L1220

1 - 15

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

B.A. / B.Sc. / B.B.A. DEGREE PROGRAMMES

Second Semester

PART - II

ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE - II : POETRY

LESSONS: 1 – 15

COPYRIGHT RESERVED
(FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY)
B.A. / B.Sc. / B.B.A. DEGREE PROGRAMMES
Second Semester

PART - II
ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE – II : POETRY

Editorial Board
Members
Dr. N. Ramagopal
Dean
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University

Dr. R. Singaravel Dr. P. Vijayan

Director Director
Directorate of Distance Education Academic Affairs
Annamalai University Annamalai University

Dr. C. Santhosh Kumar Dr. J. Arul Anand

Professor and Head Professor and Coordinator
Department of English English Wing, DDE
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Internals
Dr. S. Bhuvaneswari Dr. R. Palanivel
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor &Deputy Coordinator
Dept. of English English Wing, D.D.E
Annamalai University Annamalai University

Externals
Mr. T. Marimuthu Dr. V. Malarkodi
Reader in English (Retd.) Assistant Professor (Retd.)
English Wing, DDE English Wing, DDE
Annamalai University Annamalai University

SLSM Prepared by
Dr. J. Arul Anand
Professor and Coordinator
English Wing, DDE
Annamalai University
B.A. / B.Sc. / B.B.A. DEGREE PROGRAMMES
Second Semester

PART - II
ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE – II : POETRY
SYLLABUS
Credit: 3 Hours: 3
Learning Objectives
By introducing the course, it is intended to
LO1: develop the ability of the learner to comprehend and appreciate poems in
English
LO2: enhance the competence of the learner in using English language
LO3: improve the interest of the learner in human values and perceptions
LO4: enable them to study and analyze use of language in poetry
LO5: provide learners with the theoretical and practical understanding of grammar
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will be able to obtain:
CO1: competency in communication, both in written and oral
CO2: fluency in English language
CO3: knowledge about construction of sentence structures
CO4: vocabulary to use the English language effectively
CO5: acquire the aesthetic sense for appreciating poetry
Unit–I
Thomas Gray : Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
William Wordsworth : Resolution and Independence
Grammar : Finite and Non-finite
Unit–II
P.B. Shelley : To a Skylark
John Keats : Ode to Autumn
Grammar : Verbs
Unit–III
Alfred Tennyson : Ulysses
Robert Browning : My Last Duchess
Grammar : Active Voice and Passive Voice
Unit–IV
Wilfred Owen : Insensibility
D.H. Lawrence : Snake
Grammar : Concord
Unit–V
Robert Frost : Mending Wall
Sarojini Naidu : A Challenge to Fate
Grammar : Tenses and their Forms
ii

B.A. / B.Sc. / B.B.A. DEGREE PROGRAMMES

Second Semester
PART - II
ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE – II : POETRY

Contents
Unit No. /
Title Page
Lesson No.
Unit-I
1.1. Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard- Thomas Gray 1
1.2. Resolution and Independence - William Wordsworth 10
1.3. Finite and Non-Finite 19
Unit–II Unit - II
2.1. Ode to a Skylark - Percy Bysshe Shelley 25
2.2. Ode to Autumn - John Keats 34
2.3. Verb 40
Unit–III
3.1. Ulysses – Alfred Tennyson 50
3.2. My Last Duchess – Robert Browning 57
3.3. Active Voice and Passive Voice 64
Unit–IV
4.1. Insensibility – Wilfred Owen 68
4.2. Snake– D.H. Lawrence 74
4.3. Concord 80
Unit–V
5.1. Mending Wall – Robert Frost 84
5.2. Challenge to Fate – Sarojini Naidu 90
5.3. Tenses and their Forms 95
UNIT – I
LESSON – 1
1.1 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard- Thomas Gray
STRUCTURE
1.1.1 Objectives
1.1.2 Introduction
1.1.3 Contents
1.1.4 Revision Point
1.1.5 In text Question
1.1.6 Summary
1.1.7 Terminal Exercises
1.1.8 Supplementary materials
1.1.9 Assignments
1.1.10 Suggested Readings
1.1.11 Learning Activities
1.1.12 Key Words
1.1.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learners to Gray’s most famous “Elegy” that contains many
poetic passages of unsurpassed and haunting beauty, and to make them
understand the universal theme of the inevitability of death and the simple joys and
humble fate of the rustics whose poverty prevents them from developing their latent
talents and becoming famous.
1.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Elegy is a subjective form of poetry. It usually mourns the death of some near
and dear one. Hence, it is called a mourning song or a song of lamentation.
Besides mourning the death of someone, this form of poetry is also used to mourn
the loss of something like moral and other values in the society. In this prescribed
poem, Thomas Gray remembers the unknown villagers who lived unknown and
died unsung.
Thomas Gray (1716-1771) finds a place among the great poets not so much for
his volume of poetry as for making a transition from the Classical Age to the
Romantics. Though a classical poet, he stood apart from the rest of the poets of his
school. Love of Nature and a warm sympathy for the common man are given
emphatic expressions in his poetry. His poetic output, though slender, won for him
Poet Laureateship which he declined. Gray's “Elegy” is not strictly elegiac in form.
This particular elegy mourns not the death of a friend but the death of poor people
in general. The poet is seen sitting in the Churchyard at Stoke Poges, a village near
Eton. He is looking at the nameless graves under the rugged elms and yew-trees of
the Churchyard. The poet is saddened at the thought that these rustics, though
gifted, did not shine in society for want of opportunity and education. Otherwise,
they could have become poets, patriots and administrators. The poem ends with an
epitaph that should be inscribed on his tomb.
2
1.1.3 CONTENT
1.1.3.1 Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea,
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,

And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds;

Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tower,

The moping owl does to the moon complain
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient solitary reign.

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree’s shade,

Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap,
Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
The rude Forefathers of the hamlet sleep.

The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn,

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed,
The cock’s shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn,

Or busy housewife ply her evening care;
No children run to lisp their sire’s return,
Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share.

Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield,

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke;
How jocund did they drive their team afield!
How bowed the woods beneath their study stroke!
Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,

Their homely joys, and destiny obscure;

Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile,
The short and simple annals of the poor.

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,

And all that beauty, all that wealth e’er gave,
Awaits alike the inevitable hour.
The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
3
Nor you, ye Proud, impute to these the fault,
If Memory o’er their Tomb no Trophies raise,
Where through the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault
The pealing anthem swells the note of praise.

Can storied urn or animated bust,

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
Can Honour’s voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of Death?

Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid

Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire;
Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed,
Or waked to ectasy the living lyre.

But knowledge to their eyes her ample page

Rich with the spoils of time did ne’er unroll;
Chill Penury repressed their noble rage,
And froze the genial current of the soul.

Full many a gem of purest ray serene

The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear:
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

Some village-Hampden that with dauntless breast,

The little tyrant of his fields withstood,
Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest,
Some Cromwell guiltless of his country’s blood.

The applause of listening senates to command,

The threats of pain and ruin to despise,
To scatter plenty o’er a smiling land,
And read their history in a nation’s eyes –

Their lot forbade: nor circumscribed alone

Their growing virtues, but their crimes confined
Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne,
And shut the gates of mercy on mankind,

The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide,

To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame,
Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride
With incense kindled at the Muse’s flame.
4
Far from the madding crowd’s ignoble strife,
Their sober wishes never learned to stray;
Along the cool sequestered vale of life
They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.

Yet even these bones from insult to protect

Some frail memorial still erected nigh,
With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture decked,
Implores the passing tribute of a sigh.

Their name, their years, spelt by the unlettered muse,

The place of fame and elegy supply:
And many a holy text around she strews,
That teach the rustic moralist to die.

For who to dumb Forgetfulness a prey,

This pleasing anxious being e’er resigned,
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
Nor cast one longing lingering look behind?

On some fond breast the parting soul relies,

Some pious drops the closing eye requires;
Even from the tomb the voice of Nature cries,
Even in our ashes live their wonted fires.

For thee who, mindful of the unhonoured dead,

Dost in these lines their artless tale relate;
If chance, by lonely contemplation led,
Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate,

Haply some hoary-headed swain may say,

“Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn
Brushing with hasty steps the dews away,
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn.

“There at the foot of yonder nodding beech,

That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high,
His listless length at noontide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.

“Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn,

Muttering his wayward fancies he would rove;
Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn,
Or crazed with care, or crossed in hopeless love.
5
One morn I missed him on the customed hill,
Along the heath and near his favourite tree;
Another came; nor yet beside the rill,
Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he;

“The next with dirges due in sad array

Slow through the church-way path we saw him borne.
Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay
Graved on the stone beneath yon aged thorn.”
THE EPITAPH
Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth
A Youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown.
Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth,
And Melancholy marked him for her own.

Large was his bounty and his soul sincere,

Heaven did a recompense as largely send:
He gave to Misery all he had, a tear,
He gained from 'Heaven (‘twas all he wished) a friend.

No farther seek his merits to disclose,

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode.
(There they alike in trembling hope repose)
The bosom of his Father and his God.

1.1.3.2 A Critical Appreciation of Gray's Elegy
Introduction
Thomas Gray's “Elegy” is one of the most popular poems in the English
language. As Dr. Johnson says, “The poem abounds in images which find a mirror
in every mind and sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo.” Thomas
Hardy has used the term “Far from the Madding Crowd” as the title of one of his
favourite novels. General Wolfe is said to have repeated stanzas from the Elegy to
his officers the night previous to the battle of Quebec and to have added, “I would
prefer being the author of the poem to the glory of beating the French.”
Life Amidst Nature
What a beautiful picture Gray gives us of the evening scene! The evening scene
has a melancholy sweetness. It reminds us of Milton’s Ilpenseroso, while the
morning scene reminds us of Milton's L'Allegro.
Frail Monuments of the Poor
The villagers have put up over the graves plain crosses. The rich have raised
splendid monuments over the dead, The paths of glory lead but to the grave. None
can escape the jaws of death. Nothing in the world can bring the dead back to life.
Therefore, the poet asks the wealthy not to laugh at the poor because they cannot
raise costly monuments over the dead.
6
Life in Obscurity
For want of education and opportunity the villagers do not shine in society.
Otherwise they could have become a patriot like Hampden, or a poet like Milton or
a rebel like Cromwell. They live in obscurity and die unnoticed. They are like
precious stones lying buried in the sea-caves or like sweet flowers blossoming and
perishing in the desert unnoticed.
Far from the Madding Crowd
The poet feels in a way consoled. Far from the competitive struggle and rivalry
of madding crowd practising wiles for gains and favour, the villagers lead a peaceful
life.
Memorable Lines and Phrases
Oft-quoted are the lines “The paths of glory lead but to the grave” and “Many a
flower is born to blush unseen.” The phrases “short and simple annals of the poor”
and “Far from the madding crowd” have been absorbed into the English language.
Other Striking Features
The rhyme, the rhythm and the liquid consonants add to the musicality of the
poem. The poem abounds in figures of speech: Transferred Epithet (weary way),
Alliteration [longing ling’ring look], Assonance (beetle wheels), Onomatopoeia
(tinklings), personification (Ambition), Metaphor (Many a flower is born to blush
unseen) and Rhetorical Question (Can storied urn back to its mansion call the
fleeting breath?).
Conclusion
The images are fami1iar. The sentiments are ours in general. The poem
appeals to heart.
1.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Gray reflects upon the emptiness of earthly life and the meaninglessness of
costly monuments over the dead.
2. “The paths of glory lead but to the grave.” Birth, power, beauty and wealth will
have to submit to death.
3. Nothing can bring the dead back to life, not even the carved urn or chiselled
statue.
4. Gray praises the short and simple annals of the poor.
5. For want of education and opportunity the villagers do not shine in society.
“Chill penury repressed their noble rage.” Otherwise they would have become a
patriot like Hampden, a poet like Milton or a rebel like Cromwell. Many a flower
is born to blush unseen.
6. Far from the madding crowd, they lead a simple life.
1.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How does Gray champion the cause of the poor people in this poem?
2. What words of consolation does Gray offer toward the end of the poem?
3. Explain “curfew tolls.”
4. Where is the Churchyard located?
5. What does Gray say about the “costly monuments.”?
7
1.1.6 SUMMARY
Gray begins by comparing the frail monuments of the poor with the costly
memorials of the rich people. He takes this opportunity to reflect on the emptiness
of the earthly life. He reflects on the meaninglessness of the costly monuments for
the dead. He notices how the poor for want of education and opportunity remain
poor though they have sufficient talents. He finds consolation in saying that the
poor are at least free from pride, power struggle, and unhealthy competition which
is an infestation among the rich. He thus champions the cause of the poor people.
1.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1 Write a critical appreciation of Gray’s Elegy
2 Bring out the evening scene at Stoke Pogis
3 Comment on the autobiographical elements in Gray’s elegy.
4 Comment on Gray’s Epitaph.
Analyze the theme of the poem.
1.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Describe the evening scene at Stoke Pogis.
Thomas Gray is left alone in the Churchyard at Stoke Pogis. The sun sets.
Darkness falls over the landscape. Everything is still except for the droning of the
beetle, the tinkling sound of the cattle-bell and the hooting of the owl. The
loneliness and the stillness add to the solemn atmosphere of the Churchyard.
2. Give an account of the useful toil and homely joys of the poor rustics.
Thomas Gray describes the life led by the rustics from early morning till night.
The sweet-smelling morning breeze wakes them up from their lowly bed. They hear
the warbling of the skylark in the morn, the crowing of the cock in the barn and the
blowing of the hunter’s horn. They plough the field, reap the corn and cut down
trees. The women-folk prepare the evening meal. The husband returns home. The
children rush to the fathers and climb their knees to be kissed by them.
3. Bring out the autobiographical elements in the “EIegy”.
The poem has autobiographical echoes. Gray anticipates his death. He
imagines that some aged rustic might describe his daily round of activities like
seeing the sun-rise in the morning, lying beneath the shady tree at noon and
speaking to himself of his fancies. In his own epitaph, he says of himself that he
was a youth without pelf and fame. He was of humble birth but he was learned. He
was very generous. He gave away everything with him to the poor. He was glad to
have a sincere friend.
4. Bring out the difference between Gray's "Elegy" and the elegy in the true sense
of the word.
An elegy is a song of mourning or lamentation. It laments a dead person as in
Milton's “Lycidas”, Shelley's “Adonais", Arnold's “Thyrsis”, and Tennyson’s “in
Memorium.” Gray's poem has neither the elegiac form nor does it mourn the death
of an individual. It is more a manifestation of the poet's regret at the unrecognized
merit and tragic waste of undeveloped potential of the rustics than an elegy in the
true sense of the word. It commemorates not the illustrious dead but the humble
country folk.
8
5. What are gray's thoughts on seeing the country churchyard?
Introduction
Gray was born in the eighteenth century. It was called the Classical Age. It was
indifferent to the poor. It neglected the humble aspects of human life. But Gray in
“The Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” identifies himself with the poor.
The Frail Monuments of the Poor and the Costly Memorials of the Rich
The poet is found alone in the Churchyard at Stoke Pogis as the night falls. In
one part of the Churchyard are some elms and yew-trees. The “rude forefathers of
the hamlet” lie buried under the trees each in his cell. The villagers have put up
over the graves plain crosses or simple tombstones with “uncouth rhymes and
shapeless sculptures.” The “frail monuments” raised by the poor over the dead can
in no way compare with the costly monuments erected by the rich over the dead.
Emptiness of Earthly Life
Gray reflects upon the emptiness of earthly life. The rich too will have to die.
Even men of noble birth and high authority cannot escape the jaws of death. Birth,
power, beauty and wealth will have to submit to death. “The paths of glory lead but
to the grave." Gray asks the rich not look down on the poor because they can raise
no costly monuments over the dead.
Meaninglessness of Costly Monuments
Gray brings out the meaninglessness of costly monuments over the dead. Once
the life is gone, nothing in the world can bring the dead back to life, not even the
carved urn or the chiselled statue. Death is a leveller of man-made distinctions.
The Worth and Promise of Peasants
Gray imagines that perhaps, in that obscure corner lies buried a villager with a
rebellious spirit of Hampden who protested against unjust taxes or a villager with
the dauntless courage of Cromwell who opposed the royal forces or a rustic with the
poetic genius of Milton. For want of education and opportunity, they lived in
obscurity and died unnoticed.
Free from Pride, Power Struggle and Unhealthy Competition
The poet finds consolation among these unhappy thoughts. The poor have not
performed great achievements but they have committed no crimes. They have not
been guilty of shedding blood to achieve their political ambition. They have not used
their poetic talent to flatter those in power and pelf to win patronage or favour. They
pass their lives in obscurity but they dwell far away from the madding crowd and
journey down the valley of life unknown to fame and vice but live in peace and
contentment.
Conclusion
Thomas Gray is thus, a stout champion of the poor. How human the poet is !
What a deep insight he has into human nature!
9
1.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Thomas Gray as a poet.
2. English elegies.
3. Why does Gray celebrate the poor villagers?
1.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. O. Elton – A Survey of English Literature 1780-1830.
2. C.M. Bowra – The Romantic Imagination.
3. G. Hough – The Romantic Poets.
4. H. Darbishire – The Poet Wordsworth.
5. C.H. Baker – Shelley’s Major Poetry.
6. Jack – Keats and the Mirror of Art.
1.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Read more about elegy from A Glossary of Literary Terms by M.H.Abrams.
1.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Tolls – rings.
2. Knell – sound of a bell announcing death.
3. Hamlet – village.
4. Twittering – producing soft, short sound.
5. Lisp – speak like a child with imperfect pronunciation.
6. Furrow – plough.
7. Storied urn – monument bearing inscriptions.
8. Blush unseen – blossom unnoticed.
9. Confined – restricted.
10. Quench – suppress.
11. Fantastic – assuming strange shapes.
12. Forlorn – deserted, unhappy.

