Skeletal System

ANTERIOR

lateral VIEW
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM The word skeleton comes from the Greek word
skeleton meaning “dried up”. It is strong yet
Learning Objective light adapted for its function of body protection
and motion. The skeletal system includes bones,
At the end of this chapter, the students should
joints, cartilages and ligaments. The joint give
be able to:
the body flexibility and allow movements to
• Discuss bone tissue. occur. But from structural point of view, the
human skeletal system consists of two main
• Explain the general feature and surface
types of supportive connective tissue, bone and
markings of bones.
cartilage.
• Discuss skeleton and its function:
Functions of the skeletal system:
- Axial skeleton
1. Support: it forms the internal framework that
- Appendicular skeleton. supports and anchors all soft organs.

• Explain joints, types of joints and their 2. Protection: bones protect soft body organs.
movements
3. Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the
Selected Key terms skeletal system use the bone to levers to move
the body and its part.
The following terms are defined in the
glossary: 4. Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities
of bones.
Appendicular skeleton Myeloid tissue
Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of
Articulation Orbits
minerals. The most important being calcium and
Axial skeleton Ossicles phosphors.

Bone cell Ossification 5. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the

marrow cavities of certain bones.
Cranium Perichondrium
5.1 Bone
Diaphysis Periosteum
Bone (osseous) is specialized connective tissue
Endosteum Skull
that has the strength of cast iron and lightness
Epiphyseal plate Surface marking of pinewood. Living bone is not dry, brittle or
dead. It is a moist changing, productive tissue
Epiphysis Sutures
that is continually resorbed, reformed and
Fontanel Tendons remodeled.

Intervertebral disc Thorax

Metaphysis Vertebrae
5.1.1 Types of bone 5.1.2. Gross anatomy of a typical
Long bone, are called long as its length is long bone
greater than its width. The most obvious long You can take Tibia (in the leg) one of the longest
bones are in the arm and leg. They act as levers bones in the body.
that pulled by contraction of muscles. Short
bones are about equal in length, width and In adults it have:
thickness, which are shaped with regular Diaphis, the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical
orientation. They occur in the wrist and ankle. with walls of compact bone tissue. The center of
Flat bones are thin or curved more often they the cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is
are flat. This includes ribs, scapulae, sternum filled with marrow.
and bone of cranium. Epiphysis is roughly spherical end of the bone. It
Irregular bones, they do not fit neatly into any is wider than the shaft. Flat and irregular bones
other category. of the trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and
the long bones of the finger and toe have only
Examples are the vertebral, facial, and hipbone. one epiphysis.
Sesamoid bones are small bones embedded Metaphysis is the part separating diaphysis
with in certain tendons, the fibrous cord that from epiphysis. It is made up of epiphyseal plate
connects muscle to bones. Typical sesamoid and adjacent bony trabeculae of cancellous
bones are patella and pisiform carpal bone, bone tissue.
which are in the tendon of quadriceps femuris
and flexor carp ulnaris muscle respectively.

Accessory bones are most commonly found in

the feet. They usually occur in the developing
bone and do not fuse completely. They look like
extra bones or broken on X-ray. Sutural
(wormian) bones are examples of accessory
bones.

Figure: 5.1 Types of bones

Epiphyseal plate is a thick plate of hyaline right angle to central canal extending the
cartilage, which provides the framework of system of nerves and vessels out ward to
synthesis of the cancellous bone tissue within periosteum and to endosteum. Lacunae (Little
metaphysis. spaces) that houses osteocytes (bone cells) are
contained in lamella. Radiating from each
• The medullary cavity running through
lacuna are tiny canaliculi containing the slender
the length of the diaphysis contains
extensions of the osteocytes where nutrients
Yellow marrow.
and wastes can pass to and from central canal.
• The porous latticework of the spongy
Spongy (cancellous) Bone tissue Is in the form of
epiphyses is filled with red bone
an open interlaced pattern that withstands
marrow. The red marrow also known as
maximum stress and supports in shifting stress.
myeloid tissue
Trabeculae are tiny spikes of bone tissue
Endosteum is the lining the medullary cavity of surrounded by bone matrix that has calcified.
compact bone tissue and covering the
trabeculae of spongy bone tissue.

Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of

the bone. It is absent at joints and replaced by
articular cartilage.

