the

system is said to be homogenous and is said to be non-homogeneous if

at least one bi is non-zero.

Augmented matrix:

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Suppose we form a matrix of the form  A:B by appending to  an

extra column whose elements are columns of  i.e.

 a11 a12 . . . a1n : b1 
a a . . . a2n : b2 
A : B =  21 22
 . . . . . . 
 
am1 am2 . . . amn : bm 

is called the augmented matrix associated with the system and is

denoted by A|B or A:B.

Solution of simultaneous linear equations:

A system of linear equations such as (1) may or may not have a

solution. However, existence of solution is guaranteed only if the

system is homogeneous.

Solution of non-homogeneous system of linear equations:

A non-homogeneous system of equations ΑΧ = Β is consistent if r,

the rank of coefficient matrix A is equal to r ', the rank of the
augmented matrix  A:B and has unique solution if r = r ' = n, the
number of unknowns. If r = r '  n then the system possesses infinite
number of solutions. The system is inconsistent if r  r ' .
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Solution of homogeneous system of linear equations:

A homogeneous system of linear equations ΑΧ = 0 is always consistent
as for such a system,  = A:0 and hence rank of coefficient matrix is

equal to the rank of the augmented matrix. If rank of A is equal to the

number of unknowns n, the system has trivial solution i.e., all

unknowns x1 , x2 , , xn are zero. A non-trivial solution exists to a

system if and only if | Α |= 0 and hence the system has infinite number
of solution.
The following block diagram illustrates connection between rank of a
matrix and consistence of that system.

NON-HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM

AX=B, where B  0

Consistent if  (A) =  A:B Inconsistent if  (A)   A:B

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Unique solution: Infinite number of solutions:

if  (A) = n if  (A) = r  n
(n − r ) free variables in the solution.

HOMOGENOUS SYSTEM

AX = B, where B = 0

Always consistent

Unique solution (trivial): X = 0 Infinite number of solutions:

if  ( A) = n if  (A) = r  n,

The following examples illustrate thethen (n − rconcepts.

above ) free variables in the solution.
If Α is a square matrix, then | Α |= 0 .
1. Test the consistency of the following system and solve
2 x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1
−3x1 + 4 x2 − 5 x3 = 0
x1 + 3x2 − 6 x3 = 0
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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2 −1 3 :1 
 A:B = −3 4 −5 :0 
 1 3 −6 :0 

R '2 → R 2 + (3/2)R1 , R 3' → R 3 − (1/2)R1

2 −1 3 :1
 A:B  0 5 −1 : 3 
 0 7 −15 : −1

R 3' → R 3 − (7/5)R 2

 2 −1 3 : 1 
 A:B  0 5 −1 : 3 
 0 0 −68 : −26 

 (A) =  ([A:B]) = 3 = number of unknowns.

Thus, the system of linear equations is consistent and possesses a
unique solution.
To find the unknowns, consider the rows of  A:B in the last step in

terms of its equivalent equations,

2 x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1
5 x2 − x3 = 3
−68 x3 = −26
Here, we make use of back substitution in order to find the unknowns
by considering, last equation to find x3 , next second to find x2 and

finally first equation to find x1 .

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Therefore, from last equation we obtain x3

13
i.e., −68 x3 = −26  x3 = .
34
Next, from second equation we find x2 ,
3 + x3 23
i.e., 5x2 − x3 = 3  x2 =  x2 = .
5 34
Finally, to find the x1 we make use first equation

(1 + x2 − 3x3 ) = 1 + − 3   x1 = .
1 1 23 13 9
2 x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1  x1 =
2 2  34 34  34
There the solution is given by
9 23 13
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = .
34 34 34

2. Check the following system of equations for consistency and solve,

if consistent.
x + 2 y + 2 z = 1, 2 x + y + z = 2, 3x + 2 y + 2 z = 3, y + z = 0
Solution : The augmented matrix is given by
1 2 2 :1 
2 1 1 :2 
 A:B =  3 2 2 :3 
 
0 1 1 :0 

R '2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3' → R 3 − 3R1

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1 2 2 :1 
0 −3 −3 :0 
  0
A:B 
−4 −4 :0 
 
0 1 1 :0 

R '2 → ( − 1/3) R 2 , R 3' → ( − 1/4) R 3

1 2 2 :1 
0 1 1 :0 
 A:B  0 1 1 :0 
 
0 1 1 :0 

R 3' → R 3 − R 2 ,R '4 → R 4 − R 2

1 2 2 :1 
0 1 1 :0 
 A:B  0 0 0 :0 
 
0 0 0 :0 

 (A) =  ([A:B]) = 2 < 3, number of unknowns.