10
LESSON – 2

1.2 RESOLUTION AND INDEPENDENCE - William Wordsworth

STRUCTURE
1.2.1 Objectives
1.2.2 Introduction
1.2.3 Contents
1.2.4 Revision Point
1.2.5 In text Question
1.2.6 Summary
1.2.7 Terminal Exercises
1.2.8 Supplementary materials
1.2.9 Assignments
1.2.10 Suggested Readings
1.2.11 Learning Activities
1.2.12 Key Words
1.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to a poem that celebrates in a simple, natural, vivid
language the dignity and fortitude of an old man who wanders from moor to moor
gathering leeches to make a living.
1.2.2 INTRODUCTION
William Wordsworth (1770-1850) stands supreme among the English Nature
poets. He enlarged the spiritual horizon of man and shared with him a cheerful
faith in Nature and human beings. By breaking away from the eighteenth century
poetic tradition, he created a new kind of poetry based on the theme chosen from
the ordinary incidents of life against the back-drop of Nature. By purifying the
language of al1 artificiality of the eighteenth century poetic diction, he forged a
selection of the language used in his rural neighborhood. His poems are a”
spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” expressed in a language that is simple
and moving.
The poem “Resolution and Independence,” is based upon Wordsworth's chance
meeting with an old leech-gatherer, not far away from the poet's residence at Town
End, Grasmere. The poem was earlier entitled “Leech-Gatherer” but later changed
to “Resolution and Independence.” The change of title emphasizes the message
rather than the matter-of-fact description of the leech-gatherer.
1.2.3 CONTENT
1.2.3 Resolution ad Independence
There was a roaring in the wind all night;
The rain came heavily and fell in floods;
But now the sun is rising calm and bright;
The birds are singing in the distant wood;
Over his own sweet voice the Stock-dove broods;
The Jay makes answer as the Magpie chatters;
And all the air is filled with pleasant noise of waters.
11
All things that love the sun are out of doors;
The sky rejoices in the morning's birth;
The grass is bright with rain-drops; -on the moors
The hare is running races in her mirth;
And with her feet she from the plashy earth
Raises a mist; that, glittering in the sun,
Runs with her all the way, wherever she doth run.

I was a Traveller then upon the moor;

I saw the hare that raced about with joy;
I heard the woods and distant waters roar;
Or heard them not, as happy as a boy;
The pleasant season did my heart employ;
My old remembrances went from me wholly:
And all the ways of men, so vain and melancholy.

But, as it sometimes chanceth, from the might

Of joy in minds that can no further go,
As high as we have mounted in delight
in our dejection do we sink as low;
To me that morning did it happen so;
And fears and fancies thick upon me came;
Dim sadness-and blind thoughts, I knew not, nor could name.

I heard the sky-lark warbling in the sky;

And I bethought me of the playful hare:
Even such a happy Child of earth am I;
Even as these blissful creatures do I fare;
Far from the world I walk, and from all care;
But there may come another day to me-
Solitude, pain of heart, distress, and poverty.

My whole life I have lived in pleasant thought,

As if life's business were a summer mood;
As if all needful things would come unsought
To genial faith, still rich in genial good;
But how can he expect that others should
Build for him, sow for him, and at his call
Love him, who for himself will take no heed at all?

I thought of Chatterton, the marvellous Boy,

The sleepless Soul that perished in his pride;
Of Him who walked in glory and in joy . . .
Following his plough, along the mountain-side:
By our own spirits are we deified:
We poets in our youth begin in gladness:
But thereof come in the end despondency and madness.
12
Now, whether it were by peculiar grace,
A leading from above, a something given,
Yet it befell that, in this lonely place,
When I with these untoward thoughts had striven,
Beside a pool bare to the eye of heaven
I saw a Man before me unawares:
The oldest man he seemed that ever wore grey hairs.

As a huge stone is sometimes seen to lie . . .

Couched on the bald top of an eminence;
Wonder to all who do the same espy,
By what means it could thither come, and whence;
So that it seems a thing endued with sense;
Like a sea-beast crawled forth, that on a shelf
Of rock or sand reposeth, there to sun itself;

Such seemed this Man, not all alive nor dead,

Nor all asleep-in his extreme old age;
His body was bent double, feet and head
Coming together in life’s pilgrimage;
As if some dire constraint of pain, or rage
Of sickness felt by him in times long past,
A more than human weight upon his frame had cast.

Himself he propped, limbs, body, and pale face.

Upon a long grey staff of shaven wood;
And, still as I drew near with gentle pace;
Upon the margin of that moorish flood
Motionless as a cloud the old man stood,
That heareth not the loud winds when they call;
And moveth all together, if it move at all.

At length, himself unsettling, he the pond

Stirred with his staff, and fixedly did look
Upon the muddy water, which he conned,
As if he had been reading in a book:
And now a stranger's privilege I took;
And, drawing to his side, to him did say,
“This morning gives us promise of a glorious day."

A gentle answer did the’old Man make,

In courteous speech which forth he slowly drew:
And him with further words I thus bespake,
"What occupation do you there pursue?
This is a 1onesome place for one like you."
Ere he replied, a flash of mild surprise
Broke from the sable orbs of his yet-vivid eyes.
13
His words came feebly, from a feeble chest,
But each in solemn order followed each,
With something of a lofty utterance drest-
Choice word and measured phrase, above the reach
Of ordinary men; a stately speech;
Such as grave Livers do in Scotland use,
Religious men, who give to God and man their dues.

He told, that to these waters he had come

To gather leeches, being old and poor:
Employment hazardous and wearisome!
And he had many hardships to endure:
From pond to pond he roamed, from moor to moor;
Housing with God's good help, by choice or chance;
And in this way he gained an honest maintenance.

The old Man still stood talking by my side:

But now his voice to me was like a stream
Scarce heard; nor word from word could I divide;
And the whole body of the Man did seem
Like one whom I had met with in a dream;
Or like a man from some far region sent;
To give me human strength, by apt admonishment.

My former thoughts returned; the fear that kills;

And hope that is unwilling to be fed;
Cold, pain, and labour, and all fleshy ills;
And mighty Poets in their misery dead.
Perplexed, and longing to be comforted,
My question eagerly did I renew,
"How is it that you live, and what is it you do?"

He with a smi1e did then his words repeat;

And said that, gathering leeches, far and wide
He travel1ed; stirring thus about his feet
The waters of the pools where they abide,
"Once I could meet with them on every side;
But they have dwindled long by slow decay;
Yet still I persevere, and find them where I may."

While he was talking thus, the lonely place,

The old Man's shape, and speech-all troubled me;
In my mind’s eye I seemed to see him pace
About the weary moors continually,
Wandering about alone and si1ently.
While I these thoughts within myself pursued,
He, having made a pause, the same discourse renewed.
14
And soon with this he other matter blended,
Cheerfully uttered, with demeanour kind,
But stately in the main; and when he ended,
I could have laughed myself to scorn to find
In that decrepit Man so firm a mind.
"God" said I, “be my help and stay secure;
I’ll think of the Leech-gatherer on the lonely moor!”


