TOPIC 1: DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING
T1.1) Meaning of computer network

A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network/link which allows

computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to
each other along network links (data connections). Data is transferred in the form of packets.

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared
resources can include a printer or a file server.

T1.2) Components of computer network

Computer network components include the major parts that are needed to install a network
both at the office and home level. Before delving into the installation process, you should be
familiar with each part so that you could choose and buy the right component that fits with your
network system.

These hardware components include cable, Hub, Switch, NIC (network interface card), modem
and router. Depending on the type of network you are going to install, some of the parts can be
eliminated. For example, in a wireless network you don‘t need cables, hubs so on.

In this article we will discuss about the main computer network components required to install
simple computer network, often called LAN (local area network).

Major computer network components

Computer network requires the following devices (some of them are optional):-

• Network Interface Card (NIC)

• Hub
• Switches
• Cables and connectors
• Router
• Modem

1. Network Interface Card

Network adapter is a device that enables a computer to talk with other computer/network.
Using unique hardware addresses (MAC address) encoded on the card chip, the data-link
protocol employs these addresses to discover other systems on the network so that it can transfer
data to the right destination.

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There are two types of network cards: wired and wireless. The wired NIC uses cables and
connectors as a medium to transfer data, whereas in the wireless card, the connection is made
using antenna that employs radio wave technology. All modern laptop computers incorporated
wireless NIC in addition to the wired adapter.

Network Card Speed

Network Interface card, one of the main computer network components, comes with different
speeds, 10Mbps, 100Mbps, and 1000Mbps, so on. Recent standard network cards built with
Gigabit (1000Mbps) connection speed. It also supports to connect slower speeds such as
10Mbps and 100Mbps. However, the speed of the card depends on your LAN speed.

For example, if you have a switch that supports up to 100Mbps, your NIC will also transfer a
data with this same speed even though your computer NIC has still the capability to transfer data
at 1000Mbps (1Gbps). In modern computers, network adapter is integrated with a computer
motherboard. However if you want advanced and fast Ethernet card, you may buy and install on
your computer using the PCI slot found on the motherboard (desktop) and ExpressCard slots
on laptop .

2. Hub
Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a distribution
center. When a computer request information from a network or a specific computer, it sends the
request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to the entire
network. Each computer in the network should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for
them or not.

Currently Hubs are becoming obsolete and replaced by more advanced communication devices
such as Switchs and Routers.

3. Switch
Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components. Switch
is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each
incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.

Like Hub, switch don‘t broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before sending it
checks to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words switch connects the
source and destination directly which increases the speed of the network. Both switch and hub
have common features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.

4. Cables and connectors

Cable is one way of transmission media which can transmit communication signals. The wired
network typology uses special type of cable to connect computers on a network.

There are a number of solid transmission Media types, which are listed below. - Twisted pair
wire

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It is classified as Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. Category 5E, 6 and 7 are high-speed cables
that can transmit 1Gbps or more. -

Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable more resembles like TV installation cable. It is more expensive than twisted-pair
cable but provide high data transmission speed.

Fiber-optic cable
It is a high-speed cable which transmits data using light beams through a glass bound fibers.
Fiber-optic cable is high data transmission cable comparing to the other cable types. But the cost
of fiber optics is very expensive which can only be purchased and installed on governmental
level.

5. Router
When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used to connect a
LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have two distinct networks
(LANs) or want to share a single internet connection to multiple computers, we use a Router.

In most cases, recent routers also include a switch which in other words can be used as a switch.
You don‘t need to buy both switch and router, particularly if you are installing small business
and home networks.

There are two types of Router: wired and wireless. The choice depends on your physical
office/home setting, speed and cost.

6. Modems
A modem enables you to connect your computer to the available internet connection over the
existing telephone line. Like NIC, Modem is not integrated with a computer motherboard. It
comes as separate part which can be installed on the PCI slots found on motherboard.

A modem is not necessary for LAN, but required for internet connection such as dial-up and
DSL.

There are some types of modems, which differs in speed and transmission rate. Standard PC
modem or Dial-up modems (56Kb data transmission speed), Cellular modem (used in a laptop
that enables to connect while on the go), cable modem (500 times faster than standard
modem) and DSL Modems are the most popular.