Thus, the given system is consistent and possesses infinite number of
solutions by assigning arbitrary values to (n − r ) = 3 − 2 = 1 free
variable.
 x + 2y + 2z = 0
y + z = 0.

Three unknowns are here, we should take z as the free variable and let
z = k (arbitrarily value).
From second equation, y + z = 0  y = − z = −k .
Finally, from first equation,

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x + 2 y + 2 z = 1  x = 1 − 2 y − 2 z = 1 − 2(−k ) − 2k
 x = 1.
Therefore, the solution is given by:
 x  1 
X =  y  =  −k  .
 z   k 

3. Show that the following system of equations is not consistent.

x + 2 y + 3z = 6, 3x - y + z = 4, 2 x + 2 y - z = -3, - x + y + 2 z = 5
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix
1 2 3 :6
 3 −1 1 : 4 
 A:B =  2 2 −1 : −3
 
 −1 1 2 :5

R '2 → R 2 − 3R1 , R 3' → R 3 − 2R1 , R '4 → R 4 + R1

1 2 3 : 6 
0 −7 −8 : −14 
 A:B  0 −2 −7 : −15
 
0 3 5 : 11 

R 3' → R 3 − (2 / 7)R 2 , R '4 → R 4 + (3/7)R 2

1 2 3 : 6 
0 −7 −8 : −14 
 A:B  0 0 −33 : −77 
 
0 0 11 : 35 

R '4 → R 4 + R 3

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1 2 3 : 6 
0 −7 −8 : −14 
 A:B  0 0 −33 : −77 
 
0 0 0 : 28 

 (A) = 3 and  (A:B) = 4

 (A)   (A:B) .
Therefore, the given system is inconsistent and it has no solution.
4. Check the following system of equations for consistency and solve,
if consistent.
x + y - 2z = 3, 2 x -3 y + z = - 4, 3x - 2 y - z = -1, y - z = 2.
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix,
1 1 −2 : 3
2 −3 1 : −4 
 A:B   3
=
−2 −1 : −1
 
0 1 −1 : 2

R '2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3' → R 3 − 3R1

1 1 −2 : 3 
0 −5 5 : −10 
~ 
0 −5 5 : −10 
 
0 1 −1 : 2 

R 3' → R 3 − R 2 , R '4 → R 4 + (1/5)R 2

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1 1 −2 : 3 
0 −5 5 : −10 
~ 
0 0 0 : 0 
 
0 0 0 : 0 

We see that  (A) =  ([A:B]) = 2 < 3 number of unknowns.

Thus, the equations are consistent and possesses infinite number of

solutions with (n − r ) = 3 − 2 = 1 free variable.
x + y - 2z = 3
The corresponding equations are:
-5 y + 5 z = -10.
Let us choose z = k (arbitrary constant).
Then from second equation:
1 1
i.e., -5 y + 5 z = -10  y = − ( −10 − 5z ) = − ( −10 − 5k ) = 2 + k
5 5
From first equation:
x + y - 2 z = 3  x = 3 − y + 2 z = 3 − (2 + k ) + 2k  x = 1 + k.
Therefore, the solution is given by:

 x  1 + k 
X =  y  =  2 + k  .
 z   k 

5. Determine whether the following system of equations possesses a

non-trivial solution

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x1 + 2 x 2 − x3 = 0
4 x1 − x 2 + x3 = 0
5 x1 + x 2 − 2 x3 = 0.
Solution:
Since the given system of linear equations is homogeneous for which
the rank of the coefficient matrix is same as rank of the augmented
matrix, therefore we consider only the coefficient matrix and reduce it
to row echelon form and solve the system as we did in the case of non-
homogeneous system.
Method 1: Consider the coefficient matrix
1 2 −1
A =  4 −1 1 
 5 1 −2 

R '2 → R 2 − 4R1 , R 3' → R 3 − 5R1

1 2 −1
~ 0 −9 5 
0 −9 3 

R 3' → R 3 − R 2

1 2 − 1
~ 0 − 9 5 
0 0 − 2

Thus, the given system is equivalent to

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x1 + 2 x2 − x3 = 0,
− 9 x2 + 5 x3 = 0,
− 2 x3 = 0.
From last equation,
 x3 = 0.