1.2.3.2 A Critical Appreciation of the poem Resolution and Independence
Introduction
The poem, “Resolution and Independence” by William Wordsworth is about the
poet's encounter with an old man and its impact on him. The leech-gatherer, bent
double with age, hardly looks like a human being. One is apt to mistake this bent
figure for a boulder or a sea-beast basking on a sand bank or a motionless c1oud.
Despite his age and infirmity, he makes an honest living and lives independently.
The poet resolves to remember the old man known for his courage and patience,
determination and independence when fears and anxieties haunt him. The poem is
aptly titled.
Change of Mood from Gladness to Sadness
William Wordsworth was delighted in the joyous scene around him in the
morning after a night of roaring wind and pouring rain. Suddenly a change of mood
came over him. Throughout his life he had been living free from all cares. He had
done nothing to support himself. He felt that a time might come when he would
suffer from solitude, pain of heart, distress and poverty. He thought of the tragic
lives of poets like Chatterton and Burns who were happy at the beginning but sad
in the end. It was in such a mood that the poet saw a man before him.
Description of the Leech-gatherer
William Wordsworth was surprised to see an old man before him. The old man
had grey hair. He looked like a huge stone lying on the top of a rock. People might
wonder how it came there. He also looked like a sea-beast basking on the beach
under the sun. He was bent double with age. He propped himself upon a long staff.
The poet drew near. The old man stood motionless like a cloud. He stirred the water
with his staff and looked into the muddy water. It was as though he were reading a
book. The poet went up to him and tried to initiate a conversation with him by
commenting on the glorious weather. The old man made a gentle answer in
courteous speech. The poet asked him what he was doing there in such a lonely
place. The old man spoke feebly and politely. He used choice words and measured
phrases above the level of ordinary men.
15
The Leech-gatherer’s Livelihood
The old man told the poet that he lived by gathering leeches. He had come
there to collect leeches. It was a dangerous and tiresome job. He had to endure
many hardships. He had to move from pond to pond, from moor to moor in search
of leeches. During his journey he got shelter by God's grace. In this way, he earned
his honest livelihood. The old man's voice was now indistinct. The poet then was in
a reverie. He repeated the question. The old man repeated his story with a smile. He
travelled far and wide to gather leeches. Once they were in plenty. Now they had
become scarce. However he lost no confidence.
The Impact of the Leech gatherer
The poet's encounter with the leech-gatherer had its effect on him. The poet
visualized the old man. The lonely place, the old man's shape and speech -- all
troubled him. The poet imagined to himself the old man wandering from moor to
moor quite tired, alone and silent. He felt ashamed of himself for being dejected. He
contrasted himself with the weak old man who had a firm mind. He felt that the old
man was someone sent by God to give him strength. The old man's decision to
make an honest living gave him courage and confidence and to live independently.
Conclusion
Man should not allow himself to be overcome by doubts and fears about his
future. He must follow the path chalked out by God with confidence and
cheerfulness.
1.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. The poem was earlier titled “Leech-Gatherer” but later changed to “Resolution
and Independence.”
2. The poet was in a dejected mood. He had done nothing to support himself. A
time might come when he would suffer from solitude and poverty.
3. Just then the poet met an old man. Bent double with age, the old man hardly
looked like a human being. He was stirring the pond with his staff, for
something.
4. The poet asked him what he was doing there in such a lonely place. Feebly but
politely, the old man answered that he lived by gathering leeches. It was a
dangerous and tiresome job. Once Leeches were in plenty. Now they had
become scarce. But he lost no hope.
5. The poet felt ashamed of himself. The old man’s decision to make an honest
living despite age and infirmity gave him confidence and courage to live
independently.
1.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What thoughts drove Wordsworth deep into the forest?
2. What did Wordsworth see there that filled him with amazement?
3. How did the Leech-gatherer speak?
16
4. Why did Wordsworth feel ashamed of himself?
5. What is the valuable lesson that Wordsworth learnt from the life of the Leech-
gatherer?
1.2.6 SUMMARY
The poem is about Wordsworth’s encounter with an old man and its impact on
him. The morning was bright after a night of roaring wind and pouring rain. The
poet was happy to see the joyous scenes around him but soon a change of mood
came upon him and he was sad. Just at that time, he chanced upon an old leech-
gatherer. Wordsworth gave a vivid description of the old man. The confidence and
determination of the old man had its impact on the poet. The old man was lonely
and has been living on a dangerous and tiresome job. His decision to make an
honest living despite his loneliness gave the poet courage and confidence to live
independently.
1.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. What thoughts troubled the poet, William Wordsworth, on the happy morning
after a stormy night?
2. What lesson did the poet learn from his encounter with the leech-gatherer?
3. Justify the appropriateness of the title of the poem “Resolution and
Independence.”
4. Discuss how Wordsworth shows through this poem that man should not allow
himself to be overcome by doubts and fears about future.
5. Consider Wordsworth as a poet of Nature.
1.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
An Introduction to William Wordsworth
Wordsworth was born at Cockermouth, Cumberland in 1770. His father was
John Wordsworth a prosperous attorney of Cockermouth and law agent to James
Lawther, first Earl of Lawsdale. He had an elder brother, two younger brothers and
a sister Dorothy. His childhood was a happy and healthy one. While he was eight,
his honoured mother died and the shock of the blow was such that his father
followed her six years later at the early age of forty-two. His early death had serious
consequences for his children because his financial affairs were in a mess. William
was taken care of by his maternal grand parents at Penrith and his sister was sent
away to another branch of the family and William hardly saw her for many years.
After attending grammar school at Hawkshead, he went up to Cambridge.
Having no ambition or learning to any particular career, he went abroad to France
after his graduation. The French Revolution was at its height and he was fascinated
by it. He also fell in love with a French woman Annete Vallon who bore him a
daughter.
17
He returned to England but life went on in an unsettled manner and full of
unhappy wanderings. Early in 1793, his evening walk and descriptive sketches
appeared. They were poorly received. He was suffering from anxiety about Annete.
The impracticability of marrying her plunged him in pessimism for a while. He
came under the influences of Godwin and this can be traced in his early works
Borderers' (1795-6). An unexpected legacy helped him set up house with his sister
Dorothy at Racedown in Dorset. In Dorothy's constant love and care, a new peace
and happiness were coming over William. It was in 1795 that he met, Coleridge the
person who had the most profound influence over him (next to Dorothy of course).
In 1797 Wordsworth moved to Alfoxden to be near Coleridge who was then living at
Netherstowey. They were visited by Lamb and Hazlitt. Wordsworth and Coleridge
published their famous ''Lyrical Ballads'' jointly in two editions in 1798 and 1800.
Though the original idea was for an equal quantity of poems from each author
Coleridge directing his endeavours towards persons and characters supernatural or
atleast romantic' while Wordsworth was "to give the charm of novelty to things of
everyday". Wordsworth was the one who actually contributed the vast majority of
the Lyrical Ballads. Coleridge's supernatural tale of ''The Ancient Mariner"" was the
major and outstanding contribution.
After a brief visit to Germany in 1799 Wordsworth moved to Grasmere in the
Lake District and he was to live in that District from that time, Wordsworth married
Mary Hutchinson (a child-hood friend) and they were to have five children (two died
in infancy). Dorothy remained a member of his household.
His life, from the time he moved to Grasmere, became settled, secure and
outwardly uneventful. It was here that he wrote all his best poetry. He became
recognised as a major poet. His financial affairs were also in an easy position.
Gradually his political views began to change and he began regretting the early
revolutionary sympathies. He continued to write poetry but the quality began
deteriorating as early as 1805. His longest work ''The Excursion,'' probably the
outcome of Coleridge's wish that he write a `philosophic poem' appeared in 1814.
Many of his remaining poems show the failure of his inspiration in the choice of
subject matter. Historical, classical poems about his towns in Scotland nearer
home interested him no more. Tragedies like the death of his brother John in 1805,
the early death of his two children, the illness of Dorothy, continued estrangements
with Coleridge and even an unwelcome marriage and subsequent death of his
daughter were to cloud his life. He felt keenly the death of Scott, Coleridge and
Lamb. He was recognised more widely after the publication of Coleridge's
''Biographia Literaria'' in 1817. Honours came his way. His house was always
flooded with guests and later even total strangers came to pay him homage. After
the death of Southey in 1843 he was made Poet Laureate somewhat against his
will. He accepted it only because the duties were purely nominal. He died at Rydal
Mount in 1850 and was buried in Grasmere churchyard.
18
1.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. The title of the poem, “Resolution and Independence.”
2. Wordsworth as a Nature Poet.
3. On Lyrics and Ballads.
1.2.10 REFERENCE BOOKS
1. O. Elton – A Survey of English Literature 1780-1830.
2. C.M. Bowra – The Romantic Imagination.
3. G. Hough – The Romantic Poets.
4. H. Darbishire – The Poet Wordsworth.
5. C.H. Baker – Shelley’s Major Poetry.
6. Jack – Keats and the Mirror of Art.
1.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Have a group discussion and justify the appropriateness of the title, “Resolution
and Independence.”
2. Read poems that celebrate nature and man.
1.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Rejoices in – feels great joy.
2. Warbling – singing.
3. Genial – kindly.
4. Grace – divine kindness.
5. Propped – supported.
6. Leeches – blood-sucking aquatic worms.
7. Blended – mixed.

19
LESSON – 3
1.3 FINITE AND NON-FINITE
STRUCTURE
1.3.1 Objectives
1.3.2 Introduction
1.3.3 Contents
1.3.4 Revision Point
1.3.5 In text Question
1.3.6 Summary
1.3.7 Terminal Exercises
1.3.8 Supplementary materials
1.3.9 Assignments
1.3.10 Suggested Readings
1.3.11 Learning Activities
1.3.12 Key Words
1.3.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to provide the necessary basic knowledge of English grammar
to students. By providing this basic knowledge, it also aims to enable them to use
grammatically correct English in their day-to-day endeavors. In the first semester,
certain grammatical terms are introduced and explained. In this semester, the aim
is to further familiarize our learners to some more grammatical terms.
1.3.2 INTRODUCTION
The finite and the non-finite forms of verbs need to be explained thoroughly.
In this unit, we will first learn about the uses of non-finites. In the next unit, we
will take up the finites. Non-finite refers to a label applied to a verb-form which is
not marked for tense and which cannot be the only verb in a clause. A typical
English verb usually has the following non-finite forms: the Present Participle, the
Past Participle, the Infinitive, and the Gerund. In this lesson, let us learn more
about non-finites. Finite verbs are distinguished from non-finite verbs, such
as infinitives, participles, gerunds etc., which generally mark these grammatical
categories to a lesser degree or not at all and which appear below the finite verb in
the hierarchy of syntactic structure.
1.3.3 CONTENTS
Study the following sentences:
1. He likes to buy a new vehicle.
2. Buying a new car needs money.
3. I found him looking for a new house.
4. Shaken by the ill tiding he lay ill for a few days.
5. I heard his name called twice.
20
‘To buy’ is an infinitive (to + verb)
‘Buying’ is a gerund (verbal noun)
‘Looking for’ is a present participle
‘Shaken’ and ‘called’ are past participles.
‘These are known as non-finites as they have no tense, no number and they do
not take any models.
Infinitives: Form of infinitive
1. He wants to learn music.
2. He is supposed to be learning it.
3. He is reported to have learnt painting already.
4. He is known to have been learning music for the last four years.
In sentences 2, 3 and 4, infinitive is formed with the help of auxiliaries ‘be’ and
‘have’. The auxiliary remains unchanged. Only the main verb changes.
Sentence 2) to be + verb + ing
Sentence 3) to have + past participle.
Sentence 4) to have + past participle of be + verb+ ing
‘To’ is omitted before certain verbs like make, let, see, hear, watch, have, and bid
E.g: 1. He made him repeat the performance.
2. He let him go.
3. I saw him leave.
4. I saw John leave the room.
But when they are put in passive voice ‘to’ occurs before the verb.
E.g: 1. He was made to repeat the performance.
2. He was seen to leave.
The verbs after the model auxiliaries will, shall, dare, need, are said to be
infinitives without ‘to’.
E.g: 1. He dare not do it.
2. You need not worry about it.
3. I will see you some time next week.
4. He shall feel sorry for this.
The uses of the infinitive
a) The infinitives can do the work of a noun:
E.g: 1. To lead a country needs character. (Subject)
2. He wants to learn driving. (Object)
3. His aim in life is to become the Prime Minister.
(Subject complement)
4. To know her is to love her. (Both as subject and object)
5. It is easy to find fault with others. (Anticipatory subject)
21
b) The infinitive can function as an adjunct (or an adjective) to a noun or pronoun.
1. His decision to quit is final.
2. He wants somebody to do it.
3. The subject to be discussed has already been informed to you.
4. Give me something to drink.
c) The infinitive can function as an adverbial, modifying a verb that goes before it.
1. He got up to raise an objection.
2. He went to see the principal.
This is known an infinitive of purpose:
d) Infinitive is used with too+ adjective /adverb.
1. He is too weak to run.
2. The news is too good to be true.
These sentences could be changed into complex sentences.
He is so weak that he cannot run.
The news is so good that it cannot be true.
THE GERUND (verbal noun)
The gerund has the form of a present participle.
a) Subject
E.g: Running is good for health. Looking after children needs a lot of patience.
Smoking inside the laboratory is dangerous.
b) Gerund as an object
E.g: 1. In deference to the doctor’s advice he gave up smoking.
2. He likes reading crime-thrillers.
c) Gerunds could be objects of the prepositions before them.
E.g: 1. He is thinking of quitting his place.
2. He was fined for being careless, while driving.
d) Seeing is believing. (Here it is subject complement)
e) Gerunds could also function as adjectives.
E.g: 1. He bought a new walking stick.
2. The child broke the looking glass.
Participles
The participle or active participle
Present participle verb + ing.
run-running
sing-singing.
a) The participle can do the work or an adjective.
1. It is an interesting novel.
2. A rolling stone gathers no mass.
22
Adjective in the subject complement position.
1. His behaviour is annoying.
2. The performance was thrilling.
3. The response was encouraging.
b) When two action are referred to in a sentence the Earlier is expressed by a
participle.
1. Seeing the policeman, the thief ran away.
2. Taking his umbrella, he went out.
c) When two actions take place simultaneously one of them is expressed by the
present participle.
1. He went out singing.
2. She ran away weeping.
d) The participle can also be object complements.
1. We found him pruning the plants in his garden.
2. He was often seen sauntering over the river bank.
e) In certain sentences the participle and the verb of the main clause have different
subjects. Then the participle must follow the noun or pronoun which its subject.
1. God willing things will move in the right direction.
2. The weather being fine they decided to resume their journey.
f) The perfect participle (having-the past participle of the verb) is used to show that
the action expressed by it is completed before the second action starts.
1. Having finished my work for the term, I took a holiday.
2. Having seen his friends off, he went home.
The perfect participle could also be used in the Passive voice.
E.g: Having been defeated at several fronts, the enemy finally surrendered.
The past participle could be an adjective.
E.g: His spoken English is flawless.
When two actions are expressed in a sentence one of them is expressed with
the past participle.
E.g: The minister arrived flanked by his party men.
The past participle could be subject-complements.
E.g: He became tired.
They felt worn out
The past participle could also be used as object complements.
E.g: I had a car stolen.
He had it removed.
1.3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Uses of the infinitives.
2. The gerund or verbal noun: gerund as subject, and gerund as an object.
3. The participle: the active participle.
23
1.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are non-finites?
2. How is the gerund as a subject used in non-finites?
3. How is the gerund as an object used in the non-finites?
4. How is the participle used in the non-finites?
5. Define ‘gerund’.
1.3.6 SUMMARY
The uses of the infinitive
a) The infinitives can do the work of a noun:
E.g: 1. To lead a country needs character. (Subject)
2. He wants to learn driving. (Object)
3. His aim in life is to become the Prime Minister. (Subject complement)
4. To know her is to love her. (Both as subject and object)
5. It is easy to find fault with others. (Anticipatory subject)
b) The infinitive can function as an adjunct (or an adjective) to a noun or pronoun.
1. His decision to quit is final.
2. He wants somebody to do it.
3. The subject to be discussed has already been informed to you.
4. Give me something to drink.
c) The infinitive can function as an adverbial, modifying a verb that goes before it.
1. He got up to raise an objection.
2. He went to see the principal.
This is known an infinitive of purpose:
d) Infinitive is used with too+ adjective /adverb.
1. He is too weak to run.
2. The news is too good to be true.
These sentences could be changed into complex sentences.
He is so weak that he cannot run.
The news is so good that it cannot be true.
THE GERUND (verbal noun)
The gerund has the form of a present participle.
a) Subject
E.g: Running is good for health. Looking after children needs a lot of patience.
Smoking inside the laboratory is dangerous.
b) Gerund as an object
E.g: In deference to the doctor’s advice he gave up smoking.
24
c) Gerunds could be objects of the prepositions before them.
E.g: 1. He is thinking of quitting his place.
2. He was fined for being careless, while driving.
d) Seeing is believing. (Here it is subject complement)
e) Gerunds could also function as adjectives.
E.g: 1. He bought a new walking stick.
1.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
Rewrite the following sentences using ‘to’ wherever necessary with the infinitives given in
the bracket.
1. He made him ————the job at once. (do)
2. They were not permitted—————the Vice-Chancellor. (meet)
3. You need not—————for me. (wait)
4. We helplessly watched him ————— (collapse)
5. If you have planned—————the air port before six you had better————at
once. (reach, start)
Fill in the blanks with gerund, or infinitive of the verbs given In the bracket
1. I hope ——————this time. (win)
2. Would you mind ——————on this salt-celler. (pass)
3. ———————is good for health. (swim)
4. Please finish _______________soon. (eat)
5. I missed ———————that play. (see)
1.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Refer to the prescribed grammar books.
1.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Try forming sentences of your own using the non-finites you have learnt just now.
1.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Modern English Grammar – Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
2. Living English Structures – William Stanard Allen.
1.3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Refer the above-mentioned grammar books and work out the exercises provided
in them relating to non-finites.
1.3.12 KEYWORDS
1. Quitting – noun archaic or literary, a release from a debt or obligation.
2. Annoying – make slightly angry.
3. Pruning – shaping.
4. Sauntering – walk in a slow, relaxed manner.
5. Flawless – a mark, blemish, or other imperfection.