T1. 3) Types of computer networks

Different types of (private) networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the
number of machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach.
Private networks are networks that belong to a single organization.

There are usually said to be three categories of networks:

 LAN (local area network)

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 MAN (metropolitan area network)
 WAN (wide area network)

There are two other types of networks:

 TANs (Tiny Area Network), which are the same as LANs but smaller (2 to 3 machines),
 and CANs (Campus Area Networks), which are the same as MANs (with bandwidth
limited between each of the network's LANs).

LAN stands for Local Area Network.

It's a group of computers which all belong to the same organization, and which are linked within
a small geographic area using a network, and often the same technology (the most widespread
being Ethernet).

A local area network is a network in its simplest form. Data transfer speeds over a local area
network can reach up to 10 Mbps (such as for an Ethernet network) and 1 Gbps (as with FDDI or
Gigabit Ethernet).
A local area network can reach as many as 100, or even 1000, users.

Note
Ethernet (also known as IEEE 802.3 standard) is a data transmission standard for local area
networks based on the following principle:
 All machines on an Ethernet network
 are connected to the same communication line,
 made up of cylindrical cables

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) technology is network access technology over fibre optic type
lines.

By expanding the definition of a LAN to the services that it provides, two different operating
modes can be defined:

 In a "peer-to-peer" network, in which communication is carried out from one computer to

another, without a central computer, and where each computer has the same role.
 in a "client/server" environment, in which a central computer provides network services
to users.

MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks) connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one
another (over an area of up to a few dozen kilometres) at high speeds. Thus, a MAN lets two
remote nodes communicate as if they were part of the same local area network.

A MAN is made from switches or routers connected to one another with high-speed links
(usually fibre optic cables).

A WAN (Wide Area Network or extended network) connects multiple LANs to one another
over great geographic distances.
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The speed available on a WAN varies depending on the cost of the connections (which increases
with distance) and may be low.

WANs operate using routers, which can "choose" the most appropriate path for data to take to
reach a network node.

Other Types of Area Networks

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also
commonly see references to these others:

 Wireless Local Area Network - a LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology
 Metropolitan Area Network - a network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller
than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.
 Campus Area Network - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on
a university or local business campus.
 Storage Area Network - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like
Fibre Channel.
 System Area Network (also known as Cluster Area Network).- links high-performance
computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.

T1.4) Role of computer networks

Describes why and how computer networks support successful work

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the success
of every enterprise. While today nearly every organization uses a substantial number of
computers and communication tools ( telephones, fax, personal handheld devices), they are often
still isolated. While managers today are able to use the newest applications, many departments
still do not communicate and much needed information cannot be readily accessed.

To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer networks

are necessary. They are a new kind (one might call it paradigm) of organization of computer
systems produced by the need to merge computers and communications. At the same time they
are the means to converge the two areas; the unnecessary distinction between tools to process
and store information and tools to collect and transport information can disappear. Computer
networks can manage to put down the barriers between information held on several (not only
computer) systems. Only with the help of computer networks can a borderless communication
and information environment be built.

Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of the
same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks provide
communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal information and

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communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the organizational learning rate,
which many authors declare as the only fundamental advantage in competition.

Besides this major reason why any organization should not fail to have a computer network,
there are other reasons as well:

 cost reduction by sharing hard- and software resources

 high reliability by having multiple sources of supply
 cost reduction by downsizing to microcomputer-based networks instead of using
mainframes
 greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices from various vendors

Because of the importance of this technology, decisions of purchase, structure, and operation of
computer networks cannot be left to technical staff. Management as well has a critical need for
understanding the technology of computer networks.

T1.5) Network topologies

What is a Topology?
A topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and
connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical topology and the
logical (or signal) topology.

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method
used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol
chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related topics.

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Tree (Expanded Star)
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
 Summary Chart

Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See fig. 1).
All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.

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Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator (See fig. 2).

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

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Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

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Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

5-4-3 Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect
of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of
the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes
through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any two nodes on the
network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected through 4
repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk) segments if
they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one that has one or more nodes attached
to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on the network have 4
segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.

NOTE: This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber
optic cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If there is a

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combination of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule would translate to a 7-6-5
rule.The speed of networking switches is vastly improved over older technologies, and while
every effort should be made to limit network segment traversal, efficient switching can allow
much larger numbers of segments to be traversed with little or no impact to the network.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.