From second equation, we have x2 = x3 = 0.

Finally, from first equation x1 = −2 x2 + x3 = 0.

 x  0
i.e., X =  y  = 0 , which is a trivial solution.
 z  0

Hence the system does not possess a non-trivial solution.

Method 2: We have
1 2 −1
A = 4 −1 1 = 1(2-1)-2(8-5)-1(4+5)=14  0 .
5 1 −2

Hence, the system does not possess non-trivial solutions.

6. Find the values of  for which the system has a solution and solve it
in each case
x + y + z = 1, x + 2 y + 4 z =  , x + 4 y + 10 z =  2
Solution: The augmented matrix is given by
1 1 1 : 1 
 A:B = 1 2 4 :  
1 4 10 :  2 

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R '2 → R 2 − R1 , R 3' → R 3 − R1

1 1 1 : 1 
~ 0 1 3 :  − 1 
0 3 9 :  2 − 1

R 3' → R 3 − 3R 2

1 1 1 : 1 
~ 0 1 3 :  − 1 
0 0 0 :  2 − 3 + 2 

We observe that  (A) = 2 and  ([A:B]) will be equal to 2 if and only if

 2 − 3 + 2 = 0,
i.e., for  = 1 or  = 2 .

 System will possess a solution if  = 1 or 2 and in both the cases the

system will have infinite number of solutions as  (A) =  ([A:B]) = 2 < 3

number of unknowns and hence 1 free variable.

Let us consider these cases one by one.
Case (i): When  = 1, the reduced system gives
x + y + z =1
y + 3 z = 1 − 1 = 0.
Let z = k be arbitrary and from second equation we have
y = −3z = −3k.
From first equation, we have
x = 1 − y − z = 1 − (−3k ) − k = 1 + 2k .

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Case (ii): When  = 2 , the reduced system gives,

x + y + z =1
y + 3z = 2 − 1 = 1
Let z = k, then y = 1-3k and x = 1-y-z = 1-1+3k-k = 2k
where k is an arbitrary constant.
7. Find the values of  and  for which the system
x + y + z = 6, x + 2 y + 3z = 10, x + 2 y + z =  has
(i) a unique solution (ii) infinitely many solutions (iii) no solution.
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix
1 1 1 :6
 A : B  = 1 2 3 :10 
1 2  :  

R '2 → R 2 − R1 , R 3' → R 3 − R1

1 1 1 : 6 

~ 0 1 2 : 4 
0 1  − 1 :  − 6 

R 3' → R 3 − R 2

1 1 1 : 6 
~ 0 1 2 : 4 
0 0  − 3 :  − 10
.
Here we observe that
a) If  − 3 = 0 and  − 10  0 i.e.,  = 3 and   10 , then the
system will be inconsistent and possesses no solution.
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b) If  − 3 = 0 and  − 10 = 0 i.e.,  = 3 and  = 10 the system

will reduce to
x+ y+z =6
.
y + 2z = 4
Hence in this case the system possesses infinite solutions.
c) If  − 3  0 i.e.,   3, the system will possess a unique
solution, irrespective of the value of  .
8. Show that the equations
−2 x + y + z = a, x − 2 y + z = b, x + y − 2z = c
have a solution only if a + b + c = 0 . Find all possible solutions when
a = 1, b = 1, c = −2 .
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix
 −2 1 1 :a
 A:B =  1 −2 1 : b 
 1 1 −2 : c 

R '2 → 2R 2 + R1 , R 3' → 2R 3 + R1

 −2 1 1 : a 
~  0 −3 3 :2b + a 
 0 3 −3 :2c + a 

R 3' → R 3 + R 2

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 −2 1 1 : a 
~  0 −3 3 : 2b + a 
 0 0 0 :2a + 2b + 2c 

i.e., −2 x + y + z = a; − 3 y + 3z = 2b + a; 0 = 2a + 2b + 2c (1)
The above system of equations will be consistent if 0 = 2a + 2b + 2c
i.e., if a + b + c = 0 .
To find the solution when a = 1, b = 1, c = −2 .
The reduced equations in (1) give,
−2 x + y + z = 1 and − 3 y + 3z = 3 .
Let z = k then y = k − 1 and x = k −1 .
Exercise:
1. Solve the system of equations
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0; 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0; 7𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 0
2. Show that the system of equations
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4; 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1; 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2 is consistent and
hence find the solution.