25
UNIT - II
LESSON–1

2.1 ODE TO A SKYLARK - Percy Bysshe Shelley

STRUCTURE
2.1.1 Objectives
2.1.2 Introduction
2.1.3 Contents
2.1.4 Revision Point
2.1.5 In text Question
2.1.6 Summary
2.1.7 Terminal Exercises
2.1.8 Supplementary materials
2.1.9 Assignments
2.1.10 Suggested Readings
2.1.11 Learning Activities
2.1.12 Key Words
2.1.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to one of the most marvelous of the English lyrics “To
a Skylark” by Shelley and make him understand how the genius of this poet’s
idealism transcends all actuality.
2.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Perhaps, “the greatest lyric singer in the English language outside
Shakespeare,” Shelley was a revolutionary and a disappointed man. An aristocrat by
birth, Shelley rebelled against the early nineteenth century contemporary society. An
intellectual with a philosophy of his own, he was a non-believer in the established
institutions. A moody, sensitive, precocious boy, he was totally unsuited to the rough
and tumble of public school life. At Eton, he was persecuted by his fellow-students
who nicknamed him 'Mad Shelley. While at University College, Cambridge University,
he gave vent to his revolutionary fervour by publishing a pamphlet, “The Necessity of
Atheism.” This resulted in his expulsion from the college. His spirit of revolution and
independence is echoed in almost all his poems.
Shelley's “Ode to a Skylark” was inspired, according to Mrs. Shelley, by the
carolling of a skylark which the poet heard on a summer evening when he was
wandering in her company in the lanes of Leghorn in Ita1y.
Shelley is enthralled by the divine rhapsody of the skylark. There is no music
in the terra firma to surpass the melody of the skylark. The poet feels that the
bird's ignorance of the unhappy human lot must be the source of its happy
melodious strain. It is the sort of happiness that man can never know. The poet
implores the bird to teach him at least half of its happiness so that he could sing so
melodious1y as to call mankind’s attention to him.
26

2.1.3 CONTENT
2.1. 3.1 The Text of the poem, “Ode to a Skylark”
HAIL to thee, blithe Spirit!
Bird thou never wert,
That from heaven, or near it,
Pourest thy full heart
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.
Higher still and higher
From the earth thou springest,
Like a cloud of fire:
The blue deep thou wingest,
And singing still dost soar, and soaring ever singest.

In the golden lighting

Of the sunken sun,
O'er which clouds are brightening,
Thou dost float and run;
Like an unbodied joy whose race is just begun.
The pale purple even
Melts around thy flight!
Like a star of heaven,
In the broad daylight;
Thou art unseen, but yet I hear thy shrill delight;
Keen as are the arrows
Of that silver sphere,
Whose intense lamp narrows
In the white dawn clear
Until we hardly see, we feel that it is there.
All the earth and air
With thy voice is loud,
As, when night is bare,
From one lonely cloud
The moon rains out her beams, and heaven is overflowed.
What thou art we know not;
What is most like thee?
From rainbow clouds there flow not
Drops so bright to see
As from thy presence showers a rain of melody.
Like a poet hidden
In the light of thought,
Singing hymns unbidden,
Till the world is wrought
To sympathy with hopes and fear it heeded not.
Like a high-born maiden
In a palace tower,
27
Soothing her love-laden
Soul in secret hour
With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower:
Like a glow-worm golden
In a dell of dew,
Scattering unbeholden
Its aerial hue
Among the flowers and grass which screen it from the view:

Like a rose embowered

In its own green leaves,
By warm winds deflowered,

Till the scent it gives

Makes faint with too much sweet these heavy-winged thieves.

Sound of vernal showers

On the twinkling grass,
Rain-awakened flowers,
All that ever was
Joyous, and clear, and fresh, thy music doth surpass:

Teach us, sprite or bird,

What sweet thoughts are thine:
I have never heard
Praise of love or wine
That panted forth a flood of rapture so divine.

Chorus hymeneal,
Or triumphal chant,
Matched with thine, would be all
But an empty vaunt,
A thing wherein we feel there is some hidden want.

What objects are the fountains

Of thy happy strain?
What fields, or waves, or mountains?
What shapes of sky or plain?
What love of thine own kind? what ignorance of pain?

With thy clear keen joyance

Languor cannot be:
Shadow of annoyance
Never came near thee:
Thou lovest; but ne’er knew love's sad satiety.

Waking or asleep,
Thou of death must deem
28
Thing more true and deep
Than we mortals dream,
Or how could thy notes flow in such a crystal stream?

We look before and after,

And pine for what is not:
Our sincerest laughter
With some pain is fraught;
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.

Yet if we could scorn

Hate, and pride, and fear;
If we were things born

Not to shed a tear,

I know not how thy joy we ever should come near.

Better than all measures

Of delightful sound,
Better than all treasures
That in books are found,
Thy skill to poet were, thou scorner of the ground.

Teach me half the gladness

That thy brain must know.
Such harmonious madness
From my lips would flow
The world should listen then, as I am listening now!


2.1.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem
Introduction
Shelley’s “Ode to a Skylark” is regarded as one of his best lyrics. Lyricism is
the expression of intense emotion and personality. It is the spontaneous expression
of subjective emotion. It shows an impatient Shelley fretting and fuming against the
imperfections of life. It is a pure lyric which reflects Shelley’s yearning for freedom.
He longs for a world of unalloyed joy – a world of perfection free from the frailties
and imperfections of human existence. The lyric brims with music because the
word ‘ode’ emphasizes the musical element in the structure.
The Bird's Invisibility
The skylark is like a star of Heaven and the moon in the sky remaining
invisible in the broad day and yet shedding light. The rays of the evening sun fall on
the bird and make it look like a cloud of fire.
29

The Bird is Invisible but Audible (Images used)

Shelley compares the skylark to a poet hidden in the light of thought, a high-
born maiden in a tower, a glow-worm hidden behind flowers and grass and a rose
concealed behind its leaves. Both the poet and the bird go on singing unbidden.
The rose is unseen but its smell reveals its presence. The glow-worm is invisible but
its light betrays its presence.
The Bird's Matchless Song
There is no music on the earth to excel the melody of the bird. The song of the
bird is much more pleasant than the sight of “vernal showers,” “twinkling grass”
and “rain-awakened flowers.” The song of the skylark surpasses the songs inspired
by wine and woman. It surpasses marital and martial music. Even delightful music
and bookish wisdom cannot inspire a poet so much as the skylark's song.
The Bird and the Man Contrasted
Man suffers from fear and pride, dislike and distress. The bird is free from
languor, annoyance and love's sad satiety. Man is haunted by the fear of death. The
fear of death does not mar the bird's happiness. It goes on singing joyously. Man is
troubled by the fear of what might happen next. He is discontented with the present
and looks forward to the future or backward to the past. His laughter is mixed with
pain. Man’s sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts. There is no trace
of sadness in the bird’s song. It is song of unalloyed joy.
Conclusion
The poet longs for freedom from human world of infirmities and imperfections.
He yearns for the bird's world of unalloyed joy. He appeals to the bird to teach him
half its gladness so that he can sing and draw the attention of the world to him.
2.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. The poet is enthralled to hear the rapturous music of the skylark but he can’t
see the bird.
2. The poet calls the bird “a blithe spirit”, “a cloud of fire”, “an unbodied joy” and
“a star of heaven.”
3. The bird is invisible but its song is audible. He compares the bird to “a poet
hidden in thought”, “a high born maiden in a palace tower”, “a glow worm
golden” and “a rose deflowered.”
4. The rain of music from the bird is more pleasant than the rain of shower. It
surpasses the songs inspired by wine and woman. It also excels marital song
and martial music.
5. The bird sings joyously because it is free from languor, annoyance and love’s
satiety. But man’s sweetest songs tell of saddest thoughts.
6. The poet appeals to the bird to teach him half of its gladness so that he can sing
and draw the world’s attention to him.
2.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What was the occasion which inspired Shelley to compose this Ode?
2. What are the objects to which does Shelley compare the bird?
30
3. Why did Shelley call the bird a “blithe Spirit”?
4. Explain, “Harmonious madness”.
5. What is the theme of the poem?
2.1.6 SUMMARY
The poem opens up with Shelley, the speaker, calling out to a song- bird which
he calls a “blithe Spirit.” He is enthralled by the divine rhapsody of the skylark.
The bird pours out its unpremeditated art and at the same time soars higher and
dissolves into the purple evening. Though the bird becomes invisible, Shelley is able
to listen to the shrill delight of the small song bird. He then compares the bird to a
serious of objects and feels that the song of the bird is far better than all measures
and treasures. The poet feels that the bird’s ignorance of the unhappy human lot
must be the source of its happy melodious strain. All human songs are sad, but
this bird’s song is just pure joy. Finally, he dreams of being able to sing with as
much joy and freedom as this happy bird.
2.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. In what way is the happiness of the skylark different from that of man?
2. 'Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thoughts.’ What are the poet's
reasons for coming to such a conclusion?
3. What is the secret of the bird's songs?
4. What images does Shelley use to describe his Skylark?
5. Attempt a critical appreciation of the poem.
6. Comment on Shelley’s concerns expressed in the poem.
2.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
About the poet and the poem:
Percy Bysshe Shelley was born in 1792 of a land owning family in Sussex at a
small estate called Field Place; he was the eldest son of Timothy Shelley who
became later a Whig Member of Parliament. His grandfather Bysshe Shelley was
however somewhat eccentric, and the grandson inherited some of these
peculiarities. The young Shelley was a gentle and sensitive boy, looking extremely
fragile, with however a powerful will of his own. He hated being bossed or
dominated, and when he went to school, first to Syon House and later to Eton., he
staged a demonstration against the system of flagging where the Junior students
did menial jobs for the seniors. His independence and peculiarity marked him out
for cruel treatment by his fellow students, making him withdraw from social
contact, and wander alone with his books and his imagination. At school he had a
thorough grounding in Latin and Greek, and wrote English poetry, but was also
taken up with scientific experiments which he learnt from the Science Master Adam
Walker. Thus he came into contact with Dr. James Lind, who lived in the
neighbourhood. Dr. Lind was physician to the Royal Household, but he was
interested in Electricity, Chemistry and Astronomy, as well as in practical
technology such as the Steam Engine. He was an eccentric both in his way of life
and his radical political ideas, and the young Shelley was much influenced by him.
31
Shelley's literary career really started with two novels ''Zastrossi'' and ''St.
Irvyne'' both written before he left school. Both the novels were published, and the
first even received favourable reviews. In an age of Gothic novels, Shelley's
imagination found adequate scope for well-told tales of horror. Shelley's interest in
the supernatural and his sensibility is indicated by his success with the Gothic.
At the age of eighteen, Shelley joined New College, Oxford, Here he contained
his interests - The classics, Science and with new enthusiasm, politics and religion.
It is these interests that we find later in his poetry, and so they are noteworthy. He
as a voracious reader and had a very retentive memory, so that his knowledge of
exact quotations from the Classics is formidable. His interest in science led him to
observe and love the mysteries and beauty and wonder at the natural world; his
independence of spirit moved him to espouse the cause of liberty in politics, and
freedom from tyranny, be it of kings or prelates; and in religion he sought freedom
from the dogmas of the Church, more in line with his own reading of the classics
and his own experience of the world of the spirit. His famous pamphlet on the ''
Necessity of Atheism'' are the products of these early efforts to find the truth for
himself. It was unfortunate that his pamphlet on the ''Necessity of Atheism'' caused
him to be expelled from Oxford at the instance of the Professor of Poetry!
One of Shelley's greatest gifts as a poet was his ability to write songs and lyrics
- his lyricism. This is not a gift given to all poets, though poetry most often
expresses the intense emotion of the poet. Shelley's lyrics exceed in their ecstasy
even the songs and sonnets of the Elizabethan and Renaissance poets. The
exaltation that he reached did not depend upon conceit but almost wholly on his
intensity of emotional experiences. Among the Greek poets was a poetess called
Sappho who was famous in the ancient world for this type of poetry. Sappho's
poetry is what is nearest to Shelley's intense lyric strains. The ode we are now to
examine is a lyric of this type-an expression of the intense exaltation and happiness
that Shelley has experienced in watching and hearing the song of the skylark.
Mary Shelley notes, "It was on a beautiful summer evening (the lark usually is
presented as rising to sing at dawn) while wandering among the lanes whose
myrtle-hedges were the bowers of the fireflies, that we heard the carolling of the
skylark, - this took place near Leghorn, Italy in June 1820. The skylark is a bird
that rises almost straight up into the air, singing its song, and ascending in a series
of zigzag movements - each turn representing a repetition of the song. The song
heard loud and clear at first gets softer and fainter as the lark still proceeds to fly
upward till it is out of sight, and the song seems to come from the sky itself. To
Shelley the skylark was therefore a symbol of the spirit that left the earth, and
ascended in flight to the heavens in aspiration and in exultation, singing a song of
the utmost joy in the success of its attempt to reach the heights of Heaven.
Shelley connects unbodied joy' of the earlier stanza with the `blithe spirit' which
was never a bird.
32
`Ode to a Skylark' is typical of the poetry of Shelley in several ways, which
have been indicated above. The poem was inspired by hearing a specific lark
singing on a specific occasion, and which caused much intense delight in the poet
that he is almost as ecstatic as the bird. This is a clear indication of the highly
poetic sensibility of the poet. This verse form he chooses is one which seems to
represent the flight and carolling of the bird in its upward flight. The short lines are
conducive to highly lyrical and ecstatic utterance. Shelley shows his mastery of
verse form in suiting the pattern to the quality that he desires to convey.
The poem also embodies several distinguishing characteristics of Shelley's
thought and attitude to life. His bitter experiences as man and poet are implicit in
the poem. He had even at a young age drunk much of the sorrows of the world -
being an exile from England, haunted with illness and pain, suffering the loss of
two of his children, being frustrated in his search for the ideal woman in a passion
of Platonic love, and finally not being able to find the kind of patronage among his
readers for encouragement as a poet who wished to influence his age.
Perhaps even more striking is his platonic cast of thought. He did not believe
in the common attitude of Christians to the life after death-which was to be a
reward or punishment, in heaven or hell. He believed that the after-life was a life of
the spirit, a life of happiness which was unalloyed-more happy for those who had
cultivated the finer qualities of life. He was also convinced that the world of the
spirit permeated the material world and was immanent in it, Thus it was that the
skylark could be a `blithe spirit'. He believed too that man aspired for heaven and
happiness even as the bird soared towards heaven, and that his aspiration was
itself an evidence of future happiness rather than torment. Finally he believed in
the Platonic concept of `divine nature with our own to inspire the poet to sing as
bard and prophet.
The whole poem is an inspired rhapsody of this type, full of the most ecstatic
emotion stirred by the song of the skylark, which had raised him to share in an
emotion expressed by the unalloyed joy of the bird' song. The series of images -
every stanza contains one or more - is poured forth with the same profusion as the
repeated trilling of the bird. Each image is in itself a thing of beauty, embodying
very often some personal observation or experience of the poet. The fluency of the
poem is likewise reminiscent of the shrill delight of the bird singing as it soars and
soaring as it sings. The poem is an example of the lofty of lyricism that Shelley
possessed.
Finally the poem expresses what he believes to be the true function of the -
which is like the bird to sing for its own joy and pleasure but thereby to transform
all that hear it. The poet's song is an embodiment of the divine love that rains down
on earth from heaven, even as the song of the bird pours its melody forth to bless
all its hearers.
33
2.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. The salient features of an “Ode.”
2. The Lyrics of Shelley
3. On the comparisons used in the poem.
2.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. O. Elton – A Survey of English Literature 1780-1830.
2. C.M. Bowra – The Romantic Imagination.
3. G. Hough – The Romantic Poets.
4. H. Darbishire – The Poet Wordsworth.
5. C.H. Baker – Shelley’s Major Poetry.
6. Jack – Keats and the Mirror of Art.
2.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. List out a few poems that deal with bird-songs, compare and contrast them for a
better understanding of this poem.
2.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Hail – welcome.
2. Blithe – happy.
3. Profuse – in great measure.
4. Wrought – worked.
5. Hue – colour.
6. Vernal – fresh; (of springtime).
7. Languor – fatigue; dullness.


