INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

DAT TRANSMISSION
LESSON 8

ECE 11 | Communication 3: Data Communication 2nd Semester, A.Y. 2024-2025

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
❖ Understand digital-to-digital conversion techniques including line coding, block coding,
and scrambling.
❖ Describe analog-to-digital conversion techniques such as Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM).
❖ Compare and contrast transmission modes including serial vs. parallel, and various
synchronization methods.
❖ Explain the role of communication modes, including 2-wire and 4-wire circuits, in data
transmission
CONTENTS
8.1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
8.1.1 Line Coding
8.1.2 Line Coding Schemes: Unipolar Scheme, Polar Schemes, Bipolar Schemes
Multilevel Schemes, and Multitransition Scheme.
8.1.3 Block Coding
8.1.4 Scrambling
8.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
8.2.1 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
8.2.2 Delta Modulation (DM)
8.3 TRANSMISSION MODES
8.3.1 Parallel vs. Serial Transmission
8.3.2 Types of Synchronization
8.3.3 Communication Modes
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
In the previous lecture, we discussed data and signals, highlighting that
data can be digital or analog, and the signals used to represent that data
can also be either digital or analog.

In digital communication systems, data often originates and is processed in

digital form — for instance, from computers, smartphones, and digital
sensors. However, for this digital data to be transmitted over a physical
medium (such as a cable or fiber optic line), it must be converted into a form
that the medium can carry.

Building on that foundation, this section focuses on how digital data can be
represented using digital signals — a fundamental concept in data
transmission.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
This process is known as Digital-to-Digital Conversion, where binary data
(sequences of 0s and 1s) is transformed into a format suitable for transmission
over a digital communication channel. This is essential for:
❖ Accurate data representation
❖ Efficient transmission
❖ Synchronization between sender and receiver
❖ Minimizing error and noise impact

The conversion involves three techniques:

1. Line Coding – This is the core mechanism that maps bits into signal levels.
2. Block Coding – Adds redundancy for synchronization and error detection.
3. Scrambling – Helps maintain synchronization and eliminates long strings of
0s or 1s, thus maintain signal integrity by eliminating long runs of constant
bits.
LINE CODING
Line coding is the process of converting digital data (binary data) into a digital
signal suitable for transmission. Each bit (0 or 1) is mapped to a specific signal level
or pattern. Data is in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video,
are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits, line coding converts a
sequence of bits to a digital signal.

At the sending end, digital

information is transformed into
a digital signal, while at the
receiving end, the original
digital data is restored by
decoding this signal.

Each bit (0 or 1)
corresponds to a particular
signal level or pattern.
LINE CODING
Desirable Characteristics of Line Coding:
• Self-synchronization: The receiver should be able to identify the bit boundaries
without a separate clock.
• No DC component: Long strings of constant voltage can be problematic for
some channels.
• Error detection capability: Some coding schemes naturally allow errors to be
spotted.
• Efficient bandwidth usage
• Low complexity and implementation cost
LINE CODING
Digital data (bits: 0s and 1s) is converted into a digital signal (a sequence of
voltage pulses) for transmission over a digital medium. Each group of bits is
represented by one or more voltage levels, forming the actual signal that moves
through the communication channel.

Signal Element vs. Data Element

• A data element is the smallest entity of data — typically a bit (0 or 1).
• A signal element is the shortest unit (time) of a signal — the actual change
in the physical signal used to represent data.

In data communications, objective is to transmit data elements. In digital data

communications, a signal element conveys these data elements. In simpler
terms, data elements are the information we aim to send, while signal
elements are the means by which we send that information.
LINE CODING
Key Point: A signal element
carries data elements — but
not always on a one-to-one
basis.

Define a ratio r which is the number

of data elements carried by each
signal element.