3. Test for consistency and hence solve 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 9; 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 +

4𝑧 = 13; 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 40.
4. Find the value of λ for which the system
x + y + z = 1; x + 2 y + 4 z = ; x + 4 y + 10 z =  2
has a solution. Solve it in each case.
5. Find the values of  and  for which the systems

2 x + 3 y + 5z = 9; 7 x + 3 y − 2 z = 8; 2 x + 3 y + z =  has

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(i) no solution (ii) unique solution (iii) Infinitely many solutions.

6. If the following system,
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 0; 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 0; 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧 = 0 has non-
trivial solution then prove that prove that
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐:
Answers:
1) Trivial solution
3 13 12
2) 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
7 7 7

3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 3, 𝑧 = 5
4) (𝑖) 𝜆 = 1, 𝑥 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑦 = −3𝑘, 𝑧 = 𝑘
4) (𝑖𝑖) 𝜆 = 2, 𝑥 = 2𝑘, 𝑦 = 1 − 3𝑘, 𝑧 = 𝑘
5) (𝑖) 𝜆 = 5, (𝑖𝑖) 𝜆 ≠ 5 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝜆 = 5, 𝜇 = 9

Gauss elimination method:

In this method the unknowns are eliminated successively and the
system is reduced to upper triangular system from which the unknowns
are found by back substitution.
For the linear system  =  with ‘n’ unknown and ‘m’ equations.

1. Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0; 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −1; 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 12; 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5.
Solution : The augmented matrix is given by

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1 1 −1 :0
 2 −3 1 : −1
 A : B  = 1 1 3 :12 
 
0 1 1 :5

R '2 → R 2 − 2R1 , R 3' → R 3 − R1

1 1 −1 :0
0 −5 3 : −1

0 0 4 :12 
 
0 1 1 :1

R '4 → R 4 + (1/5)R 2

1 1 −1 :0
0 −5 3 : −1

0 0 4 :12 
 
0 0 8 :24 

R '4 → R 4 -2R 3

1 1 −1 :0
0 −5 3 : −1
 .
0 0 4 :12 
 
0 0 0 :0

By back substitution
4 z = 12  z = 3,
5 y + 3z = -1  y = 2,
x + y - z = 0  x = 2.
2. Solve the following system by Gauss elimination method

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2 x1 − x2 + 2 x3 = 1
− 3x1 + 4 x2 − 5 x3 = 0
x1 + 3x2 − 6 x3 = 0.
Solution: Consider the augmented matrix
 2 −1 3 :1 
 A:B = −3 4 −5 :0
 1 3 −6 :0

R '2 → R 2 + (3/2)R1 , R 3' → R 3 − (1/2)R1

 2 −1 3 : 1 
 0 5 −1 : 3 
0 7 −15 : −1

R 3' → R 3 − (7/5)R 2

 2 −1 3 : 1 
 0 5 −1 : 3 
0 0 −68 : −26 

2 x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 1
 5 x 2 − x3 = 3
− 68x3 = −26.
By back substitution the solution is given by
13 23 9
x3 = , x2 = , x1 = .
34 34 34

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Gauss-Jordon elimination method:

The procedure for Gauss-Jordan elimination is as follows:
1. Find the left most column that is not all zeros.
2. Interchange the top row (if necessary) with another row to
bring a non-zero entry to the top of the column.
1
3. If the top entry is a , then multiply the top row by to form a
a
leading 1 in that row.
4. Add multiples of this row to the other rows so that all other
rows have a zero in this column.
5. Cover up the top row and go back to step 1, considering only
the rows below this one (until step 4). Continue until the matrix
is in row-echelon form.

1. Solve for x, y and z in:

2 y - 3z = 2, x + z = 3, x - y + 3z = 1
Solution: Let the augmented matrix of the given system is
0 2 -3: 2 
 A : B = 1 0 1: 3 
1 -1 3: 1 

Interchange first and second row (to make top left entry non-zero)

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1 0 1: 3 
~ 0 2 -3:2 
1 -1 3: 1 

R 3' → R 3 − R1

1 0 1: 3 
~ 0 2 -3: 2 
0 -1 2: -2 

R 3' → R 3 + (1/2)R 2

1 0 1: 3 
~ 0 2 -3: 2 

0 0 1/2:-1 

R 3' → 2R 3

1 0 1: 3 
~ 0 2 -3: 2 
0 0 1: -2 

R1' → R1 − R 3 , R '2 → R 2 + 3R 3

1 0 0: 5 
~ 0 2 0: -4 
0 0 1: -2 

R '2 → (1/2)R 2

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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1 0 0: 5 
~ 0 1 0:-2 
0 0 1:-2 

This is now in reduced row-echelon form, so we get

x = 5, y = - 2, and z = - 2.