34
LESSON – 2

2.2 ODE TO AUTUMN - John Keats

STRUCTURE
2.2.1 Objectives
2.2.2 Introduction
2.2.3 Contents
2.2.4 Revision Point
2.2.5 In text Question
2.2.6 Summary
2.2.7 Terminal Exercises
2.2.8 Supplementary materials
2.2.9 Assignments
2.2.10 Suggested Readings
2.2.11 Learning Activities
2.2.12 Key Words
2.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to one of the maturest products of Keats’s genius
“Ode to Autumn” that exhibits a radically original first-hand responses to an
experience during the autumn season.
2.2.2 INTRODUCTION
John Keats (1795-1821) is the last but the most perfect of the Romantic poets.
He wrote some of the best odes in his short span of life. The poetry of Keats is
known for its sensuousness and picturesqueness. Keats does not spiritualize
nature in the Wordsworthian sense and does not intellectualize nature in the
Shelleyan fashion. For him “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.” This love of the
beautiful expresses itself in felicitous phrases, picturesque images and chiselled
expressions.
2.2.3 CONTENT
2.2.3.1 The Text of the poem “Ode to Autumn”
Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun:
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
To bend with apples the moss’d cottage-trees,
And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease;
For Summer has o’er-brimmed their clammy cells.
35
Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
The sitting careless on a granary floor,
The hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
Or on a half-reap’d furrow sound asleep,
Drows’d with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
Steady thy laden head across a brook;
Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
Thou watchest the last oozings, hours by hours.

Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?

Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,
While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day
And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
Then in a waitful choir the small gnats mourn
Among the river sallows, borne aloft
Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
Hedge –crickets sing; and now with treble soft
The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

2.2.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem
Introduction
Of Keats's three famous odes, “To Autumn” is the best in poetic workmanship.
In form, it is an ode. In this ode, Keats follows the tradition by which the subject of
the ode is addressed. The word 'ode' emphasises the musical element in the poem.
Keats's sensuousness is best seen in this ode with its gustatory images in the first
stanza, visual images in the second stanza and auditory images in the third stanza.
Keats’s principle of beauty is best seen in this poem. He finds beauty in the
leaveless autumn.
Functions of Autumn
Autumn is a season of “mists and fruitfulness.” It is a close friend of the
maturing sun. During this season, flowers blossom and fruits ripen, thanks to the
joint-effort of the season and the sun. Autumn co-operates with the sun to load,
vine creepers with grapes, to bend trees with apples, to fill the fruits with ripeness,
to swel1 the size of gourds, to plumb hazel-nuts with sweet kernel, and to make the
buds blossom.
In the first stanza, the poet uses a number of gustatory images like grapes,
apples, and gourds, and hazel-nuts appealing to the sense of taste. There is the
visual image of bees overwhelmed by surfeit of honey. There is an olfactory image of
flowers with their smell drawing the bees.
36

Sights of the Autumn

The second stanza presents familiar figures and occupations of Autumn.
Autumn is pictured as a winnower sitting on a granary-floor, a reaper sleeping on a
half-reaped farm, a gleaner carrying the gleaned sheaves of grain on her head and
crossing a brook and a cider-presser sitting by its side for the last drops of cider to
ooze down.
The second stanza presents a series of visual images like a winnower, a reaper,
a gleaner, and a cider-presser. It uses non-action verbs such as sitting and sleeping
to describe the state, not action. The sibilant ‘s’ sound in the ending of words
‘oozings, hours by hours’ suggests the slow dropping of juice.
Melodies of Autumn
Autumn has its own songs. We can hear the humming of gnats, the bleating of
goats, the chirping of crickets, the whistling of the red-breast and the twittering of
swallows against the background of the crimson colour of the setting sun and the
clouds lending a glow to the Western sky.
The third stanza presents a series of auditory images in the music of the
gnats, lambs, grass-hoppers, redbreast, and swallows.
Conclusion
The ode "To Autumn” does not end on a note of frustration as do the other
odes of Keats, especially the “Ode to a Nightingale”. It is impersonal unlike the other
odes of Keats. There is no romantic longing or ethical meaning. To others, it is a
season of decay. Keats finds beauty in the leaveless autumn. In this ode, he follows
the tradition by which the subject of the ode is directly addressed. The word ‘ode’
emphasises the musical element in the structure.
The poem “To Autumn,” is known for its appeal to the senses of sight, smell,
sound, touch and taste. The first stanza presents a series of gustatory images, for
example, grapes, apples, gourds, and hazel-nuts. The second stanza presents a
series of visual images, for example, a winnower, a reaper, a gleaner, and a cidar-
presser. The third stanza presents a series of images in the music of the gnats,
lambs, crickets, redbreast, and swallows. This ode is different from the other odes
of Keats. There is neither romantic agony nor romantic longing. There is no
expression of personality. Of Keats's three famous odes, this is the best in poetic
workmanship.
2.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Autumn is a season of mists and fruitfulness.
2. The first stanza presents a number of gustatory images appealing to the
sense of taste - grapes, apples, gourds, and hazel nuts.
3. The second stanza presents Autumn as a winnower, a reaper, a gleaner, and
a cider presser - - visual images appealing to the sense of sight.
4. The third stanza presents Autumn with its own music of gnats, lambs,
grass-hoppers, red breasts, and swallows.
5. To others, Autumn is a season of decay but Keats finds beauty in the
leafless Autumn.
37
2.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How does Keats portray the autumn season in this poem?
2. Bring out the gustatory, auditory, and visual images used by Keats in this
poem.
3. What does Keats have to say about the song of the autumn season?
4. How far does this ode differ from the other odes of Keats?
5. Who is the bosom friend of the maturing sun?
2.2.6 SUMMARY
Ode to Autumn is perhaps the most perfect poetic composition of John Keats.
It is known for poetic workmanship. This ode is divided into three stanzas. In the
first stanza, he addresses autumn as a season of mist and mellow fruitfulness.
Conspiring with the sun, the season loads Nature with fruits. The functions of the
season are emphatically brought out with the help of a series of images. In the
second stanza, the sights of autumn season are presented. A series of visual
images like a winnower, a reaper, a gleaner, and a cider-presser enriched the sights
of this season. Autumn has its own songs too. The third stanza presents auditory
images in the music of gnats, lambs, grass-hoppers, redbreast, and swallows.
2.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Write a short account of the functions of Autumn.
2. Give an account of the word-pictures in the poem “To Autumn.”
3. Write down the melodies of Autumn.
4. Give a brief account of the odes of Keats.
5. Consider Keats as a poet of beaty.
2.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
About the poet:
Of all the great poets of the early nineteenth century, John Keats was the last
to be born and the first to die. Born in 1795, in the city of London, the son of a
livery-stable keeper, he was brought up amid surroundings and influences by no
means calculated to awaken poetic genius. He was the eldest of five children - four
brothers and one sister. He was educated along with his brothers, George and Tom,
at a private school at Enfield. His father died soon after. He was passionately
devoted to his mother, tenderly nursed her during her severe illness in 1810, and
was broken-hearted when she died of consumption the same year. Thus Keats
became an orphan at the tender age of fifteen.
The children were now put under the guardianship of one Mr. Abbey, who
immediately apprenticed the poet for four years to a surgeon at Edmonton.
However, poetry and literature had greater attraction for him than medicine. During
the entire period of his apprenticeship, he continued to read enthusiastically and
often came to Enfield to borrow books from his friend, Cowden Clerk, the son of his
headmaster. It was he who encouraged him in his literary ambitions, introduced
him to Spenser, and thus prompted him to write.
38
Gradually, surgery lost all attraction for him. At nineteen, he quarrelled with
his master, and left him to continue his training at London. However, by now he
had realised that poetry was his true vocation, and as soon as he was of age he
abandoned the medical profession to devote his life to literature. Though his
guardian, Mr. Abbey, opposed the course he had chosen, his brothers encouraged
him. He also received much encouragement and inspiration from his friends, Leigh
Hunt, Haydon etc. In 1817, he published his first volume of poems, but it attracted
little notice, and may be regarded as a failure.
By this time the family tendency to consumption became painfully manifest in
him, and he spent his time in searching for places, including the isle of Wight and
the suburbs of London, where his disease may be treated and where he may study
and write undisturbed. Spenser, Shakespeare, and other great Elizabethans,
Milton, Wordsworth etc., were his favourite study. 'Endymion' was composed during
this period. Besides his own ill health, and the severe illness and death of his
brother Tom, financial difficulties were worrying him and embittering the course of
his life. The matters were made even worse by his hopeless passion for Fanny
Brawne. He had become acquainted with this, rather frivolous, young lady during
his stay at Hampstead with his friend, Charles Brown, and fell in love with her at
first sight. This lady in the beginning gave him some encouragement, but later
rejected him on the flimsy ground that he was too short-statured. His letters to his
beloved, foolishly published in 1878, painfully reflect almost a frantic state of mind.
This unfortunate affair did much to hasten the course of consumption.
The second volume of his poems was published in 1818. It was brutally
attacked by the 'Quarterly Review' and the 'Blackwood's Magazine.' There were
those, like Shelley and Byron, who thought that he was killed by this abusive and
unjustified criticism. He was certainly not, "snuffed out by an article". He bore the
attack with apparent serenity, protested that he did not care for it, but there can be
little doubt that it affected his health to some degree. In Feb. 1820, he coughed out
blood and it was certain that the end was near.
However, he lived and continued to work for another year. Despite his ill-
health, he saw through the press the last volume of his poetry containing the great
Odes, all written during 1819. In Sept.1820, he was ordered rest by doctors to a
warmer climate. His loving friend Severn, the artist, accompanied him and nursed
him tenderly. It was in the arms of this devoted friend that Keats breathed his last
in Feb. 1821, at the age of twenty-six. He was buried in Rome, and at his request
his epitaph includes the words, "Here lies one whose name was writ in water".
Such is the life and career of one of the greatest poets of England, one, if he
had lived long enough, would have equalled Shakespeare himself.
2.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Write a critical appreciation of the poem, “Ode to Autumn.”
2. The Odes of John Keats.
3. Keats and Beauty.
39
2.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. O. Elton – A Survey of English Literature 1780-1830.
2. C.M. Bowra – The Romantic Imagination.
3. G. Hough – The Romantic Poets.
4. H. Darbishire – The Poet Wordsworth.
5. C.H. Baker – Shelley’s Major Poetry.
6. Jack – Keats and the Mirror of Art.
2.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Compare and contrast this ode with the other odes of Keats.
2.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Core – heart.
2. Kernel – soft portion inside the shell.
3. Gleaner – one who gathers corn left in the field by workers.
4. Gnats – small flies.