The ratio of data elements to signal

elements affects the bit rate and
baud rate:
LINE CODING
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
𝑁
Term Definition Unit 𝑠=
Number of data bits transmitted per
𝑟
Bit Rate bits per second (bps)
second where: S is the Baud rate
Number of signal elements
Baud Rate baud (symbols/sec) (Signal rate)
transmitted per second
N is the Bit rate (data
The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate)
rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation r is Number of bits
rate, or the baud rate. per signal element

In simple encoding schemes like

One goal in data communications is to increase the data NRZ, 1 signal element = 1 bit, so
rate while decreasing the signal rate. Increasing the data baud rate = bit rate.
rate increases the speed of transmission; decreasing the In more complex schemes (e.g.,
signal rate decreases the bandwidth requirement. multilevel), each signal element may
represent more than 1 bit, reducing
baud rate and saving bandwidth.
LINE CODING
If we encounter a data pattern consisting entirely of 1s or entirely of 0s, the signal rate
may differ from that of a pattern with alternating 0s and 1s. To derive a formula for the
relationship, we should define three scenarios: the worst case, the best case, and the
average case. The worst case refers to the situation requiring the maximum signal rate,
while the best case involves the minimum signal rate. In data communications, the
average case is typically the most relevant focus.

𝑐𝑁
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑟
where: Save is the average baud rate (Signal rate)
N is the Bit rate (data rate)
r is Number of bits per signal element
c is the case factor
LINE CODING
Example: A Network transmits data using Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) encoding. The bit
rate of the transmission is 2400 bits per second. What is the baud rate?

Example: A communication system uses a multilevel scheme where each signal element
represents 2 bits of information. If the baud rate of the transmission is 1200 baud, what is
the bit rate?

Example: A digital communication channel uses a signal encoding technique where each
signal element carries 4 bits. If the bit rate of the system is 12kbits per second, what is the
baud rate?

Example: A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal
element (r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1? We assume that the average value of c is ½.
LINE CODING
Previously discussed that a digital signal carrying information is nonperiodic. We also
demonstrated that the bandwidth of a nonperiodic signal is continuous and
theoretically infinite. However, most digital signals we encounter in practice have a
finite bandwidth. Therefore, the effective bandwidth is finite.

Bandwidth is the range of frequencies required to transmit a signal without significant

distortion. In digital transmission, it is directly influenced by the baud rate — higher baud
rate requires more bandwidth. More changes in the signal mean injecting more frequencies
into the signal. (Recall that frequency means change and change means frequency.) The
bandwidth reflects the range of frequencies we need.
❖ More signal changes per second → higher baud rate → wider bandwidth needed.
❖ Efficient line coding schemes reduce the number of signal changes, thereby
reducing the required bandwidth.

Goal: Achieve a balance between transmission speed and bandwidth usage.

LINE CODING
For the moment, we can say that the bandwidth Maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel
(range of frequencies) is proportional to the signal is given.
rate (baud rate). The minimum bandwidth can be
given as
𝑐𝑁 𝐵𝑟
𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑟 𝑐
where: Bmin is the minimum bandwidth (Hz)
N is the Bit rate (data rate)
r is Number of bits per signal element
c is the case factor

Example: If a line coding scheme transmits at 1000 bps and each signal element
represents 1 bit, the baud rate is 1000 baud. However, if a multilevel scheme allows
2 bits per signal element, the baud rate drops to 500 baud — effectively cutting the
required bandwidth in half.
LINE CODING
Important Line Coding Considerations:
1. Baseline Wandering
❖ Occurs when there are long sequences of 0s or 1s (i.e., no signal transitions).
❖ Causes the receiver’s baseline (average voltage) to drift, making it hard to detect small
signal changes.
❖ Solution: Use line codes with regular transitions (e.g., Manchester, Scrambling
techniques).

2. DC Component
❖ A DC component is the average voltage of the signal over time.
❖ High DC components are problematic in media that cannot pass low frequencies (e.g.,
transformers, capacitive links).
❖ Solution: Use bipolar or balanced schemes (e.g., AMI, Manchester) which ensure zero
or low DC bias.
LINE CODING
Important Line Coding Considerations:
3. Self-Synchronization
❖ The receiver must recognize where each bit starts and ends.
❖ This requires transitions in the signal to synchronize clocks.
❖ Codes like Manchester and Differential Manchester have built-in transitions to aid
synchronization.
❖ Schemes like NRZ lack this and may require additional mechanisms (e.g., block
coding, scrambling).
4. Built-in Error Detection
❖ Some line codes inherently provide basic error detection features.
❖ Example: AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) — a pattern violation indicates a potential
error.
❖ Also seen in block coding and schemes that use redundant or reserved patterns.
LINE CODING
Important Line Coding Considerations:
5. Immunity to Noise and Interference
❖ Good line coding should maintain data integrity even in the presence of noise.
❖ Differential encoding (like Differential Manchester) is more immune to polarity reversal
errors.
❖ Balanced signals (equal positive and negative voltages) help resist common-mode noise.

