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The document provides an overview of the skeletal, muscular, and respiratory systems, focusing primarily on the skeletal system. It details the functions and types of bones, bone structure, and the process of bone formation, along with the types of joints and cartilage in the human body. The information emphasizes the importance of bones in support, protection, and movement, as well as the cellular components involved in bone maintenance and growth.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 viewsunit 2
The document provides an overview of the skeletal, muscular, and respiratory systems, focusing primarily on the skeletal system. It details the functions and types of bones, bone structure, and the process of bone formation, along with the types of joints and cartilage in the human body. The information emphasizes the importance of bones in support, protection, and movement, as well as the cellular components involved in bone maintenance and growth.
Uploaded by
G LavanyaCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
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Skeletal,Muscular and Respiratory systems
2.1 Skeletal Syste
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebral skeleton.
The functions of bones include:
. Support and protect the various organs of the body.
2. Haemopoiesis, Produce red and white blood cells.
3. Store minerals and especially calcium phosphate — the mineral reservoir within bone
is essential for maintenance of blood calcium levels, which must be tightly
controlled.
4. Enable mobility for the body, by forming joints that are moved by muscles.
5. Provision of the framework, forming the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and
pelvic cavities.
Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue.
TYPES OF BONES
There are 5 types of bones in the human body
These are:
1. Long bones,
2. Short bones,
3. Flat bones,
4, Inregular bones and
5. Sesamoid bones.
1. Long Bones
Long bones are some of the longest bones in the body, such as the Femur, Humerus
and Tibia but are also some of the smallest including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and
Phalanges.
The classification of a long bone includes having a body which is longer than it is
wide, with growth plates (epiphysis) at either end, having a hard outer surface of compact
bone and a spongy inner known an cancellous bone containing bone marrow.
Both ends of the bone are covered in hyaline cartilage to help protect the bone and
aid shock absorption.
2. Short bonesShort bones are defined as being approximately as wide as they are long and have a
primary function of providing support and stability with little movement. Examples of
short bones are the Carpals and Tarsals - the wrist and foot bones. They consist of only a
thin layer of compact, hard bone with cancellous bone on the inside along with relatively
large amounts of bone marrow.
Flat bones
Flat bones are as they sound, strong, flat plates of bone with the main function of
providing protection to the body’s vital organs and being a base for muscular attachment.
The classic example of a flat bone is the Scapula (shoulder blade).
The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium (skull), (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs are also
classified as flat bones. Anterior and posterior surfaces are formed of compact bone to
provide strength for protection with the centre consisting of cancellous (spongy) bone and
varying amounts of bone marrow. In adults, the highest numbers of red blood cells are
formed in flat bones.
4. Irregular bones
These are bones in the body which do not fall into any other category, due to their
non-uniform shape. Good examples of these are the Vertebrae, Sacrum and Mandible
(lower jaw). They primarily consist of cancellous bone, with a thin outer layer of compact
bone.
5. Sesamoid bones
Sesamoid bones are usually short or irregular bones, embedded in a tendon. The
most obvious example of this is the Patella (knee cap) which sits within the Patella or
Quadriceps tendon.
Sesamoid bones are usually present in a tendon where it passes over a joint which
serves to protect the tendon.qs
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The human skeleton consists of 206 bones and 32 teeth. The human skeleton also
includes ligaments and cartilage. Ligaments are bands of dense and fibrous connective
tissue that are key to the function of joints. Cartilage is more flexible than bone but stiffer
than muscle. Cartilage helps give structure to the larynx and nose. It is also found
between the vertebrae and at the ends of bones like the femur.
Bone structure
neral structure of a long bone
These have a diaphysis or shaft and
two epiphyses or extremities. oe)
The diaphysis is composed of compact
bone with a central medullary canal,
containing fatty yellow bone marrow.
The epiphyses consist of an outer ow
covering of compact bone with spongy
(cancellous) bone inside.
The diaphysis and epiphyses are
separated by epiphyseal cartilages ore
(epiphyseal line), which ossify when
growth is complete.Thickening of a bone occurs by the deposition of new bone tissue under the
periosteum.
Long bones are almost completely covered by a vascular membrane, the periosteum,
which has two layers.
The outer layer is tough and fibrous, and protects the bone underneath,
The inner layer contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts, the cells responsible for bone
production and breakdown, and is important in repair and remodelling of the bone.
The periosteum covers the whole bone except within joint cavities, allows attachments
of tendons and is continuous with the joint capsule.
Hyaline cartilage replaces periosteum on bone surfaces that form joints.
Blood and nerve supply
Blood supply to the shaft of the bone derives from one or more nutrient arteries; the
epiphyses have their own blood supply, although in the mature bone the capillary networks
arising from the two are heavily interconnected.
The sensory supply usually enters the bone at the same site as the nutrient artery, and
branches extensively throughout the bone.
Bone injury is, therefore, usually very painful.
Bone is a strong and durable type of connective tissue.
Its major constituent (65%) is a mixture of calcium salts, mainly calcium phosphate.
This inorganic matrix gives bone great hardness, but on its own would be brittle and
prone to shattering.
The remaining third is organic material, called osteoid, which is composed mainly of
collagen.