40
LESSON – 3

2.3 VERB
STRUCTURE
2.3.1 Objectives
2.3.2 Introduction
2.3.3 Contents
2.3.4 Revision Point
2.3.5 In text Question
2.3.6 Summary
2.3.7 Terminal Exercises
2.3.8 Supplementary materials
2.3.9 Assignments
2.3.10 Suggested Readings
2.3.11 Learning Activities
2.3.12 Key Words
2.3.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to provide the necessary basic knowledge of English grammar
to students. By providing this basic knowledge, it also aims to enable them to use
grammatically correct English in their day-to-day endeavours. In this lesson, the
main purpose is to give a detailed account of the finite form of verbs.
2.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Verb is a part of speech which contains words like see, arrive, sleep, discuss,
shoot and take off. Verbs are distinguished from other parts of speech by a number
of properties. In this lesson, let us learn verb in some detail.
2.3.3 CONTENTS
The verb is the most important word as far as a sentence in English is
concerned. Barring amorphous sentences, all sentences in English have a verb. It
tells us what the subject is doing or what the subject is.
E.g: 1. He is writing a letter
2. He is an engineer.
3. He hit the ball powerfully.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Study the following sentences.
1. a) The girl cried.
b) He is playing.
2. a) Jim Corbett shot the tiger dead.
b) Ram bought his son a car.
41
In sentences 1 (a) and (b) the verbs do not require the help of any other word
to complete their sense. So they are said to be used intransitively.
In sentences 2 (a) and (b) the verbs require the help of other words to complete
their sense. So they are said to be used transitively.
A transitive verb always takes a direct object. It may also have an indirect
object. In “Ram bought his son a car,” car is the direct object and his son is the
indirect object.
Intransitive Verbs:
If an action or event involves only one person, or thing, you mention only the
performer of action (the subject) and the action (the verb).
e.g. The boy screamed.
I waited.
An awful thing has happened.
These are called intransitive clauses. The verbs that are used in intransitive
clauses are called intransitive verbs. ‘When you are talking about an action or
event, which does not involve anything other than the subject, you use an
intransitive verb.’
e.g. Her whole body ached.
Fairies don’t exist.
She smiled.
Transitive Verbs:
‘If the action or event involves another person or thing, which the action
affects, relates to or produces, you put a noun group after the verb group. It is
called the direct object.’
e.g. I hate my neighbour.
He bought a car.
Look at the following questions:
Whom do you hate?
What did he buy?
The expressions ‘my neighbour’ and ‘ a car’ answer the questions ‘whom’ and
‘what’. The verbs ‘hate’ and ‘buy’ are transitive verbs. ‘Transit’ means the act of
passing or being carried across. There should be an object to which it can be
passed on.
Verbs like ‘ache’, ‘exist’ and ‘smile’ are intransitive verbs. In the case of such
verbs nothing is passed on.
Look at the following sentences:
The horse runs at enormous speed.
She runs a hotel.
The car drives easily.
The engine drives the ship.
42
She moved rather gracefully.
The whole incident had moved her profoundly.
The verbs ‘run’, ‘drive’ and ‘move’ are used in intransitive as well as transitive
clauses. Many verbs in English have more than one common meaning. For example
the verb ‘run’ is intransitive when it is used in the sense ‘to move quickly.’ But ‘run’
is transitive, when it is used in the sense ‘to manage or operate.’ Here is a list of
verbs, which can be used in transitive as well as intransitive clauses, depending on
which meaning you are using:
add drive lose run study
aim escape manage shoot tend
beat fly meet show touch
blow follow miss sink turn
change hang move spread win
count hold play stand
draw press strike
There are many verbs, which do not always need an object. The object is not
needed, when it is obvious what type of thing you are talking about.
For example you could say either ‘She eats food slowly’ or ‘She eats slowly.’ It
is clear in the context that what she eats is food.
‘With the verbs like these, you normally use an object only when you want to
be specific.’
e.g. .. a healthy person eats sensibly. ( V intransitive)
Twice a week he eats an apple for supper. (V transitive)
He does not smoke or drink. (VI)
He drank a good deal of coffee. (VT)
This meat cooks well. (VI)
She had never cooked dinner for anyone. (VT)
‘Here is a list of verbs which can be used without any object, when it is
obvious what sort of thing is involved.’
borrow Drive leave read steal
change Dust lend ride study
clean Eat marry save type
cook Film paint sing wash
draw Help park smoke wave
drink Iron print spend write
Verbs, which can take an object or a prepositional phrase:
There are some verbs, which can be followed by either an object or
prepositional phrase. The verb ‘fight’ is one of these verbs.
e.g. ‘He fought the enemy’. He fought against the enemy.
The Indian army fought the Chinese for nearly two years.
43
He was fighting against history.
The French Rugby team played South Africa’s Springbook’s.
In his youth Thomas had played against Glamorgan.
There is little difference in meaning between using the verb on its own and
following it with a preposition.
Here is a list of verbs, which can be used with a direct object or prepositional
phrase with little difference in meaning.
boo (at) gnaw(at) play (against)
brush (against) hiss (at) rule(over)
check(on) infiltrate(into) sip(at)
distinguish(between) jeer(at) sniff(at)
enter(for) juggle(with) tug(at)
fight(against) mock(at) twiddle(with)
fight(with) mourn(for)
gain(in) nibble(at)
Reciprocal verbs:
Reciprocal verb is a verb, which describes an action, which involves two people
doing the same thing to each other.
e.g. They met in the street.
He met her yesterday.
They competed furiously.
When the two groups are put together in a plural subject, the verb is used
intransitively.
e.g. Their faces touched.
They kissed.
We put ‘each other’ or ‘one another’ after the verb group, when we emphasize
that both participants are equally involved in the action.
e.g. We embraced each other.
They kissed each other in greeting.
It was the first time they had touched one another.
A list of reciprocal verbs, which are used transitively with the pronouns ‘each
other’ and ‘one another’:
consult fight marry
embrace hug meet
engage kiss touch
With some verbs we should use ‘with’ before ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’
e.g. The developing countries are competing with each other for a restricted
market.
His visitors agreed with one another to proceed to the coffeehouse.
44
Ditransitive Verbs – Verbs with two objects:
Verbs which can take both a direct object and an indirect object are called
ditransitive verbs. The indirect object is put immediately after the verb group,
before the direct object.
e.g. John gave me a book.
Joseph handed Helen a piece of string.
A man promised him a job.
Instead of putting the indirect object before the direct object, it is possible to
put it in a prepositional phrase that comes after the direct object.
e.g. John gave it to me.
Susan passed a message to Elizabeth.
If the indirect object is significantly longer than the direct object, you can use
this structure – a prepositional phrase after the direct object.
e.g. He had taught English to all the youth of Sri Lanka and Singapore.
It is normal to use this structure, when the direct object is a pronoun such as
‘it’ or ‘them’.
e.g. I took the box and offered it to Mary.
It was the only rupee he had and he gave it to the little boy.
We use the preposition ‘to’ with some verbs, when we want to put the indirect
object in a prepositional phrase.
e.g. My friend wrote a letter the other day to the Indian Express.
I had lent my room to a friend for the weekend.
Here is a list of verbs, which can have an indirect object introduced by ‘to’
(from Cobuild English Grammar) :
accord give mail quote show
advance grant offer read sing
award hand owe rent take
bring base pass repay teach
deal leave pay sell tell
forward lend play send write
feed loan post serve
(Note: When the subject and the indirect object refer to the same person, you
can use a reflexive pronoun as the indirect object.
e.g. Rose bought herself a piece of cheese for lunch.
He cooked himself an omelette.
45
3.2.1 Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and an adverb and/or a preposition,
which have a single meaning.
e.g. ‘back down’, ‘laugh at’, ‘look forward to’ etc.
I Verb+ an adverb:
e.g. He sat down.
The cold weather set in.
II Verb + Preposition:
e.g. Who will look after the baby?
I have just come across a beautiful poem in this book.
III Verb + Adverb + Preposition:
e.g. You may come up against unexpected difficulties.
I look forward to meeting you.
We cannot always guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the usual
meanings of the verb and the adverb or preposition.
In some phrasal verbs the first part is not found independently as a verb.
e.g. ‘sum up’, ‘tamper with’, and ‘zero in on’, but no verbs ‘sum’, ‘tamper’, or
‘zero’.
(Note: Phrasal verbs are never written as a single word or with a hyphen.)
Some phrasal verbs are used in intransitive clauses. Many of these are verb
plus adverb combinations.
e.g. John went away for a few days.
The two men fell out.
Here is a list of a few phrasal verbs, which consist of an intransitive verb and
an adverb:
back down come up get along
back off come off go away
bear up cut in go down
boil over die down hold on
break away drop out lie down
break out fade away look ahead
check up fade out look back
climb down fall out meet up
come about fight back melt away
come along get about move off
come round Get ahead
opt out Stand down
pay up Stay in
press on Stay on
run out tune in
rush in walk out
sit down wear off
46
Other phrasal verbs used in intransitive clauses are verb plus preposition
combination.
e.g. I am just asking for information.
…the arguments that stem from gossip.
Some phrasal verbs consist of an intransitive verb and a preposition.
abide by draw on Live for run across
account for enter into look after run into
ask for fall into look into sail through
call for get over meet with settle on
call on get on part with smile on
deal with jump at poke at stem from
dispose of laugh at provide for take after
‘Another group of phrasal verbs are used in transitive clauses because the verb
takes a direct object.’
e.g. He left his bag behind and took only a water bottle.
He read the poem out quietly.
Some phrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb and an adverb.
add on fill in pass over seal off
beat up fill up pay back seek out
bring about give away pin down set aside
bring in hand over point out set back
call off hunt down pull down shake up
carry out knock down push around shut in
cut down lay out put down sort out
cut off let down put out take back
drag in mix up rule out take down
drive out pack off scale down tear apart
Large groups of phrasal verbs can be used in intransitive as well as transitive
structures.
Let us see the phrasal verb ‘take off’. There are two meanings 1) it is
intransitive when it is used in the sense, ‘a plane rises from the surface of the
earth.’
2) it is transitive when it is used in the sense, ‘to remove a garment.’
e.g. A plane took off. (intransitive).
John took off his coat. (transitive).
‘cut out’: The engine cut out (stopped suddenly- intransitive).
She cut the advertisement out of the newspaper (remove by cutting –
transitive).
47
Some phrasal verbs can be used in intransitive as well as transitive clauses:
add up get in knock off put in
bail out get out leave out run down
Black out give up look up set forth
break in hold off make out set off
call in keep away make up set out
Carry on keep down mess about sum up
call out keep off pass on switch off
Draw out keep on pay off tear off
Dress up keep out pick up turn back
drop off keep up pull in wrap up
There are a few phrasal verbs, which only have one meaning, but which can be
either transitive or intransitive.
e.g. It won’t take me a moment to clear away (intransitive).
Lily began to clear away the soap bowls.
Here is a list of phrasal verbs, which have only one meaning, but which can be
used transitively or intransitively.
answer back call back cover up open up
breathe in clear away drink up take over
breathe out clear up help out wash up
Compound Words-Verbs which consist of two words:
Many verbs, which consist of two words, are called compound words.
Compound words are usually written with a hyphen. Many compound words
consist of a noun plus a verb. e.g. ‘cross-examine’, ‘baby-sit’, ‘hitch-hike’.
He would have been cross-examined on any evidence he gave.
Young students will occasionally baby-sit in the evenings.
She went off with a friend intending to hitch-hike to Turkey.
One group of compound verbs is typically used in intransitive clauses.
e.g. We window-shopped along Pondy bazaar.
Dad lip-reads, you must face him when you speak.
Please stop shilly-shallying and get a move on.
Here is a list of intransitive compound verbs:
Baby- sit Hitch- hike Kow- tow Roller-skate
Back- pedal Ice- skate Lip- read Shilly-shally
Goose- step Jack- knife Play- act Touch-type
water-ski
window-shop
wolf-whistle
Another group of compound verbs are typically used in transitive clauses.
e.g. We cold-shouldered him.
She ill-treated her step-son.
48
Send it to the laundry. Don’t dry-clean it.
Here is a list of transitive compound verbs:
back-comb cross-reference ghost-write soft-soup
blow-dry double-cross Ill-treat spin-dry
cold-shoulder double-glaze pooh-pooh spoon-feed
court-martial dry-clean proof-read stage-manage
cross-check field-test rubber-stamp taper-ecord
cross-examine force-feed short-change toilet-train
cross-question frog-march short-weight wrong-foot
Some compound verbs may be used in intransitive as well as transitive clauses:
e.g. He spoke ad-lib. (intransitive).
I tried to ad-lib a joke (transitive).
The husband is left to chain-smoke in the waiting room.
He chain-smoked cheap cigars (transitive).
Here is a list of compound verbs, which can be transitive or intransitive:
ad-lib chain-smoke double-park spring-clean
bottle-feed criss-cross mass-produce stir-fry
breast-feed deep-fry short-circuit tie-dye
bulk-buy double-check sight-read
2.3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Verb tells us what the subject is doing or what the subject is.
2. Verbs that do not require the help of any other word to complete their sense is
said to be used intransitively.
3. Verbs that require the help of any other word to complete their sense is said to
be used transitively.
4. Verbs that act as links between their complements are called linking verbs.
5. When an adverb particle and a verb are clubbed together, they form a phrasal
verb.
2.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define Verb.
2. Bring out the various types of Verbs.
3. Provide your own examples for transitive and intransitive verbs.
4. What are phrasal verbs?
2.3.6 SUMMARY
Verb tells us what the subject is doing or what the subject is. Verbs that do
not require the help of any other word to complete their sense is said to be used
intransitively. Verbs that require the help of any other word to complete their sense
is said to be used transitively. Verbs that act as links between their complements
are called linking verbs. When an adverb particle and a verb are clubbed together,
they form a phrasal verb.
49
2.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
Name the verbs in the following sentences, and tell in each case whether they are
transitive or intransitive:
1. The sun rises in the east.
2. The clock ticks all day long.
3. Your pen lies on the table.
4. The fire burns brightly.
5. I know a stout little man.
6. You speak too softly.
7. The lion ran after me.
8. He took shelter under a tin roof.
2.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Identify the verbs in the following sentences, and say whether they are transitive or
intransitive:
1. The boy stood on the burning deck.
2. He tried again and again.
3. The weather is cold.
4. I found her singing in the class.
5. The sky looks overcast.
6. They made him Chairman.
7. The monkey continued to chatter.
8. The children fell asleep.
2.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Try forming sentences of your own using different types of verbs.
2.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Modern English Grammar – Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
2. Living English Structures – William Stanard Allen.
2.3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Refer the above-mentioned grammar books and work out the exercises provided
in them relating to verbs.
2.3.12 KEYWORDS
1. Complement – a thing that contributes extra features to something else.
2. Clubbed – hitting with a heavy stick
3. Inscription – a thing inscribed, as on a monument or a book.
4. Stranded – leave without the means to move from a place.
5. Dacoit - robber
6. Resist – withstand the action or effect of.
7. Firm – solidly in place and stable