5.1.3 Bone (Osseous) Tissue

Bone tissue is composed of cells embedded in a
matrix of ground substances and fibers. It is
more rigid than other tissues because it
contains inorganic salts mainly calcium
phosphate & calcium carbonate. A network of
collagenous fibers in the matrix gives bone Blood Vessel
tissue its strength and flexibility. Most bones
have an outer sheet of compact bone tissue Figure: 5.3 Compact bone tissues
enclosing an interior spongy bone tissue.

Compact bone tissue forms the outer sheet of a

bone. It is very hard and dense. It appears to
naked eye to be solid but not. Compact bone
tissue contains cylinders of calcified bone
known as osteons (Haversion system). Osteons
are made up of concentric layers called
lamellae, which are arranged seemingly in wider
and wider drinking straws. In the center of the
osteons are central canals (haversion canal) ,
which are longitudinal canals that contains
blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels.
Central canals, usually have branches called
perforating canals /valkmann’s canal that run at
Bone Cells 5.1.5 Developmental Anatomy and
Bone contain five types of cells: Growth of Bones
a) Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells: Bones develop through a process known as
these are small spindle shaped cell. Ossification. Bone in embryo develops in two
They found mostly in the deepest layer ways: Intra-membranous ossification, If bone
of periosteum and endosteum. They develops directly from mesenchymal tissue.
have high mitotic potential and can be Examples are vault of the skull, flat bones and
transformed into bone forming cells part of the clavicle. In this type of ossification
(osteoblasts). development continues rapidly from the center.
Endochondrial Ossification, When bone tissue
b) Osteoblasts are found in the growing develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. The
portion of bone including periosteum. cartilage it self do not converted into bone but
They are able to synthesize and secrete the cartilage is replaced by bone through the
un-mineralized ground substance, act as process. Endochondrial ossification produces
pump cell to move calcium and long bones and all other bones not formed by
phosphate in and out of bone tissue. intra-membranous ossification.

Function of bone
c) Osteocytes are the main cell of fully
developed bones. They have a cell body • Supportive and protection of internal organs.
that occupies a lacuna. Osteocytes are
derived from osteoblasts. They together • The store house and main supply of reserve
with osteoclasts play an important role calcium and phosphate.
of homeostasis by helping to release
calcium. • The manufacture of red and white blood cell.

Table 5.1 Comparison between bone

d) Osteoclasts are multinuclear giant cell,
which are found where bone is and cartilage
resorbed during its normal growth.
Feature Bone Cartilage
Osteoclasts are derived from white
Components Bone cells Ground Cartilage cell
blood cells called monocytes.
substances mineral chondrocyte
component Collagenous fiber
e) Bone - lining cells are found on the Ground substances
surface of most bones in the adult Locations of In lacunae In lacunae
skeleton. They are believed to be cell
derived from osteoblast that ceases Outer covering Periosteum Perichondrium
their physiological activity. Derivation Mesenchyme Mesenchyme
Blood vessels Contain B/V Has no B/v
Strength Stronger than Not strong as bone
cartilage
Nutrients By capillaries to cell From tissue fluid by
by diffusion. Through diffusion
canaliculi
5.2 The Skeleton Process to which tendons, ligaments and
other Connective tissue attach
General futures and surface markings
Tubercle: it is a knob like process.
Looking to the bone reveals the surface is not Example: Greater tubercle of humerus.
smooth but scarred with bumps, holes and
ridges. These are surface markings where Tuberosity: it is large, round roughened process.
muscles, tendons and ligaments attached, blood Example: ischeal tuberosity.
& lymph vessels and nerves pass. Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found
Depression and openings only on femur

Fissure narrow, cleft like opening between Crest is a prominent ridge. Example: Iliac crest.
adjacent parts of bone. Example: Supra of Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest.
orbital fissure.
Spinous process (spine) is a sharp, slender
Foramen, a bigger, round opening. Example: process. Example: Ischeal spin
Foramen magnum.
Epicondyle is a prominence above condyle.
Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example medial: Epicondyle of Femur
Example: External auditory meatus
5.2.2 Division of the skeletal system
Groves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the
surface of a bone or other structure. The Adult human skeletons have 206 named
bones that are grouped in to two principal
Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of
parts. These are the axial and appendicular
humers.
skeleton.
Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example:
The Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around
Mandibular fossa.
the axis. And the appendicular skeleton consist
Processes that form joints bones of the body out of the axial group. These
are appendages. Upper & lower extremities and
Condyle / knuckle like process/ concave or bones of girdles are grouped under
convex. Example Medial condyle of femur Head, appendicular skeleton.
expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a
bone often joined to shaft by a narrowed neck.
Example: Head of femur