2. Use Gauss-Jordon method to find the inverse of the following

matrix:
1 1 3
A =  1 3 −3
 −2 −4 −4
Solution: Consider the matrix  A | I and apply elementary row
operations on both A and I until A gets transformed to I .

Consider
 1 1 3 1 0 0
 A | I =  1 3 −3 0 1 0
 −2 −4 −4 0 0 1 

R21 → R2 − R1 and R31 → R3 + 2 R1

1 1 3 1 0 0 
 
0 2 −6 −1 1 0 
0 −2 2 2 0 1 

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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R31 → R3 + R2
1 1 3 1 0 0 
 
0 2 −6 −1 1 0 
0 0 −4 1 1 1 

R21 → 12 R2 and R31 → −14 R3

1 1 3 1 0 0
 
0 1 −3 2
−1 1 0
2

0 0 1 −14 −1
4
−1 
4

R11 → R1 − 3R3 and R21 → R2 + 3R3

1 1 0 7 4 3
4
3 
4
 −5 −1 −3

0 1 0 4 4 4

0 0 1 −14 −1
4
−1 
4

R11 → R1 − R2
1 0 0 3 1 3 
2
 −5 −1 −3

0 1 0 4 4 4

0 0 1 −14 −1
4
−1 
4

3 1 3

2

 A =  −5 4
−1 −1
4
−3
4


 −14 −1
4
−1 
4

Exercise:

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1. Gauss-Jordon method aims in reducing the coefficient matrix of a

system of equations to _____________ matrix.
2. Gauss elimination method aims in reducing the coefficient matrix of
a system of equations to_____________ matrix.

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Solve using Gauss-elimination and Gauss-Jordan method:

1. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 8; −3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −11; −2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −3
2. 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3; 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5; 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 12
3. −5𝑥 + 9𝑦 − 𝑧 = 3; −2𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −1; −2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −8
4. Using the loop current method on a circuit, the following equations are
obtained 7𝑖1 − 4𝑖2 = 12; −4𝑖1 + 12𝑖2 − 6𝑖3 = 0; −6𝑖2 + 14𝑖3 = 0.
Solve for i1 , i 2 , i 3 using Gauss elimination method.
5. Find the inverse of the given matrix A by Gauss-Jordon method.
1 3 3 
1 4 3 
 
1 3 4 
.

Answers:
1) x=2, y=3, z =-1
2) x=1, y=1, z =1
3) x=-0.7247, y=-0.2844, z =-1.9357
4) 𝑖1 = 2.2628, 𝑖2 = 0.96, 𝑖3 = 0.4114
5)
 7 −3 −3
A =  −1 1 0 
−1

 −1 0 1 

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Diagonally dominant form:

A system of n linear equations in n unknowns given by
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1 (1)
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2 (2)
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
is said to be in diagonally dominant form if in equation (1), a11 is

greater the sum of the absolute values of the remaining coefficients; in

(2), a22 is greater than the sum of the absolute of the remaining

coefficients and so on.

a11  a12 + a13 + ..........a1n

a22  a21 + a23 + ..........a2n

---------------------------------------
ann  an1 + an2 + ..........an(n−1)
.

Gauss-Seidel Method:
The Gauss-Seidel method is an iterative method that can be used to
solve a system of n linear equations in ‘n’ unknowns. A starting or an
initial solution is first assumed, which is then improved through
successive iteration. A convergence to the actual solution is ensured if
the given system of equations is arranged in the diagonally dominant
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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form. The following example illustrates the working procedure of this

method.
1. Solve the following system of equations using Gauss-Seidel method.
6 x + 15 y + 2 z = 72, x + y + 54 z = 110, 27 x + 6 y - z = 85.