50
UNIT – III
LESSON – 1

3.1 ULYSSES – Alfred Tennyson

STRUCTURE
3.1.1 Objectives
3.1.2 Introduction
3.1.3 Contents
3.1.4 Revision Point
3.1.5 In text Question
3.1.6 Summary
3.1.7 Terminal Exercises
3.1.8 Supplementary materials
3.1.9 Assignments
3.1.10 Suggested Readings
3.1.11 Learning Activities
3.1.12 Key Words
3.1.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to one of the most acclaimed poems of Tennyson and
make him understand a philosophy of life – a life of never ending activity, of
ceaseless striving with hope.
3.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Tennyson (1809-1892) is ranked as one of the greatest English poets in pure
artistic achievement. He wrote some of the finest longer poems in the English
language such as The Prince and In Memorium.
He was the most representative poet of his day. “He was a voice, the voice of a
whole people expressing in exquisite melody their doubts and faith, their griefs and
their triumphs.” Tennyson is remembered today for his craftsmanship and his
style. “Variety of theme and mood, felicity of imagery, exquisite cadence, ease, and
flexibility of blank verse, vividness of style or mood pictures are qualities common
to his poetry which rank him one of the most gifted . . . among English poets.”
3.1.3 CONTENT
3.1.3 The Text of the poem, “Ulysses”.
It little profits that an idle king,
By this still hearth, among these barren crags,
Matched with an aged wife, I mete and dole
Unequal laws unto a savage race,
That hoard, and sleep, and feed, and know not me.
I cannot rest from travel; I will drink
Life to the lees; all times I have enjoyed
Greatly, have suffered greatly, both with those
That loved me, and alone; on shore, and when
Through scudding drifts the rainy Hyades
51
Vext the dim sea; I am become a name;
For always roaming with a hungry heart
Much have I seen and known; cities of men
And manners, climates, councils, governments,
Myself not least, but honoured of them all;
And drunk delight of battle with my peers,
Far on the ringing plains of windy Troy.
I am a part of all that I have met;
Yet all experience is an arch wherethrough
Gleams that untravelled world, whose margin fades
For ever and for ever when I move.
How dull it is to pause, to make an end,
To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!
As though to breathe were life. Life piled on life
Were all too little, and of one to me
Little remains; but every hour is saved
From that eternal silence, something more,
A bringer of new things; and vile it were
For some three suns to store and hoard myself,
And this gray spirit yearning in desire

To follow knowledge like a sinking star,

Beyond the utmost bound of human thought.
This is my son, mine own Telemachus,
To whom I leave the sceptre and the isle-
Well-loved of me, discerning to fulfil
This labour, by slow prudence to make mild
A rugged people, and through soft degrees
Subdue them to the useful and the good.
Most blameless is he, centred in the sphere
Of common duties, decent not to fail
In offices of tenderness, and pay
Meet adoration to my household gods,
When I am gone. He works his work, I mine.

There lies the port, the vessel puffs her sail;

There gloom the dark broad seas. My mariners,
Souls that have toiled, and wrought, and thought with me
That ever with a frolic welcome took
The thunder and the sunshine, and opposed
Free hearts, free foreheads-you and I are old;
Old age hath yet his honour and his toil;
Death closes all; but something ere the end,
Some work of noble note, may yet be done,
Not unbecoming men that strove with gods.
The lights begin to twinkle from the rocks;
The long day wanes; the slow moon climbs; the deep
Moans round with many voices. Come, my friends,
52
‘Tis not too late to seek a newer world.
Push off, and sitting well in order smite
The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds
To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
Of all the western stars, until I die.
It may be that the gulfs will wash us down:
It may be we shall touch the Happy isles,
And see the great Achilles, whom we knew.
Tho’ much is taken, much abides; and tho’
We are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are;
One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.

3.1.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem
Introduction
Tennyson’s “Ulysses” is a dramatic monologue in form. The dramatic
monologue is defined by its external criteria like a speaker, a listener, a dramatic
moment and some interplay between the speaker and the listener. It is a long
speech by one person to a silent listener. In this poem, Ulysses alone speaks from
the beginning to the end. The mariners are the silent listeners. The dramatic
moment is the critical moment in the life of Ulysses when he decides to leave his
country and home to go in search of adventures and knowledge. The character of
Ulysses is not described but revealed.
Contempt for a Life of Ease
Ulysses, the King of Ithaca, is quite dissatisfied with his life in his native land.
The people of Ithaca do not know the worth and value of Ulysses. Tennyson
employs pejorative adjectives to bring out Ulysses’ unfavourable attitude towards
his home and country, laws and people. The underlined adjectives register Ulysses’
becoming fed up with his still hearth, barren crags, aged wife, unjust laws, and
savage people. There is no challenge in ruling such a people.
Love of Travel and Adventure
As a ruler, Ulysses finds it difficult to appreciate his people’s ways of life. They
hoard and sleep. They do not know his greatness. As a soldier, he has drunk the
delight of battle alone and with his peers on the plains of windy Troy and at
dangerous seas. As a traveler, he has seen cities of men, manners, climates,
councils, and governments.
A Restless Spirit
Ulysses is a restless spirit. He cannot rest from travel. He will drink life to the
lees. He has become a name for roaming with a hungry heart. He will not be a mere
stay-at-home without adventure. It is dull to rust unburnished, not to shine in use.
Mere breath is no life at all. The more he learns, the more there is yet to learn.
53

An Inspiring Leader
As a leader, Ulysses inspires his men in his address. He says that even a
series of births is not enough to acquire new knowledge. Hence Ulysses urges his
men to spend the remaining part of their lives wisely. Death closes all but
something before the end, some work of noble note may yet be done. Till one dies,
there is scope for action and so the last years should not be wasted. Old age has its
own honour and toil. It is not a period of rest or relaxation or recreation. Ceaseless
activity is the guiding principle of his life. He would not be an idle rusted sword to
be thrown away.
Ulysses’s Ambition
It is Ulysses’s purpose to sail beyond the sunset and the baths of all Western
stars and reach the Happy Isles. He would like to meet Achilles, the bravest of the
Greek heroes. He would like to follow knowledge beyond the utmost bound of
human thought. His motto is to strive, to seek, to find and not to yield.
A Contrast to His Son
Ulysses is an extrovert. He wants to go beyond the confines of his country.
Telemachus, his son, is an introvert. He has a limited view of life. In a way, he is a
far better man to be the King of Ithaca with the necessary qualities of patience and
forbearance. He will work in a slow and systematic manner to improve the rugged
people. He is most blameless and will do his temporal and spiritual duties in an
exemplary way.
Conclusion
In this monologue, a wild courage, a scorn for safety, a contempt for a life of
ease, and a desire for adventure and knowledge shine almost in every line. Ulysses
stands for the spirit of adventure, for the search of knowledge and for man’s
unconquerable will, unyielding courage and insatiable thirst to conquer the
frontiers of knowledge.
3.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Ulysses is quite dissatisfied with his home and country, his people and the law.
2. He can’t rest from travel. He’ll drink life to the lees. He is an extrovert but his
son is an introvert. “He works his; I mine.”
3. He decides to go in search of adventure beyond the paths of all western stars.
4. Till one dies, there is scope for action. Old age hath its own honour and toil.
Death closes all. “Ere the end some work of noble note may yet be done.”
5. His purpose is to strive, to seek, to find and not to yield.
3.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Of which country was Ulysses the king?
2. What was Ulysses dissatisfied with in life?
3. What was the ambition of Ulysses?
4. Bring out the differences between the attitude of Telemachus and Ulysses.
5. How is the love of travel and adventure brought out in this poem?
54

3.1.6 SUMMARY
Ulysses, the king of Ithaca, was one of the Greek heroes who participated in
the Trojan War. His strategy enabled the Greeks to win the long-drawn out war. He
returned to his native land after an interval of 20 years.
Ulysses is quite dissatisfied with his home and country and his people and
laws. So he decides to leave Ithaca and set sail for the farthest regions of the then
unknown world in search of adventures and knowledge. In his address to his
mariners he urges his companions to accompany him on a voyage of discovery. In
contrast to his son, a stay-at-home, he is for restless travel and adventure.
The theme of this poem is based on Homer’s Odyssey and Dante’s Divine
Comedy. Tennyson’s hero combines in himself the god-like valour of Homer’s
Odyssey and Dante’s hero. Ulysses represents the unquenchable spirit of adventure
and entrepreneurship of the Victorian world.
3.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. What is Ulysses’ goal in life?
2. What is Ulysses’ message to the sailors?
3. What makes Ulysses think it is futile to be the King of Ithaca?
4. What do you learn of Ulysses?
5. What do we gather about Ulysses’ son?
6. Bring out Ulysses’ attitude to his wife, son, subjects, country and laws.
3.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
3.1.8.1 About the Poet:
Alfred Tennyson was born in 1809. He was the fourth son of the Rector of
Somersby in Lincolnshire. He was educated at home by his father and at the Louch
Grammar School. In 1828, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he made
the acquaintance of a band of able young men, which included his greatest friend,
Arthur Henry Hallam.
Already in 1827, Tennyson's earliest verse, full of echoes of Scott, Byron and
Moore, and containing some individual touches of vivid description, had appeared
under the title of 'Poems by Two brothers'. His first original verses were issued as
Poems, Chiefly lyrical in 1830 followed by Poems in 1833. The poems in these
volumes are very unequal, and many of them underwent in successive appearances
a process of elaborate revision, while others were neglected. "The result of this
severe discipline, of the unwearied effort to secure by vividness of presentation,
significant detail, a clear flute-like melody of vowel and consonant, the perfect
expression of the mood of which each poem was a rendering", is evident in the two
volumes of 1842 Poems of Alfred Tennyson.
Like Spenser, Tennyson is most delightfully a poet in poems that strive to be
no more than "decorative and musical rendering of a dreamy mood". Recollelctions
of the Arabian Nights, The Dying Swan, The Lady of Shalott, Mariana, The Lotus-
Eaters, The Talking Oak, Sir Launcelot and Queen Guinevere are poems which only
he could have written. But the dramatic, the philosophic and the didactic spirit was
55
moving Tennyson to produce poems of varying merit: dramatic studies, as the now
perfected one, Sir Galahad and St. Agne's eve, Morte d' Arthur, and Ulysses in
which Tennyson's finished art is given a deeper emotional quality; metaphysical
poems, like The Two Voices and The Vision of Sin, the latter not more characteristic
of Tennyson's fundamental thought and hope than of his curious metrical felicity.
In others like Locksley Hall and the English Idylls, Tennyson's art is used to
embroider themes inspired by a vein of sentiment more victorian than perennial.
Tennyson's range of topics is fully represented in the 1842 volumes-studies of
moods, English rural life, mediaeval romance, classical legend, the mysteries of life
and death and immortality.
His later poems are a fuller elaboration of these, with an art that tends to grow
more precious and in a spirit, which grows more didactic. ''The Princes'' (1847) is
adorned with some of the loveliest of Tennyson's highly sophisticated lyrics. ''In
Memoriam'' (1850), the work of many years, expresses in a poem of one hundred
and thirty-two sections, each rendering of a single mood, Tennyson's sorrow for the
death of a friend and his brooding over death and the problems of modern science.
''The Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington'' (1852) and ''Maud and Other
Poems'' (1855) are rather striking examples of Tennyson's command of metrical
effects and the power of adapting his varying cadence to changes of mood.
The great work of Tennyson's middle years was the ''Idylls of the King'',
published in batches from 1857 onwards till 1885. In a style of chiselled, polished,
jewelled exquisiteness, the poet told a series of stories from Malory's Morte d'
Arthur. In these Idylls he strove, not altogether successfully, to modify the
chivalrous catholic spirit of the originals by the infusion of a modern, vaguely
religious, philanthropic, and somewhat maidenly sentiment. ''Enock Arden'' (1864),
a simple story that Crabbe might have told in his bare manner, is decorated with all
the resources of Tennyson's blank verse and coloured description. His dialect
poems, ''Northern Farmer'', ''Old Style and New Style'', are happier renderings of
rural themes.
In his last years Tennyson wrote some poems of a direct and piercing power
which are likely to outlive his more ambitious places. His closing strains in
'Crossing the Bar'
"Will my tiny spark of being wholly vanish
In your deeps and heights"
mark the Stoic-Christian spirit in which he faced the trial. Tennyson was raised to
the peerage in 1884, and died pre-eminent among the poets of Victorian England,
in 1892. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
3.1.8.2 Contrast between Ulysses and Telemachus
The father and the son are different in their interest and inclination,
temperament and training. Telemachus is a stay-at-home. He knows how to control
and subdue a savage race. He has the public spirit, sympathy and devotion to his
duties. He can also worship the family gods. But Ulysses is no stay-at-home. He is
56
fed up with governing a savage race with unequal laws. He does not enjoy the
company of his aged wife. He wants to set out on a voyage to the Happy Isles. He
cannot rest from travel. He wants to follow knowledge beyond the utmost bound of
human thought. Ulysses’s words “He works his work and I mine” bring out the
contrast between the father and the son.
3.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. “Ulysses” as a dramatic monologue in form.
2. The Theme of Ulysses.
3. Tennyson as a Poet.
3.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. G.K. Chesterton – The Victorian Age in Literature.
2. O. Elton – The Survey of English Literature 1830-1880.
3. F.L. Lucas – Ten Victorian Poets.
4. C. Ricks – Tennyson.
5. W.c. De Vane – A Browning Handbook.
6. C.B. Tinker – The Poetry of Matthew Arnold.
7. O. Doughty – A Victorian Romantic: Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
3.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Bring out Ulysses’s attitude to his wife, son, subjects, country, and laws.
3.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Barren crags – infertile rocks.
2. Mete and dole – measure out and give in small quantities.
3. Vext – troubled.
4. Gleams – shines
5. Unburnish’d – unpolished.
6. Discerning – knowing.
7. Prudence – practical wisdom.
8. Free hearts – hearts free from sorrow.
9. Free foreheads – clear minds.
10. Gulfs – whirlpools.