6. Complexity
❖ Complexity affects the cost and feasibility of implementation.
❖ Simple schemes like NRZ are easy to implement but lack desirable features.
❖ Advanced schemes (e.g., 8B/10B, multilevel coding) improve performance but require more
complex encoding/decoding circuits.
LINE CODING
Important Line Coding Considerations:
Summary of Line Coding Desirables
Feature Benefit
Regular transitions Ensures synchronization

Low DC component Suitable for transformer-coupled links

Error detection Enhances data integrity

Balanced signal Reduces EMI and baseline wandering

Bandwidth efficiency Higher data rate in limited bandwidth

Low complexity Easier and cheaper to implement

LINE CODING SCHEMES
Different line coding schemes offer various ways to represent binary data using
voltage levels or transitions. The choice of scheme impacts synchronization, error
detection, bandwidth usage, and signal integrity.
Line coding schemes are generally grouped
into the following categories:
❖ Unipolar Scheme - Uses only one voltage
level (usually positive) to represent binary
1; 0 is represented by zero voltage.
❖ Polar Schemes - Use two voltage levels:
one positive and one negative.
❖ Bipolar Schemes - Use three voltage
levels: positive, zero, and negative.
❖ Multilevel Schemes - More than two voltage levels used to represent multiple bits per signal
element.
❖ Multitransition Scheme - three voltage levels: positive (+), zero (0), and negative (−), signal
changes level only when transmitting a binary 1, and it cycles through the three levels in a
fixed pattern.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
UNIPOLAR SCHEME
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side (usually positive) of the
time axis, either above or below.
Traditionally a unipolar encoding method
was created as a non-return-to-zero
(NRZ) scheme, where a positive
voltage represents bit 1 and a zero
voltage represents bit 0. It is referred
to as NRZ because the signal stays
above zero throughout the duration of
the bit, without returning to zero at the
midpoint. In comparison to its polar counterpart, this scheme is quite
costly. As the normalized power (the power required to transmit 1
Features:
bit per unit line resistance) is double that of polar NRZ.
❖ Easy to implement Consequently, this scheme is typically not utilized in modern data
❖ Lacks synchronization support communications.
❖ High DC component and potential
for baseline wandering
LINE CODING SCHEMES
POLAR SCHEMES
In polar schemes, the voltages are
on both sides of the time axis. For
example, the voltage level for 0
can be positive and the voltage
level for 1 can be negative.
In polar non-return-to-zero (polar-
NRZ) encoding, there are two
versions: NRZ-L and NRZ-I. The
❖ NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the voltage level (either
figure also illustrates the value of r,
high or low) indicates the value of the bit.
which represents the average baud
❖ NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the determination of the
rate and bandwidth.
bit value relies on the change or lack of
change in the voltage level. A bit value of 0 is
indicated by no change, while a change
indicates a bit value of 1.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
POLAR SCHEMES
❖ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd (half of bit rate).
❖ NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem.

Example: A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What are the
average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?
LINE CODING SCHEMES
POLAR SCHEMES
The main issue with NRZ encoding is that if the sender and receiver clocks aren't
synchronized, the receiver can't tell when one bit ends and the next begins. One alternative
is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and
zero. In RZ, the signal goes to zero in the middle of each bit and stays there until the next bit
starts.
However, RZ has several downsides. It
requires two signal changes to represent a
single bit, which uses more bandwidth. The
same problem of sudden polarity changes,
where all 0s might be seen as 1s and vice
versa, still occurs, but there’s no DC
component issue. Additionally, it is more
complex because it uses three voltage levels.
For these reasons, RZ is not commonly used ❖ Bit period is split in half: signal
today and has been largely replaced by more returns to 0 in the middle
effective methods like Manchester and ❖ Better synchronization than NRZ,
differential Manchester encoding but uses more bandwidth
LINE CODING SCHEMES
POLAR SCHEMES
Manchester encoding combines RZ
(which has a transition in the middle of
the bit) and NRZ-L. In this scheme,
each bit is split into two halves: the
voltage stays at one level during the
first half and switches to another level
in the second half. This transition helps
with synchronization.
Differential Manchester also has a
middle transition but determines the bit
value at the beginning. If the next bit is
0, there’s a transition; if it’s 1, there
isn’t.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
POLAR SCHEMES
Both Manchester and Differential Manchester schemes solve many problems of NRZ-L
and NRZ-I. They avoid issues like baseline wandering and DC components because
each bit uses both positive and negative voltage. However, the signal rate is double
that of NRZ due to the extra transitions. These encoding methods are also called
biphase schemes.