Collagen is very strong and gives bone slight flexibility. The cellular component of
bone contributes less than 2% of bone mass.
Bone cells
The cells responsible for bone formation are osteoblasts (these later mature into
osteocytes).
Osteoblasts and chondrocytes (cartilage-forming cells) develop from the same parent
fibrous tissue cells,Osteoclasts break down bone. They are large, multinucleate cells made from the
fusion of up to 20 monocytes.
A fine balance of osteoblast and osteoclast activity maintains normal bone structure
and functions.
Osteoblasts
These bone-forming cells secrete both the organic and inorganic components of
bone. They are present:
Inthe deeper layers of periosteum
© In the centres of ossification of immature bone
© At the ends of the diaphysis adjacent to the epiphyseal cartilages of long bones
© At the site of a fracture.
Osteocytes
As bone develops, osteoblasts become trapped within the newly formed bone. They
stop forming new bone at this stage and are called osteocytes
These are the mature bone cells that monitor and maintain bone tissue, and are
nourished by tissue fluid in the canaliculi that radiate from the central canals.
Osteoclasts
Their function is resorption of bone to maintain the optimum shape. This takes place
at bone surfaces:
‘© Under the periosteum, to maintain the shape of bones during growth and to remove
excess callus formed during healing of fractures,
* Round the walls of the medullary canal during growth and to canalise callus during
healing,
Compact (cortical) bone
Compact bone makes up about 80% of the body bone mass.
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact bon:
It is made up of a large number of parallel tube-shaped units called osteons
(Haversian systems), each of which is made up of a central canal surrounded by a series of
expanding rings, similar to the growth rings of a tree.
Osteons tend to be aligned the same way that force is applied to the bone, so for
example in the femur (thigh bone), they run from one epiphysis to the other. This gives the
bone great strengthThe central canal contains nerves, lymphatics and blood vessels, and each central
canal is linked with neighbouring canals by tunnels running at right angles between them,
called perforating canals.
‘The series of cylindrical plates of bone arranged around each central canal are called
lamellae.
Osteon
(Haversian system)
Lamellae
Lacuna
Canaliculus
Central
(Haversian)
canal
Matrix
i i Blood vessel continues
fibers 4 i into medullary cavity
Z J containing marrow
Compact
bone
‘Spongy bone!
Central (Haversian) canal
Perforating (Volkmann's) canal
Blood vessel
cepygh ©2003 Peamon Euan, ine pte ae Saran Ci
Between the adjacent lamellae of the osteon are strings of little cavities called
lacunae, in each of which sits an osteocyte.
Lacunae communicate with cach other through a series of tiny channels called
canaliculi, which allows the circulation of interstitial fluid through the bone, and direct
contact between the osteocytes, which extend fine processes into them.
Spongy (cancellous, trabecular) bone
To the naked eye, spongy bone looks like a honeycomb.
Microscopic examination reveals a framework formed from trabeculae (meaning
‘little beams”), which consist of a few lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi
Osteocytes are nourished by interstitial fluid seeping into the bone through the tiny
canaliculi,The spaces between the trabeculae contain red bone marrow. In addition, spongy
bone is lighter than compact bone, reducing the weight of the skeleton.
Bone formation
During embryonic development, the skeleton is first made of cartilage and fibrous
connective tissue, which are gradually replaced by bone.
Bone matrix is produced by cells called osteoblasts (a blast cell is a “growing” or
“producing” cell, and osteo means “bone”.
In the embryonic model of the skeleton, osteoblasts differentiate from the fibroblasts
that are present. The production of bone matrix, called ossification, begins in a center of
ossification in each bone.
In the third month of fetal development, fibroblasts (spindle-shaped connective
tissue cells) become more specialized and differentiate into osteoblasts, which produce
bone matrix.
From each center of ossification, bone growth radiates outward as calcium salts are
deposited in the collagen of the model of the bone.
The rest of the embryonic skeleton is first made of cartilage, and ossification begins
in the third month of gestation in the long bones.
Osteoblasts produce bone matrix in the center of the diaphyses of the long bones and
in the center of short, flat, and irregular bones.
Bone matrix gradually replaces the original cartilage.
In long bones, growth occurs in the epiphyseal discs at the junction of the diaphysis
with each epiphysis.
‘An epiphyseal disc is still cartilage, and the bone grows in length as more cartilage is
produced on the epiphysis side. On the diaphysis side, osteoblasts produce bone matrix to
replace the cartilage.
Between the ages of 16 and 25 years (influenced by estrogen or testosterone), all of
the cartilage of the epiphyseal discs is replaced by bone.
This is called closure of the epiphyseal discs (or we say the discs are closed), and
the bone lengthening process stops.
Also in bones are specialized cells called osteoclasts (a clast cell is a “destroying”
cell), which are able to dissolve and reabsorb the minerals of bone matrix, a process called
resorption.
Osteoclasts are very active in embryonic long bones, and they reabsorb bone matrix
in the center of the diaphysis to form the marrow canal.
Blood vessels grow into the marrow canals of embryonic long bones, and red bone
marrow is established. After birth, the red bone marrow is replaced by yellow bone
marrow.
Red bone marrow remains in the spongy bone of short, flat, and irregular bones.Anticula.
Cartilage
line Spon
rage Bone”
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Bone growth >