Facet: small, flat surface. Example: Articular

facet of ribs.
Figure: 5.4 Axial and Appendicular Table 5.2 Divisions of The Adult
skeleton Skeleton (206 Bones)
AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Skull (29 bones)* Upper extremities (64
Cranium 8 bones)
- Parietal (2) Pectoral (shoulder) girdle 4
- Temporal (2) Clavicle (2)
- Frontal (1) Scapula (2)
- Ethmoid (1) Arm* 2
- Sphenoid (1) Humerus (2) 4
- Occipital (1) Forearm
Face 14 Ulna (2)
- Maxillary (2) Radius (2)
- Zygomatic(molar) (2) Wrist 16
- Lacrimal (2) Carpals (16)
- Nasal (2) Hand and fingers 38
- Inferior nasal conchii Metacarpals (10)
(2) Phalanges (28)
- Palatine (2) Lower extremities (62
- Mandible (1) bones)
- Vomer (1) Pelvic girdle 2
Ossicles of ear 6 (Fused ileum, ischium,
- Malleus (hammer) pubis)
(2) Thigh 4
- Incus (anvil) (2) Femur (2)
- Stapes (stirrup) (2) Patella (2)
Hyoid 1 Leg 4
Vertebral Column (26 Tibia (2)
Bones) Fibula (2)
Cervical vertebrae 7 Ankle 14
Thoracic vertebrae 12 Tarsals (14)
Lumbar vertebrae 5 Foot and toes 38
Sacrum (5 fused bones) 1 Metatarsals (10)
Coccyx (3- 5 fused bones) 1 Phalanges (28)
Thorax (25 bones)
Ribs 24
Sternum 1
Total axial bones 80 Total Appendicular bones
126
* The number of skull bones is sometimes listed
as 22, when the Ossicles of the ears (6 bones)
and the single hyoid bone is counted separately.
Technically, the hyoid bone is not part of the
skull.
+The thoracic vertebrae are sometimes
included in this category.

# Technically, the term arm refers to the upper

extremity between the shoulder and elbow; the 5.2.3 The axial skeleton
forearm is between the elbow and wrist. The
upper part of the lower extremity, between the Figure: 5.5 Lateral view of cranial
pelvis and knee, is the thigh; the leg is between skull
the knees an ankle.

5.2.3.1 The skull

It Contain 22 bones. The skull rests on the
superior of vertebral column. It is composed
of cranial and facial bones.

Table 5.3 Description and

function of Cranial Bones

Sutures
Meaning to stitch, are immovable joint found
between skull bones. There are four main
sutures in the skull.

a) Coronal suture: between the frontal & the

two-parietal bone.

b) Sagittal suture: between the two parietal

bones.

c) Lambdoidal suture: between parietal &

occipital bone.

d) Squamosal suture: between parietal bone

and temporal bone.
Fontanels Figure: 5.6 Sutures and Fontanels
The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consist
of cartilage or fibrous membrane structures,
which gradually replaced by bone the process is
called ossification. At birth membrane filled
spaces on the skull are called fontanel. They are
found between cranial bones.

Function
• They enable skull of the fetus to compress as
it pass through the birth canal

• Permit rapid growth of brain during infancy

• Serves as a landmark (anterior fontanel) for

withdrawal of blood from the superior sagittal
sinus

• Aid in determination of fetal position prior to

birth.