Key Points:

❖ Each bit is divided in half, with a transition in the middle.

❖ Better synchronization than NRZ, but requires more bandwidth.

❖ The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that

of NRZ.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
BIPOLAR SCHEMES
In bipolar encoding, also known as multilevel binary, there are three voltage levels:
positive, negative, and zero. One data element is represented by a voltage level of zero,
while the other element alternates between positive and negative voltages.
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) is a
common bipolar encoding scheme
where "mark" refers to the binary digit 1.
In AMI, a binary 0 is represented by a
neutral zero voltage, while binary 1s
alternate between positive and negative
voltages. DC-balanced, easy error
detection (e.g., two same-polarity 1s)

Pseudoternary is a variation of AMI where binary 1s are encoded as zero voltage, and binary
0s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages. Less common than AMI
LINE CODING SCHEMES
BIPOLAR SCHEMES
The bipolar encoding scheme was created as an alternative to NRZ encoding. Both have
the same signal rate, but bipolar encoding does not have a DC component, while NRZ
tends to concentrate energy near zero frequency, making it less effective for poor
channels. Bipolar encoding, on the other hand, concentrates energy around frequency N/2.
Bipolar encoding lacks a DC component because long sequences of 1s alternate between
positive and negative voltages, while long sequences of 0s maintain a constant zero
voltage.
AMI is frequently used for long-distance communication but can face synchronization
issues with long sequences of 0s. Later will discuss scrambling techniques to overcome this
problem.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTILEVEL SCHEMES
To increase data rates or reduce bandwidth, various encoding schemes have been
developed. The objective is to encode a pattern of m data elements (0s and 1s)
into n signal elements, allowing for more bits to be represented per signal. Since there
are only two data elements, m data elements can produce 2m combinations of
patterns. By using more than two voltage levels, we can represent multiple bits with
each signal element.
Multilevel schemes use more than two voltage levels used to represent multiple
bits per signal element.
The code designers have classified these types of coding as mBnL, where m is the
length of the binary pattern, B means binary data, n is the length of the signal pattern,
and L is the number of levels in the signaling.
A letter is often used in place of L: B (binary) for L = 2, T (ternary) for L = 3, and Q
(quaternary) for L = 4.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTILEVEL SCHEMES
2B1Q. Two binary, one quaternary (2B1Q), uses data patterns of size 2 and
encodes the 2-bit patterns as one signal element belonging to a four-level
signal.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTILEVEL SCHEMES
8B6T. A very interesting scheme is eight binary, six ternary (8B6T). This code is
used with 100BASE-4T cable. The idea is to encode a pattern of 8 bits as a pattern
of six signal elements, where the signal has three levels (ternary).

To create DC
balance, the sender
inverts the actual
signal.

In this type of scheme, we can have 28 = 256 different data patterns and 36 = 729 different
signal patterns. There are 729 − 256 = 473 redundant signal elements that provide
synchronization and error detection. Refer to the mapping table for all possible values.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTILEVEL SCHEMES

4D-PAM5. Four-dimensional five level pulse amplitude modulation. The 4D

means that data is sent over four wires at the same time. It uses five voltage
levels, such as −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2.
One level (level 0) is used only for forward
error detection. If we assume that the
code is just one-dimensional, the four
levels create something similar to 8B4Q.
In other words, an 8-bit word is translated
to a signal element of four different levels.
The four signal elements that make up a
single signal group are transmitted
simultaneously in a four-dimensional
space. Gigabit LANs utilize this
technique to transmit 1 Gbps of data
across four copper cables, each capable
of handling 125 Mbaud.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTI TRANSLATIONAL SCHEMES
NRZ-I and differential Manchester are types of differential encoding that employ two
transition rules to represent binary data (inversion and no inversion). When dealing with
signals that have more than two levels, it's possible to create a differential encoding
scheme with additional transition rules. One such scheme is MLT-3. The three-level
multiline transmission (MLT-3) technique utilizes three voltage levels (+V, 0, and -V)
and incorporates three transition rules to switch between these levels.