Solution: In the above equations, we have

15  6 + 2 , 54  1 + 1 & 27  6 + −1 .
Hence the equations are arranged in the diagonally dominant form as:
27 x + 6 y - z = 85, 6 x + 15 y + 2z = 72, x + y + 54z = 110 .
The first equation is used to determine x and is therefore rewritten as
85 − 6 y + z
x= . (1)
27
The second equation is used to determine y and is rewritten as
72 − 6 x − 2 z
y= . (2)
15
The third equation used to determine z is rearranged as
110 − x − y
z= . (3)
54
Equations (1), (2), (3) are used to find sequentially x, y and z in each of
the iterations.
Starting solution: Let us choose [ x, y, z ] = [0, 0, 0] as the starting
solution.
First iteration:

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x (1) =
1
85 − 0 + 0 = 3.148
27

y (1) =
1
72 − 6(3.1481) − 0 = 3.5407
15

z (1) =
1
110 − 3.1481− 3.5407 = 1.9132 .
54
Note that in finding y (1) the latest value x (1) = 3.1481 is used and not

x=0. Similarly, in finding z (1) , the latest values y (1) = 3.5407 .

Second iteration:

x ( 2) =
1
85 − 6(3.5407) + 1.9132 = 2.4322
27

y ( 2) =
1
72 − 6(2.4322) − 2(1.9132 = 3.5720
15

z ( 2) =
1
110 − 2.4322 − 3.5720 = 1.9258.
54
Third iteration:

x (3) =
1
85 − 6(3.5720) + 1.9258 = 2.4257
27

y (3) =
1
72 − 6(2.4257) − 2(1.9258) = 3.5729
15

z ( 3) =
1
110 − 2.4257 − 3.5729 = 1.9259.
54
Therefore, x, y, z = 2.4257 ,3.5729 ,1.9259  .

Fourth iteration:
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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x ( 4) =
1
85 − 6(3.5729) + 1.9259 = 2.4255
27

y ( 4) =
1
72 − 6(2.4255) − 2(1.9259) = 3.5730
15

z ( 4) =
1
110 − 2.4255 − 3.5730 = 1.9259.
54
Since the solutions in 3rd and 4th iterations agree upto 3 places of
decimals, the solution can be taken as
x, y, z = 2.4255 ,3.5730 ,1.9259  .
Exercise:
1. Use Gauss -Seidel method to solve the system
10𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 12; 2𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 𝑧 = 13; 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 10𝑧 = 14
2. Solve the following system of equations using Gauss -Seidel method
starting with (2, 2, -1) as initial approximation:
5𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 10; 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = −1; 2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 12.
3. Solve the following system of equations by Gauss -Seidel method
10𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑤 = 3
−2𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑢 = 15
−𝑥 − 𝑦 + 10𝑧 − 2𝑢 = 27
−𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 10𝑢 = −9
Answers:
1) 𝑥 = 0.9995, 𝑦 = 1.0001, 𝑧 = 1.0000
2) 𝑥1 = 2.5555, 𝑥2 = 1.7222, 𝑧 = −1.0555
3) ) 𝑥 = 0.9971, 𝑦 = 1.9985, 𝑧 = 2.9988, 𝑢 = −0.0006

EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS:

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Let  be an n  n matrix. A number  is said to be an eigenvalue of

 if there exists a non-zero solution vector  of the system of
equations.
 =  or  −  I  = 0 , I being an identity matrix of order n .
The non-zero solution vector X is said to be an eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue  . The word “eigenvalue” is a
combination of German and English terms Eigenwert (Proper value).
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are also called characteristic values and
characteristic vectors, respectively.
The characteristic equation of the matrix  is defined to be
det ( A −  I ) = 0 .
Properties of Eigen values and Eigen vectors:
The following are a few important properties of eigenvalues.
(1) Square matrix of order n will always possess n eigenvalues
which may be distinct or not.
(2) If all the n eigenvalues of  are distinct, then there exists
exactly one eigenvector corresponding to each one of them.
(3) For eigenvalues that are repeated, there may be exactly one or
more than one eigenvector.
(4) −1 exists if and only if 0 is not an eigenvalue of  .
1
(5) If  is the eigenvalue of A, then is the eigenvalue of −1 .


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(6) The same characteristic vector cannot correspond to two

distinct eigenvalues.

Example:

 −5 2 1 
Let  =  and  =  2
2 −2
  
Consider the product

 −5 2 1 − 5 + 4
 =  2 =  2 − 4 
2 −2    
 − 1 1 
=  = −1   = (-1) X
− 2  2
1 
The above is of the form  =  , where  = −1 and  =   . Hence
 2
1
2 is the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue −1.
 