In the skull of the fetus there are 6 prominent

fontanels:
a) The Anterior (frontal) fontanel, between
angle of two parietal bones & segment of the Table 5.4: Description and function
frontal bone. It is diamond shaped and is the
largest fontanel. It closes 18 to 24 months after
of Facial bones
birth. Bone
Descriptions and function
b) The posterior (occiputal) fontanel, between
parietal & occipital bone. It is also diamond Inferior nasal
shaped but smaller than the anterior fontanel. It - Lateral walls of nasal cavities, below
closes 2 months after birth. superior and middle
Conchie (2)
c) The Antrolatral (sphenoidal) fontanel, they - conchae of Ethmoid bone. Thin,
are pair, one in each side. Found at the junction cancellous, shaped like curved leaves.
of frontal, parietal, temporal & sphenoidal Lacrimal (2)
bone. They are small & irregular in shape and - Medial wall of orbit, behind frontal
closes at 3rd month after birth. process of maxilla. Small, thin,
rectangular; contains depression for
d) The postrolateral (mastoid) fontanel, Paired lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct.
one in each side. Found at the junction of Mandible (1)
parietal, occiputal and temporal bones. They - Lower jaw, extending from chin to
are irregular in shape and begin to close at 1 or mandibular fossa of temporal bone.
2 months after birth and completed by 12 Largest, strongest facial bone;
months horseshoe-shaped horizontal bony with
two perpendicular rami; contains tooth
sockets, coronoid, condylar, alveolar
processes, mental foramina. forms - Below root of tongue, above the larynx.
lower jaw, part of temporomandibular U-shaped, suspended from the styloid
joint; site of attachment for muscles. process of temporal bone; site of
Maxillae (2) attachment for some muscles used in
- Upper jaw and anterior part of hard speaking, and swallowing.
palate. Made up of zygomatic, frontal, Ossicles of the ear (6)
palatine, alveolar processes; contain - Inside cavity of petrous portion of the
infraorbital foramina, maxillary sinuses, temporal bone.
tooth sockets. Form upper jaw, front of Tiny bones Incus(2)
hard palate, part of eye sockets. - shaped like an anvil, hammer, or
Nasal (2) stirrup, articulating with one another
- Upper bridge of nose between frontal malleus (2) and attached to the
processes of maxillae. Small, oblong; tympanic membrane. Convey sound
attached to a nasal cartilage. Form vibrations stapes (2) from the the
supports for bridge of upper nose. ardrum to the oval window.
Palatine (2)
- Posterior part of hard palate, floor of
nasal cavity and orbit; posterior to
maxillae. L-shaped, with horizontal and
vertical plates; contain greater and
lesser palatine foramina. Horizontal
plate forms posterior part of hard
palate; vertical plate forms part of wall
of nasal cavity, floor of orbit.
Vomer (1)
- Posterior and inferior part of the nasal
septum. Thin, shaped like plowshare.
Forms posterior and inferior nasal
septum dividing nasal cavities.
Zygomatic (2)
- Cheekbones below and lateral to orbit.
Curved lateral part of (molar)
cheekbones; made up of the temporal
process, zygomatic arch; contain
zygomatico-facial and zygomatico- Figure: 5.7 Lateral separated view of
temporal foramina. form cheekbones,
the outer part of eye sockets.
the facial skull, ear ossicles, and
hyoid bone

Orbits
A pyramid-shaped space that contains the
eyeball & associate structures. It is formed by
the bones of the skull. Orbit has four walls and
an apex:

Hyoid(1)
• The roof of the orbit consists of parts of the of attachment for the ribs & muscles of the
frontal & sphenoid bone. back.

• The lateral wall is formed by portions of the Inter vertebral discs

zygomatic and sphenoid bone. They are fibro cartilaginous. Each disc is
composed of the outer fibrous ring consisting of
• The floor of the orbit is formed by parts of the
fibrocartilage called annulus fibrosis and the
maxilla, zygomatic and palatine bone.
inner soft, pulpy highly elastic structure called
• The medial wall is formed by a portion of the the nucleus pulpous. The disc permits various
maxilla, lacrimal, ethmoid & sphenoid bone. movement of the vertebral column, absorb
shock, and form a strong joint.
In the orbit, some openings pass structures.
Some of the principal openings and the
structures passing through are: Optic foramen
(canal) passes the optic nerve Superior orbital
fissure passes the supra orbit nerve and artery.
An inferior orbital fissure passes maxillary
branch of the trigeminal and zygomatic nerve
and infraorbital vessel. Supra orbital foramen
(notch) passes the oculomotor, trochlear, and
ophthalmbranchesnch of trigeminal and
abducent nerves. Canal for naso lacrimal duct
passes naso lacrimal duct.

Figure: 5.9 Intervertebral discs,

compressed and ruptured disc

Figure: 5.8 Skull anterior views, and the

orbital cavity

The vertebral column

The vertebral column together with the Normal curves
sternum & ribs constitutes the skeleton of the The vertebral column when viewed from the
trunk of the body. It encloses & protects spinal side is not straight but line rather have
cord, supports the head, and serves as a point bandings. These are normal curves of the
vertebral column. There are 4 normal curves
formed by vertebras, two are concave and the
other two are convex.

In the age of the fetus there is only a single

anterior concave curve, but approximately the
third post-natal month, when the children begin
to hold their head erect, the cervical curve
develops.
Later when the child sits up, stands, and walks
the lumbar curve develops. The cervical &
lumbar curves are anteriorly convex and
because they are modifications of the fetal
position, they are called secondary curves. The
thoracic and sacral curves are anteriorly
concave, since they retain the anterior
concavity of the fetal curve they are referred
primary curves.