❖ If the next bit is 0, there is no

transition.
❖ If the next bit is 1 and the current
level is not 0, the next level is 0.
❖ If the next bit is 1 and the current
level is 0, the next level is the
opposite of the last nonzero level.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
MULTI TRANSLATIONAL SCHEMES
In the worst-case scenario, the signal element pattern +V 0 −V 0 repeats every 4 bits. This
transformation turns a nonperiodic signal into a periodic one, with a period equal to four times the
bit duration. This worst-case condition can be modeled as an analog signal with a frequency
equal to one-fourth of the bit rate. Thus, the signal rate for MLT-3 is one-fourth of the bit rate.
This characteristic makes MLT-3 an ideal choice for transmitting 100 Mbps over copper wires that
cannot handle frequencies exceeding 32 MHz, as higher frequencies can generate unwanted
electromagnetic emissions.
LINE CODING SCHEMES
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
Redundancy is essential for ensuring synchronization and providing inherent error
detection. Block coding is a method used to enhance the reliability and
synchronization of data transmission by adding redundancy to the data before it is
transmitted. This is especially important in digital communication systems to overcome
limitations of some line coding schemes (e.g., long strings of 0s or 1s that can cause loss of
synchronization). Block coding transforms a block of m bits into a block of n bits,
where n is greater than m. This extra information helps maintain synchronization, detect
some errors, and ensure more signal transitions. This method is commonly referred to as
an mB/nB encoding technique.

Key Objectives of Block Coding

❖ Ensure adequate signal transitions for synchronization
❖ Avoid long runs of 0s or 1s (which can cause timing issues)
❖ Support error detection (and sometimes correction)
❖ Help achieve DC balance to minimize baseline wandering
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
Block coding normally involves three
steps: division, substitution, and
combination.
❖ Division: a sequence of bits is divided
into groups of m bits. For example, in
4B/5B encoding, the original bit
sequence is divided into 4-bit groups.
❖ Substitution: The heart of block
coding is the substitution step. In this
step, we substitute an m-bit group with
an n-bit group. For example, in 4B/5B
encoding we substitute a 4-bit group
with a 5-bit group.
❖ Combination: the n-bit groups are
combined to form a stream.
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES

Note that the first two columns pair a 4-bit group

with a 5-bit group. A 4-bit group can have only 16
different combinations, while a 5-bit group can
have 32. As a result, there are 16 groups not
utilized for 4B/5B encoding. Some of these
unused groups serve control purposes, while
others are left unused entirely, providing a means
of error detection. Example:
•4B/5B coding: 4 data bits are encoded into 5 transmission bits.
•Efficiency = 4/5 = 80%
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
8B/10B. The eight binary/ten binary (8B/10B) encoding is similar to 4B/5B encoding except that
a group of 8 bits of data is now substituted by a 10-bit code. It provides greater error detection
capability than 4B/5B. The 8B/10B block coding is actually a combination of 5B/6B and 3B/4B
encoding.
The five most significant bits of a 10-bit block are
input into the 5B/6B encoder, while the three least
significant bits go into a 3B/4B encoder. This
separation simplifies the mapping table. To avoid
long runs of consecutive 0s or 1s, the code
employs a disparity controller that tracks the
excess of 0s over 1s (or vice versa). If the current
block's bits create a disparity that compounds the
previous disparity in either direction, each bit in
the code is complemented (changing 0s to 1s and
1s to 0s). This encoding method provides 768
redundant groups (calculated as 2¹⁰ - 28) that can
be used for disparity checking and error detection.
Overall, this technique is superior to 4B/5B due to
its enhanced error-checking capability and
improved synchronization.
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
Common Block Coding Schemes
1. 4B/5B (used in 100BASE-TX Ethernet) Block coding acts as a bridge between
❖ Maps each group of 4 bits into a 5-bit code the raw data and the physical medium by
❖ Guarantees no more than 3 consecutive 0s improving signal quality,
❖ Ensures enough transitions for clock synchronization, and error resistance.
recovery Although it adds redundancy, the
❖ Combined with line coding schemes like benefits it provides—especially in
NRZ-I or MLT-3 combination with line coding schemes—
2. 8B/10B (used in Gigabit Ethernet over fiber) make it indispensable in modern digital
❖ Maps 8 bits of data into 10 bits
communication.
❖ Provides DC balance and error detection
❖ Ensures at least one transition every 5 bits
❖ Widely used in serial communication
3. 64B/66B (used in 10G/40G/100G Ethernet)
❖ More efficient: Encodes 64 bits into 66 bits
❖ Adds a 2-bit sync header to indicate data or
control
❖ Lower overhead (only ~3%) compared to
8B/10B (25%)
BLOCK CODING SCHEMES
Benefits of Block Coding Tradeoffs
Benefit Description Consideration Details
Ensures frequent transitions
Synchronization Extra bits reduce overall
for clock recovery Redundancy
Invalid codewords can be efficiency
Error Detection used to detect transmission Requires encoding and
Complexity
errors decoding logic
Helps minimize baseline Slight delay due to encoding
DC Balance Latency
wandering and interference process
Allows simple schemes like
Compatibility NRZ to function effectively
when paired with it
ETHERNET STANDARD OVERVIEW
Ethernet is the most widely Major Ethernet Standards and Their Properties
Max
used LAN (Local Area Network) Ethernet Standard Speed Medium Distanc
Line Coding /
technology, defined by the IEEE Features
e
802.3 standard. It specifies how 10BASE-T 10 Mbps Twisted Pair 100 m
Manchester
data is formatted, transmitted, encoding
MLT-3 + 4B/5B block
and received at the physical and 100BASE-TX 100 Mbps Cat 5 UTP 100 m
coding
data link layers. Ethernet has 100BASE-FX 100 Mbps Fiber Optic 2 km NRZ-I + 4B/5B
evolved over the years, with PAM-5 (5-level Pulse
new standards providing higher 1000BASE-T 1 Gbps Cat 5e UTP 100 m Amplitude
speeds and using different Modulation)
220–550
media types, line coding 1000BASE-SX 1 Gbps Fiber (MMF)
m
NRZ with 8B/10B
schemes, and transmission PAM-16 + DSP
techniques. 10GBASE-T 10 Gbps Cat 6a UTP 100 m
techniques
26–400
10GBASE-SR 10 Gbps Fiber (MMF) NRZ + 64B/66B
m
40GBASE and 40/100 Fiber 64B/66B, PAM4, or
Varies
100GBASE Gbps (MMF/SMF) QAM
SCRAMBLING
Scrambling is a technique used to replace long sequences of identical bits (especially
0s) with a more complex, random-looking sequence that maintains synchronization
and signal transitions—without adding extra bits like block coding does. It’s particularly
useful when block coding is not applied and the line coding scheme is vulnerable to
synchronization loss due to long runs of 0s or 1s, is done at the same time as encoding.
The system needs to insert
the required pulses based on
the defined scrambling rules.
Two common scrambling
techniques are B8ZS and
HDB3.
SCRAMBLING
B8ZS (Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution) is
commonly used in North America. In this
technique, a sequence of eight consecutive
zero-level voltages is replaced by the
pattern 000VB0VB. Here, the V denotes a
violation, which represents a nonzero voltage
that deviates from the Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI) encoding rule (having the
opposite polarity of the previous pulse).
The B signifies a bipolar signal, indicating The letter V (violation) or B (bipolar) here is
that the nonzero voltage follows the AMI rule. relative. The V means the same polarity as
the polarity of the previous nonzero pulse; B
| Original Data: | ... 00000000 ... | means the polarity opposite to the polarity of
| Scrambled: | ... 000VB0VB ... | the previous nonzero pulse.

Used in North American T1 systems

SCRAMBLING
High-Density Bipolar 3-Zero (HDB3) is commonly used outside of North America. This
technique is more conservative than B8ZS, replacing four consecutive zero-level voltages
with either the sequence 000V or B00V. The use of two different substitutions helps
maintain an even number of nonzero pulses after each substitution.
The rules for these substitutions are as
follows:
1.If the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution is odd, the substitution
pattern will be 000V, resulting in an even
total of nonzero pulses.