Summary Chart

Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Linear Bus Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

Twisted Pair
Star Ethernet
Fiber

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

T1.6) Categories of computer networks

There are two different categories/architecture with which network between computers can be formed.

A network is either a peer-to-peer network (also called a workgroup) or a server-based network

(also called a client/server network).

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Peer-to-peer network(p2p)

In a peer-to-peer network (see Figure above), a group of computers is connected together so that
users can share resources and information. There is no central location for authenticating users,
storing files, or accessing resources. This means that users must remember which computers in
the workgroup have the shared resource or information that they want to access. It also means
that users must log on to each computer to access the shared resources on that computer.

In most peer-to-peer networks, it is difficult for users to track where information is located
because data is generally stored on multiple computers. This makes it difficult to back up critical
business information, and it often results in small businesses not completing backups. Often,
there are multiple versions of the same file on different computers in the workgroup.

In some peer-to-peer networks, the small business uses one computer that is running a client
operating system, such as Microsoft Windows 98 or Windows XP Professional, as the designated
"server" for the network. Although this helps with saving data in a central location, it does not
provide a robust solution for many of the needs of a small business, such as collaborating on
documents.

Limitation of P2P networking model:

Before deciding to implement P2P model one must know the limitations of this type. Getting to
know later can be frustrating big time. It would highly be recommended to get your
organizational people site together and discuss the needs. Peer to Peer looks very simple, quite
cost effective and attractive, yet it can keep progress very limited.

 Peer-To-Peer networks are designed for limited number computers, it will start creating
issues when exceed 15 number of computers
 High security levels can not be achieved using p2p networks, so if organization have
concerns with security p2p will not be that great.
 Organizational growth will outgrow p2p networks; it will not support growing number of
computers when increased above fifteen.
 Regular training is required for computer users of p2p network. p2p network is control by
computers and computers are controlled by human, small mistake by one of the user can
hold the work for other users on same p2p network.

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Server-based network
In a server-based network, the server is the central location where users share and access network
resources (see Figure below). This dedicated computer controls the level of access that users
have to shared resources. Shared data is in one location, making it easy to back up critical
business information. Each computer that connects to the network is called a client computer. In
a server-based network, users have one user account and password to log on to the server and to
access shared resources. Server operating systems are designed to handle the load when multiple
client computers access server-based resources.

Windows SBS 2008 is installed and configured as the central server on a server-based network.
Windows SBS 2008 provides the central point for authenticating users, accessing resources, and
storing information.

Features of Server:
Servers are powerful machines when they are compared to normal desktop computers. They are
meant to provide strength to computing power within the entire network. Controlling developed
network can only be done by dedicated servers as they have higher specifications to support
network. Servers can have better processing speed with multiple processors capability available.
Server machine have higher RAM to load and execute software with ease. They have more
advance network cards installed for faster data transfer. Hard drives are way bigger to store the
data for entire clients. Hardware can be plugged in and plugged out while server is on, this helps
network stable, and hardware like hard disk can be removed and attached accordingly.

Server Os:
Operating systems are also specially designed for servers. Server Os have much more features
file serving, print serving, backing up data, enhanced security features etc. There are few major
Server Os which are used commonly in servers, Windows server NT. 2000 , 2003,Linux and
Novell NetWare. Windows server 2003 is more powerful and enhanced for much higher security
levels, Linux servers provide the maximum security to networks.

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TOPIC 2: NETWORK MEDIA
T2.1) Electrical properties of matter
Matter is defined as something that occupies space, possesses mass, offers resistance and can be felt by
our senses, for example, water, metals, plants, animals, etc.

State of State?
Matter exists in three physical states - Solid, Liquid and Gas. The existence of any state depends
upon two main forces,

1. Intermolecular forces : The force which binds the constituent particles and tries to keep
them close together.
2. Thermal energy : This is the energy which tries to keep the particles apart and makes
their movement fast.

At low temperature, the thermal energy is low and intermolecular forces are strong, so the
particles occupy fixed positions and can oscillate about their mean position. The compound
exists in solid state.

A solid is defined as that form of matter which possesses rigidity and hence possesses a definite
shape and a definite volume.