Figure: 5.10. The vertebral column and

vertebral curves
Typical vertebra
Although there are variations in size and shape,
the vertebras of the different region have
basically similar structure. It consist of the
body, vertebral arch and seven processes.

The body (Centrum), thick, disc shaped,

anterior part. It has superior and inferior
roughened area for attachment with
intervertebral discs.

The vertebral (neural) arch extends posterior

from the body of the vertebrae. With the body
it surrounds the spinal cord. It is formed by two Figure: 5.11 Typical vertebra
short, thick process called pedicles. It projects
posteriorly to meet at laminae. The laminae are
flat parts that join to form the posterior portion
of the vertebral arch. The space that lies
between the vertebral arch and body contains
the spinal cord called vertebral foramina. The
vertebral foramina of all vertebras together
form the vertebral (spinal) canal. The pedicles
are notched superiorly & inferiorly to form
an opening between vertebrae on each side of
the column called Intervertebral foramen.
intervertebral foramen is an opening between
the vertebras that serves as passage of nerves
that come out of spinal cord to supply the
various body parts.

There are seven processes that arise from the

vertebral arch at the point where the lamina
and pedicle joins.

• The transverse process on each side extends

laterally.
• The Spinous processes extends posteriorly &
inferiorly from the junction of the laminae.
• Both the transverse & spinous processes are
muscle attachments. The remaining four
Table 5.5 Description and function of
processes form joints with another vertebra.
Two of them articulate with the immediate bones of the vertebral column (26 bones)
superior vertebra. And the other two articulate
with the immediate inferior vertebra. • In a child there are 33 separate vertebrae, the
9 in the sacrum and coccyx not yet being fused.
The Thorax
Refers to the chest. Thorax is a bony cage
formed by sternum (breastbone), costal
cartilage, ribs, and bodies of the thoracic
vertebra.

Figure: 5.12 Skeleton of the thorax

Figure: 5.13 The ribs and sternum

Ribs
Human being contains 12 Pair of ribs that make
up the side of thoracic cavity. Ribs increase in
Sternum (breastbone) length from 1st through 7thand they decrease
Sternum is flat, narrow bone measuring about in length through 12th. Each rib posteriorly
15 c.m. (6 inch) located in the median line of articulates with the body of its corresponding
anterior thoracic wall. It consists of 3 basic thoracic vertebra.
portions: the manubrium (superior portion), the
body (middle & largest portion) and the xiphoid Anteriorly the 1st seven ribs have direct
process (inferior & smallest portion). The attachment to sternum by costal cartilage
junction of the manubrium and the body forms hence they are called true (vertebra – sternal)
the sternal angle. The manubrium on its ribs. The remaining 5 ribs are called false ribs.
superior portion has a depression called jugular The 8th – 10th ribs, which are groups of the
(supra sternal) notch. false ribs are called vertebra chondral ribs
because their cartilage attaches one another
On each side of the jugular notch are clavicular and then attaches to the cartilage of the 7th rib.
notch that articulates with medial end of The 11th & 12th ribs are designated as floating
clavicle. ribs because their anterior part even doesn't
attach indirectly to sternum.
The manubrium also articulates with the 1st
and 2nd rib. The body of the sternum
articulates directly or indirectly with 2nd to
10th rib. The xiphoid process consists hyaline
cartilage during infancy and childhood and do
not ossify completely up to the age of 40.
Although there is variation when we examine a
typical rib (3rdto 9th) contains a head, neck and
body parts.

The Head is a projection at posterior end of the

rib. It consist of one or two facet that articulate
with facet of the vertebra.

The neck is constricted portion just lateral to

the head. One or two knob like structures on
the posterior end where the neck joins the
body is the tubercles, which articulate with the
transverse process of the vertebra and to attach
with muscles of the trunk.

The body (shaft) is main part of the rib. The

costal angle is the site where the rib changes its
direction. The inner side of the costal angle is
costal grove. Where thoracic nerves and
blood vessels are protected.

5.2.4 The Appendicular skeleton

The upper extremities (limbs)

The upper extremities consists of 64 bones.
Connected and supported by the axial skeleton
with only shoulder joint and many muscle from
a complex of suspension bands from the
vertebral column, ribs and sternum to the
shoulder girdle.

Figure: 5.14 The upper extremity

Figure: 5.15 Shoulder girdle
Table 5.6: Description and function of
bones of the upper extremity