2.If the number of nonzero pulses after

the last substitution is even, the
substitution pattern will be B00V, which
also ensures an even total of nonzero
pulses.
SCRAMBLING VS BLOCK CODING
Feature Block Coding Scrambling

Adds Redundancy Yes (extra bits) No (replaces bits)

Improves Sync Yes Yes

Error Detection Often built-in Limited
Bandwidth Impact Reduces efficiency No change
Complexity Moderate Lower
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following is always required in digital-to-

digital conversion?
A. Block coding
B. Scrambling
C. Line coding
D. Analog modulation
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

2. In line coding, what does a signal element represent?

A. A byte of data
B. A single bit of data
C. One transition in a signal
D. A waveform frequency
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

3. Which of the following schemes uses no polarity and is

often inefficient?
A. Polar
B. Bipolar
C. Unipolar
D. Multilevel
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

4. What does NRZ stand for in line coding?

A. Non-Zero Resistance
B. Non-Return to Zero
C. No Return Zone
D. New Reference Zone
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

5. A key disadvantage of the NRZ scheme is:

A. High transition density
B. Complexity
C. Long strings of 0s or 1s causing synchronization
problems
D. Incompatibility with Ethernet
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

6. In a polar RZ scheme, what does the signal do in the

middle of the bit period?
A. Remain at the same level
B. Switch to zero
C. Reverse polarity
D. Increase in frequency
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

7. Which scheme uses three voltage levels: +V, 0, and -V?

A. Unipolar NRZ
B. Bipolar AMI
C. Polar RZ
D. Polar NRZ
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

8. What is the main advantage of using bipolar schemes

like AMI?
A. High bandwidth efficiency
B. Presence of synchronization without a DC component
C. Simpler encoding
D. Better signal strength
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

9. In multilevel schemes, such as 2B1Q, how many bits are

represented by one signal element?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

10. Which of the following is a multitransition scheme used

in Ethernet standards?
A. RZ
B. MLT-3
C. Manchester
D. NRZ
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

11. What is the purpose of using a multitransition scheme

like Manchester?
A. Reduce bandwidth
B. Minimize signal transitions
C. Provide better synchronization
D. Add error correction
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

12. Which of the following block coding schemes maps 4

bits of data into 5-bit codes?
A. 4B/5B
B. 5B/6B
C. 8B/10B
D. 3B/4B
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

13. What is the benefit of block coding over line coding

alone?
A. Removes the need for line coding
B. Increases transmission speed
C. Adds synchronization and error detection
D. Uses fewer bits for data
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

14. What is the main drawback of block coding?

A. Increased synchronization issues
B. Signal distortion
C. Added redundancy, reducing efficiency
D. Unpredictable voltage levels
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

15. Scrambling replaces:

A. Every bit with random values
B. Synchronization with headers
C. Long strings of identical bits
D. Voltage levels with transitions
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

16. B8ZS is a scrambling method used with:

A. Polar NRZ
B. Manchester
C. AMI
D. 2B1Q
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

17. In B8ZS, how many consecutive 0s trigger the

substitution pattern?
A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 2
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

18. What is the term for the presence of a zero-frequency

component in a signal?
A. Scrambling
B. Bandwidth overload
C. DC component
D. Transition density
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

19. Which of the following does not add extra bits to the
data stream?
A. 8B/10B coding
B. Scrambling
C. 4B/5B coding
D. Block coding
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

20. What is one benefit of using scrambling instead of block

coding?
A. Easier error correction
B. More transitions for clock recovery
C. Less bandwidth overhead
D. Encryption of data
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

21. Which of the following line coding techniques is

considered self-synchronizing?
A. NRZ-L
B. Manchester
C. Unipolar
D. AMI
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

22. Which term describes a reduction in the average signal

voltage over time, important for signal transmission?
A. Self-synchronization
B. Baseline wandering
C. Bandwidth limitation
D. Amplitude degradation
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

23. Which line coding scheme uses voltage inversion to

represent a 1 bit?
A. Unipolar
B. NRZ-L
C. AMI
D. Manchester
ASSESSMENT:
Choose the letter of the correct answer.

24. In the HDB3 scheme, how many zeroes are replaced

with a pattern when necessary?
A. 3
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8
REFERENCES
➢ Forouzan, B. A. (2017). Data Communications and Networking (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
➢ Stallings, W. (2021). Data and Computer Communications (11th ed.). Pearson.
➢ Tanenbaum, A. S., & Wetherall, D. J. (2011). Computer Networks (5th ed.). Pearson.
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this module were taken directly from the
references and are owned by the respective authors. No
copyright infringement is intended.
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