The three states are inter convertible by changing the conditions of temperature and pressure as
shown below-

Properties of Solids
There are three main properties of solids which depend on their structure. The three main
properties are:

1. Electrical property
2. Magnetic property
3. Dielectric property

Electrical properties

Solids show a wide range of electrical conductivities from 10-20 to 107 ohm-1 m-1. On the basis of
electrical conductivity the solid can be broadly classified into three types:

Metals (conductors)
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The solids which have conductivities in order of 104 to 107 ohm-1 m-1. Metals are good
conductors of electricity.

Insulators

Solids which have very low conductivity in the range 10-20 to 10-10 ohm-1 m-1. For example wood,
rubber, sulfur, phosphorus etc.

Semiconductors

Their conductivity is in between conductor and insulator up to the order of 10-6 to 104 ohm-1 m-1.

Electrical Conductivity
Solids can conduct electrical charge due to the motion of electrons and the positive holes
(electronic conductivity) or because of the motion of ions (ionic conductivity). The reason for
electrical conductivity of metals is the motion of electrons and it increases by increasing the
number of participating electrons in the process of conduction.

Pure ionic solids, in which conduction occurs only through the ionic motion, are termed as
insulators. The defects in crystal structure increases the conductance property of semiconductor
and more so with insulator. The electrical conductivity of metals, insulators and semiconductors
can be explained in terms of Band Theory.

Band theory
This is based on molecular orbital theory. The molecular orbitals are formed by overlapping of atomic
orbitals and the number of molecular orbitals formed are equal to the number of atomic orbitals which
take part in overlapping.

In the case of metals, the atomic orbitals are very close in energy so they form a large number of
molecular orbitals which are very close in energy. This set of molecular orbitals is called band which is of
two types.

 Valence band :This is a band of lower energy

 Conduction band :The band of higher energy

The energy difference separating these two bands is called band gap or energy gap. These energy
bands are separated by space where no energy is allowed in and are termed as forbidden bands.
The top of available electron energy level at low temperature is called Fermi level.

 If the valence band is partially filled or it overlaps with higher energy or have unoccupied
conduction band then the electrons can be excited from lower to higher energy level by
supplying a very small amount of energy or applied electric field. Hence the metal
conducts electricity and behaves as a conductor.

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 If the gap between the filled valence and unfilled conduction band is large and it's not
possible for electrons to jump from the valence to conduction band, then the substance
has extremely low conductivity and behaves as an insulator.

 If the gap between the valence and conduction band is small and some electrons can jump
from valence to conduction band, then the substance shows some amount of conductivity
and behaves as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity

1. In the case of metals, the conductivity decreases with increase in temperature because the
positive ions of metals start vibrating and produce hindrance in the flow of electrons.
2. There is no effect of temperature on the conductivity of an insulator.
3. In the case of a semiconductor, it increases by increasing the temperature as more
electrons can jump from valance to conduction band.

T2.2, T2.3,T2. 4) Types of transmission media, Importance and benefits and

limitations

Transmission medium
A transmission medium is a material substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) that can propagate
energy waves. For example, the transmission medium for sounds is usually air, but solids and
liquids may also act as transmission media for sound.

The absence of a material medium in vacuum may also constitute a transmission medium for
electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. While material substance is not required
for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such waves are usually affected by the transmission
media they pass through, for instance by absorption or by reflection or refraction at the interfaces
between media.

The term transmission medium also refers to a technical device that employs the material
substance to transmit or guide waves. Thus, an optical fiber or a copper cable is a transmission
medium. Not only is this but also able to guide the transmission of networks.

A transmission medium can be classified as a:

 Linear medium, if different waves at any particular point in the medium can be superposed (i.e.
when two waves meet they overlap and interact. Sometimes they add to make a wave bigger,
sometimes they cancel each other)
 Bounded medium, if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbounded medium;
 Uniform medium or homogeneous medium, if its physical properties are unchanged at different
points;
 Isotropic medium, if its physical properties are the same in different directions.

Transmission and reception of data is performed in four steps.

1. The data is coded as binary numbers at the sender end

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2. A carrier signal is modulated as specified by the binary representation of the data
3. At the receiving end, the incoming signal is demodulated into the respective binary numbers
4. Decoding of the binary numbers is performed

Telecommunications
A physical medium in data communications is the transmission path over which a signal
propagates.