Determination of eigenvalue and eigenvector:

The eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be determined by
(a) Solving the characteristic equation det ( A −  I ) = 0 (direct

method) to find  and using  =  to find  .

(b) Power method (an iterative technique). The following examples
illustrates each of the above two techniques.
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1 2
1. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix  =  .
3 2
Solution: The characteristic equation of  is det ( A −  I ) = 0 ,

1−  2
i.e., = 0  (1-  )(2 -  ) - 6 = 0
3 2−

 2 − 3 − 4 = 0
.
(  − 4)(  + 1) = 0
Thus, the eigenvalues are  = 4, −1 .

 x
Let   denote the characteristic vector. Then
 y
(i) Characteristic vector corresponding to  =4 is the solution of
the system
(1- 4) x + 2 y = 0
3 + (2 - 4) y = 0
i.e., - 3x + 2 y = 0
3x - 2 y = 0.

Note that the above two equations are identical. Let x = k ( k  0) ,

3k
then y = .
2

 x  k 
Thus   =  3k  is the characteristic vector corresponding to
 y   2 

eigenvalue 4.
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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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(ii) Characteristic vector corresponding to  = −1 is the solution

of the system
(1 + 1) x + 2 y = 0, 3 + (2 + 1) y = 0
i.e., 2 x + 2 y = 0, 3x + 3 y = 0.
Note that the above two equations are identical as in earlier case.
Set x = k (a non-zero parameter), then y = −k .

k 
Thus   is the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue −1.
− k 
2. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
2 0 1
A = 0 2 0
1 0 2
.
The characteristic equation is det ( A −  I ) = 0 ,

2− 0 1
i.e., 0 2− 0 =0,
1 0 2−

 
(2-  ) (2 −  ) 2 − 0 − 0 + 10 − (2 −  ) =0,

i.e., (2-  )  2
− 4 + 4 − 2 +  =0,
22 − 8 + 8 − 3 + 42 − 4 +  − 2 = 0,
3 − 62 + 11 − 6 = 0.
 =1 is a root of the above equation (by inspection).
Let us use synthetic division to find the other two roots.

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 =1 1 -6 11 -6
0 1 -5 6
1 -5 6 0
Therefore, the other two are determined by the equation 1.
2 − 5. + 6 = 0 .
 2, 3. Thus, the Eigen values are  = 1,2,3.
(i) Characteristic vector corresponding to  =1 is the solution of the
system of equations;
x1 + 0.x2 + x3 = 0
0.x1 + x2 + 0.x3 = 0
x1 + 0.x2 + x3 = 0.
Selecting two equations that are linearly independent, (for example the
last two equations, the non-zero solution is:
x1 x2 x3
= = = k1 (non-zero parameter).
1 0 −1
Therefore x1 x2 x3 T = k1 0 − k1 T is the characteristic vector

(ii) Characteristic vector corresponding to  =2 is the solution of the

system of equations
0 x1 + 0 x2 + 1x3 = 0
0=0
x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 = 0.

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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x1 x2 x3
= = = k2 (non-zero parameter)
0 1 0
Therefore  x1 x2 x3  = 0, k2 ,0 is the characteristic vector
T T

(iii) Characteristic vector corresponding to  =3 is the solution of the

system of equations
− x1 + 0 x2 + 1x3 = 0
0 x1 − x2 + 0 x3 = 0
x1 + 0 x2 − x3 = 0.
x1 x2 x3
= = = k3 (non-zero parameter)
1 0 1
Therefore  x1 x2 x3  = k3 ,0, k3  is the characteristic vector
T T

Rayleigh’s Power Method:

In many problems we need to calculate only the largest eigenvalue,
this method is very useful to find the largest eigenvalue and its
corresponding eigenvectors. Note inverse power method is used to find
the smallest eigenvalue and its corresponding eigenvector.
The following steps are followed while finding the largest eigenvalue:
1. Let 1 be an arbitrary vector which is normalized by choosing its

first or last coefficient as 1. We form the product 1 and express

it in the form 1 = 1 2 where  2 is also normalized in the same

manner.

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Here  1 is the numerically largest value in the 1 .

2. Form the product  2 and express it as  2 = 2 3 , where  3 is

normalized in the same manner.

3. Continuing the iterations till two successive iterations having the
same values up to the desired degree of accuracy.

Examples:
1. Using power method find an approximate value of eigenvalue
and the corresponding eigenvector of the matrix
4 3 0
A = 0 3 0.
1 1 2

Solution:

Let 0 = 1 1 1 be the initial approximation.

T

7   1 
 0 =  3  = 7  3 / 7  = 11
 
 4   4 / 7 

 1 
1 = 5.28571 0.24324
0.48649

 1 
A X 2 =4.72972  0.15428
0.46857 

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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 1 
A X3 =4.46284  0.10371
0.46863

 1 
A X 4 =4.31113 0.07217 
 0.47342 

 1 
A X5 =4.02433 0.00605
 0.4970 

 1 
A X 6 =4.01815  0.0045 
0.49775

Therefore, the largest eigenvalue is 4.02 .

 1 
The corresponding eigenvector is  0.0045  .
0.49775

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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Applications:
1. It allows people to find important subsystems or patterns inside
noisy data sets.
2. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors have widespread practical
application in multivariate statistics.
3. Powers of a Diagonal Matrix, Matrix Factorization.
4. Eigenvalue analysis is also used in the design of the car stereo
systems, where it helps to reproduce the vibration of the car
due to the music.
5. Electrical Engineering: The application of eigenvalues and
eigenvectors is useful for decoupling three-phase systems
through symmetrical component transformation.
6. Model population growth using an age transition matrix and an
age distribution vector, and find a stable age distribution
vector.

Exercise:
Objective Type Questions:
1. The sum of the eigenvalues of a matrix is the ____ of the matrix.
2. If λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A, then ________ is the eigenvalue
of 𝐴−1 matrix.
3. If 3, 4 are the eigenvalues of a matrix A, then the eigenvalues of 𝐴4
has _________.

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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4. An iterative method to find the largest eigenvalue and its

corresponding eigenvector is_______.

-1 2 3 
 
5. If A =  0 3 5  , then the eigenvalues of 𝐴2 are
 0 0 -2
________________.

3 0 
6. The Largest Eigen value of the Matrix   is
0 7 

_________________.
7. If  is an eigenvalue of a square matrix A with X as a corresponding
eigenvector, then the eigenvalue of 𝐴𝑛 is equal to ___________.
8. Given that two of the eigenvalues of 3 by 3 matrix are equal to 1 &
determinant of the matrix is equal to 5 then the eigenvalues of its
inverse are __________.

Descriptive type questions:

8 −4
1. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 𝐴 = [ ].
2 2
5 4
2. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 𝐴 = [ ].
1 2
1 1 3
3. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 𝐴 = [1 5 1].
3 1 1

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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4. Obtain the dominant eigenvalue and corresponding eigenvector after

3 −1
two iterations for the matrix [ ] with initial eigenvector
4 −6
1 0 .
T

5. Find the numerically largest eigenvalue and the corresponding eigen

2 0 1
vector of the matrix 𝐴 = [0 2 0] Starting with 1, 0, 0T
as the
1 0 2
initial approximation to the corresponding eigenvector carry out 7
iterations.
6. Use the power method to find the dominant eigenvalue and

 0 11 −5 

eigenvector for the matrix  = −2 17 −7

 
 −4 26 −10 

Answers:
Objective Type Questions:
1) Trace 4) Power method 7) 𝜆𝑛
1 1
2) 𝜆 5) 1, 9, 4 8) 1, 1, 5

3) 81, 256 6) 7
Descriptive type questions:
1) 𝜆 = 4,6, 𝑋1 = [𝑘1 , 𝑘1 ]𝑇 , 𝑋2 = [𝑘2 , 2𝑘2 ]𝑇
2) 𝜆 = 1,6, 𝑋1 = [𝑘1 , −𝑘1 ]𝑇 , 𝑋2 = [4𝑘2 , 𝑘2 ]𝑇
3) 𝜆 = −2,3,6,
𝑋1 = [−𝑘1 , 0, 𝑘1 ]𝑇 , 𝑋2 = [𝑘2 , −𝑘2 , 𝑘2 ]𝑇 , 𝑋2 = [𝑘3 , 2𝑘3 , 𝑘3 ]𝑇
4) 𝜆 = 3, 𝑋 = [0.4166, −1]𝑇

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)
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5) 𝜆 = 3, 𝑋 = [1, 0, 1]𝑇

0.4 
6)  = 4 and  = 0.6 
 1 

Video links:

https://youtu.be/PFDu9oVAE-g+-

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Fundamentals of Linear Algebra, Calculus and Numerical Methods (MAT211AT)