Many transmission media are used as communications channel.

For telecommunications purposes in the United States, Federal Standard 1037C, transmission
media are classified as one of the following:

 Guided (or bounded)—waves are guided along a solid medium such as a transmission
line.
 Wireless (or unguided)—transmission and reception are achieved by means of an
antenna.

Bounded/Guided Transmission Media

It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable.
The types of Bounded/ Guided are.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be
installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points :

 Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

 Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
 Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
 Repeater spacing is 2km.

Twisted Pair is of two types :

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair
Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

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It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition. UTP cable normally has an
impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily available due to its many use. There
are five levels of data cabling

Category 1 These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2 These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3 These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4 These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5 This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

Characteristics of UTP
 low cost
 easy to install
 High speed capacity
 High attenuation
 Effective to EMI
 100 meter limit

Advantages:
 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages:
 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
 Provides less protection from interference.

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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (noise).

It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It
is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that‘s protects it from EMI which allows for higher
transmission rate.

IBM has defined category for STP cable.

Type 1 STP features two pairs of 22-AWG

Type 2 This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6 This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 7 This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 9 This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

American Wire Gauge (AWG) is a U.S. standard set of non-ferrous wire conductor sizes. The
"gauge" means the diameter.

Characteristics of STP
 Medium cost
 Easy to install
 Higher capacity than UTP
 Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
 Medium immunity from EMI
 100 meter limit

Advantages:
 Easy to install
 Performance is adequate
 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

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 Increases the signalling rate
 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
 Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages:
 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy

2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is
surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
barid or both.

Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost
part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.

Here the most common coaxial standards.

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

There are two types of Coaxial cables :

Baseband: This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for
LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is that it
needs amplification after every 1000 feet.

Broadband: This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband
Coaxial Cable.

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Advantages :
 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twisted pair cable

Disadvantages :
 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

3. Fiber Optic Cable

These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to transmit data. At the centre is the
glass core through which light propagates.

In multimode fibres, the core is 50microns, and In single mode fibres, the thickness is 8 to 10
microns.

The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of refraction as
compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect
the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.

Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Characteristics Of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Expensive
 Very hard to install
 Capable of extremely high speed
 Extremely low attenuation
 No EMI interference

Advantages:

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 Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.
 These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
 Used for both analog and digital signals.

Disadvantages:
 It is expensive
 Difficult to install.
 Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
 Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

UnBounded/UnGuided Transmission Media

Unguided or wireless media sends the data through air (or water), which is available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them. Types of unguided/ unbounded media are:

 Radio Transmission
 MicroWave Transmission

1. Radio Transmission
Its frequency is between 10 kHz to 1GHz. It is simple to install and has high attenuation. These
waves are used for multicast communications.

Types of Propogation
Radio Transmission utilizes different types of propogation :

 Troposphere : The lowest portion of earth’s atmosphere extending outward approximately 30

miles from the earth’s surface. Clouds, jet planes, wind is found here.
 Ionosphere : The layer of the atmosphere above troposphere, but below space. Contains
electrically charged particles.

2. Microwave Transmission
It travels at high frequency than the radio waves. It requires the sender to be inside of the
receiver. It operates in a system with a low gigahertz range. It is mostly used for unicast
communication.

There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :

1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

 Used for long distance telephone communication
 Carries 1000’s of voice channels at the same time

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Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
 It is Very costly

Terrestrial Microwave
For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be installed with each
antenna .The signal received by an antenna can be converted into transmittable form and relayed
to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an example of telephone systems all over the
world

There are two types of antennas used for terrestrial microwave communication :

1. Parabolic Dish Antenna

In this every line parallel to the line of symmetry reflects off the curve at angles in a way that
they intersect at a common point called focus. This antenna is based on geometry of parabola.

2. Horn Antenna

It is a like gigantic scoop. The outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and deflected
outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by curved head.

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Satellite Microwave
This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. The satellites are launched
either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.

These are positioned 3600KM above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the
rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is
stationery relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is usually
done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.

Features of Satellite Microwave :

 Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.
 Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave :

 Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the satellite has
transmitted information correctly.
 A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.

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Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave :
 Satellite manufacturing cost is very high
 Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
 Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather

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