57
LESSON – 2

3.2 MY LAST DUCHESS – Robert Browning

STRUCTURE
3.2.1 Objectives
3.2.2 Introduction
3.2.3 Contents
3.2.4 Revision Point
3.2.5 In text Question
3.2.6 Summary
3.2.7 Terminal Exercises
3.2.8 Supplementary materials
3.2.9 Assignments
3.2.10 Suggested Readings
3.2.11 Learning Activities
3.2.12 Key Words
3.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to a dramatic monologue by Browning that shows the
poet’s deep understanding of human nature in general and his penetrating insight
into the motives and thoughts of a typical renaissance character in general.
3.2.2 INTRODUCTION
Robert Browning (1812-1888) was one of the most famous of the Victorian
poets. He was greatly interested in music, painting and other allied arts. He
combined religious and moral overtones in his poetry. He was a true psychologist.
He was interested in portraying not the externals of his hero but the subtleties of
human behaviour. He used the device of psychological case studies very effectively
to depict his characters. Some of his poetry is rather obscure, but throughout it
reflects a robust optimism. “My Last Duchess” is among the early dramatic
monologues of Browning.
The Duke of this poem is, perhaps, Alfonso II, the Fifth Duke of Ferrara. The
Duke points at the beautiful full-length portrait of his dead Duchess and explains
to the envoy the cause of the moment of joy on her cheeks. Casual remarks she
considered compliments. She smiled at every one. She was pleased with everyone
and everything. She ranked the Duke’s gift the same way as she ranked anybody’s.
Browning portrays him as a cruel and cunning person who cannot bear the thought
of his wife giving expression to her instinctive joy at whatever is good and beautiful.
She is suspected to have been put to death at the behest of her husband, barely
three years after their wedding.
58

3.2.3 CONTENT
3.2.3.1 The Text of the poem, “My Last Duchess.”
That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall,
Looking as if she were alive. I call
That piece a wonder, now: Fra Pandolf’s hands
Worked busily a day, and there she stands.
Will’t please you sit and look at her? I said
“Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read
Strangers like you that pictured countenance,
The depth and passion of its earnest glance,
But to myself they turned (since none puts by
The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)
And seemed as they would ask me, if they durst,
How such a glance came there; so, not the first
Are you to turn and ask thus, Sir, ‘t was not
Her husband’s presence only, called that spot
Of joy into the Duchess’ cheek; perhaps
Fra Pandolf chanced to say “Her mantle laps
Over my Lady’s wrist too much,” or “Paint
Must never hope to reproduce the faint
Half-flush that dies along her throat”: such stuff
Was courtesy, she thought, and cause enough
For calling up that spot of joy. She had
A heart-how shall I say? – too soon made glad,
Too easily impressed; she liked whate’er
She looked on, and her looks went everywhere.
Sir, ‘t was all one! My favour at her breast,
The dropping of the daylight in the West,
The bough of cherries some officious fool
Broke in the orchard for her, the white mule
She rode with round the terrace-all and each
Would draw from her alike the approving speech,
Or blush, at least. She thanked men-good! but thanked
Somehow – I know not how – as if she ranked
My gift of a nine-hundred – years – old name
With anybody’s gift. Who’d stoop to blame
This sort of trifling? Even had you skill
59
In speech – (which I have not) – to make your will
Quite clear to such an one, and say, “Just this
Or that in you disgusts me; here you miss,
Or there exceed the mark” – and if she let
Herself be lessoned so, nor plainly set
Her wits to yours, forsooth, and made excuse,
-E’en then would be some stooping; and I choose
Never to stoop. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt,
Whene’er I passed her; but who passed without
Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;
Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands
As if alive.Will’t please you rise? We’ll meet
The company below, then, I repeat,
The Count your Master’s known munificence
Is ample warrant that no just pretence
Of mine for dowry will be disallowed;
Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed
At starting, is my object. Nay, we’ll go
Together down, sir. Notice Neptune, though,
Taming a sea-horse, thought a rarity,
Which Claus of Innsbruck cast in bronze for me!

3.2.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem:
Introduction
“My Last Duchess” by Browning is a dramatic monologue. The dramatic
monologue is defined by its external criteria like a speaker, a listener, a dramatic
moment and some interplay between the speaker and the listener. It is a long
speech by one person to a silent listener. The dramatic moment is the critical
moment in the Duke’s life when he decides not to stoop to correct the erring
Duchess. The author keeps himself in the background. The characters are not
described but revealed by hints and suggestions. The monologue brings out the
contrast between the authoritative, arrogant, jealous, selfish, cruel and callous
Duke of Ferrara and the simple, humble, loving, lovable, innocent and pure
Duchess, his former wife.
The Picture of the Last Duchess
The poem “My Last Duchess” begins with the Duke of Ferrara showing off a
beautiful full-length portrait of his dead Duchess painted on the wall. She looks as
if she were alive. He describes her beauty to the envoy who has met him with an
60
offer of marriage from his Count. It is a wonderful piece of art painted by Fra
Pandolf. The very sight of the picture of the last Duchess provokes anyone to ask
for the cause of the spot of joy on her cheeks.
Pleased with Everyone
There is the spot of joy on the Duchess’s cheeks. It was there not because of
her husband’s presence. Even a casual remark by the painter, Fra Pandolf, that her
upper cloth fell too much on her wrist and that paint could never reproduce the
half-flush along her throat drew the spot of joy into her cheeks. Such casual
comments she took as compliments and blushed with joy. The Duchess’s smile is
born out of innocence.
A Lady with a Heart of Gold
The lady had a heart of gold easily impressed. She liked whatever she looked
on and her looks went everywhere. The Duke’s costly gift and a fool’s bough of
cherries brought the same spot of joy on her cheeks. She thanked everyone the
same way as she thanked her husband. She ranked the gift of her husband with
anybody’s. She showed no special consideration for his ancestry. The Duke’s
jealousy, egoism and pride are reflected in the Duke’s attitude.
The Duke’s Irritation
The Duke thought it beneath his dignity to tell her about her mistake. The
Duke confesses that he had no skill to tell her that she displeased him in this or in
that or that she exceeded the limit in this or in that. She smiled when the Duke
passed by but she smiled at everyone who passed by. He did not relish his
‘property’ (The Duchess)trifling with others. Too proud to stoop or correct her, the
Duke commanded her to stop smiling. The poor little thing pined and died.
Perhaps, she was put to death. The Duke’s self-importance and pride are brought
out here.
The Duke’s Avarice and Arrogance
The Duke tells the envoy that he knows too well his master’s generosity and
that he hopes that his master won’t refuse his desire of dowry. While moving out of
the room, the Duke shows him the statue of Neptune taming the sea horse. The
Duke’s avarice is evident in his reference to the size of the dowry expected. Neptune
taming a sea-horse is an indication of the way in which the last Duchess was
tamed. It is also a subtle warning to the prospective duchess. She too must join the
picture gallery.
Conclusion
Here is the picture of a man charged with overwhelming possessiveness,
uncompromising egotism and self-complacency. She must bend everything to his
inviolate will. The salient traits of the Duke’s personality, his aristocratic hauteur,
his cruelty, callousness and connoisseurship of the arts are subtly and delicately
etched.
61
3.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. An envoy has met the Duke of Ferrara with an offer of marriage. The Duke
points to the envoy the beautiful full length portrait of her dead Duchess. There
is a spot of joy on the Duchess’s cheeks.
2. The Duke explains to the envoy the cause of the moment of joy on her cheeks.
It was there not because of the presence of her husband. Even casual remarks
she considered compliments.
3. The Duke’s costly gift and a fool’s bough of grapes brought the same spirit of
joy on her cheeks.
4. She smiled when the Duke passed by and she smiled at every one who passed
by.
5. The Duke thought it beneath his dignity to tell her about her mistakes. Too
proud to stoop, he commanded her to stop smiling. Then all her smiles
stopped.
6. The poem is a metaphorical representation of the callous, dehumanizing and
petrifying Victorian materialism.
3.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How does Browning portray Duke Ferrara?
2. Compare and contrast the character of the Duke with the dead Duchess.
3. What does the Duke say about Fra Pandolf who drew the portrait of his
Duchess?
4. How did the Duchess die?
5. Why does the Duke refer to the statue of Neptune toward the end of the poem?
3.2.6 SUMMARY
My Last Duchess is a dramatic monologue. It brings out the contrast between
the arrogant, jealous, selfish and cruel Duke of Ferrara and the simple, humble,
lovable, innocent and pure Duchess, his former wife. It is a beautiful art poem and
a character study of the Duke of Ferrara and his wife. The Duke describes a
beautiful portrait of his wife Duchess to the envoy. It is a wonderful piece of art
painted by Friar Pandolf.
There is a spot of joy on the Duchess’s cheeks. Her smile is born out of
innocence. In fact, she is a lady with a heart of gold. A gift, whether from her
husband or from a fool, brought the same spot of joy from her face. The Duke felt
irritated by this attitude of his wife. Unlike his wife, he is a man charged with
overwhelming possessiveness, uncompromising egotism and self-complacency. The
Duke finally shows the envoy the statue of Neptune taming the sea horse. It is an
indication of the way in which the last Duchess was tamed and a subtle warning to
the prospective duchess.
3.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on “My Last Duchess” as a dramatic monologue.
2. What do you learn of the speaker’s character in “My Last Duchess”?
62
3. What do you know of the character of the Duchess?
4. Write on Browning’s contribution to English poetry.
5. Bring out the Duke’s avarice and arrogance as portrayed in this poem.
3.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
3.2.8.1 About the Poet:
Browning was born on 7th May 1812, in Camberwell, a section of London
south of Thames. His father and paternal grand-father were bank clerks; his
maternal garnd-father was a merchant and they were dissenters in religion.
Browning combined several racial strains of blood, but, what is more important, his
immediate progenitors, though engaged in financial and commercial employments,
were people of marked intellectuality and individuality. He was not sent to any of
the public schools nor to either of the universities and is thus one of the exceptions
in the great body of English writers. He was, however, carefully educated at home,
and in 1827 attended for a short time the Greek class in the University of London.
He had heard of Shelley and begged his mother to procure his poems, and it is a
noteworthy fact that when she inquired for them none of the local booksellers knew
of the name. She was able, however, after some search, to procure everything.
Shelley had written except the "Cenci", in the first editions, and the dealer throw in
Keats's poems to make weight. In 1832, Browning published a poem, "Pauline",
which, though immature, is marked by Browning's peculiarities. It received some
slight appreciative notice, and in 1835 the young poet published a longer blank-
verse poem "Paracelsus", a work of decided original force. It was many years before
Browning received any public recognition of his prowess. As his income was
sufficient for his support and he was cheered by the approval of a few appreciative
judges, he continued to write. A drama from his pen on the fate of Thomas
Wnetworth, Earl of Strafford, was brought out on the stage with indifferent success.
In 1840 he published "Sordello", a semi-epic poem of great length, depicting the
career of an artistic soul. This is generally regarded as the most obscure and
enigmatical of his poems. Between 1841 and 1846 a publisher Moxon by name,
brought out eight numbers of the series of pamphlets entitled "Bells and
Pomegranates". - Browning frequently exhibited a perverse originality in giving title
to his poems. The first of which contained the beautiful, semi-dramatic poem. -
"Pippa Passes" and the others, much of his best work, including "My Last Duchess",
"Waring", "Court Gismond", An Incident of the French Camp", and the "Pied Piper of
Hamelin". His dramas, written with some reference to stage production, appeared in
the same series -at least several of them did. Of them, "Colombe's Birthday" and "A
Blot in the Scutcheon" are great poems, and the others, "Luria", the "Return of the
Druses", and "King Victor and King charles", are powerful, if slightly enigmatical.
In 1846 he married the poetess, Elizabeth Barret, and till her death in 1861
resided in Italy. The marriage was a happy one, - indeed, quite ideally so, - and
their home in Florence was a centre of poetic and refined influences. He published
"Christmas Eve" and "Easter Day" in 1850, and "Men and Women" in 1855, and the
63
long poem, "Ring and the Book", in 1869. From 1871 to 1884 he wrote a great deal,
his last volume, "Asolando", appearing in 1889, but a short time before his death.
3.2.8.2 What is the Duke’s complaint about the dead Duchess?
The Duchess smiled at one and all with the same spot of joy as she did at the
Duke. She was pleased with everything the same way as she was with the present
from her husband. Be it the sunset or the white mule, or the costly gift from her
husband or a bunch of cherries from a fool, it produced the same glow of happiness
on her cheeks. She thanked the high and the low, her husband and an ordinary
fool in the same way. She did not consider the Duke a special man.
3.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics.
1. Dramatic Monologue.
2. Robert Browning, the Poet.
3. The theme of the prescribed poem.
4. Characteristics of Victorian Poetry.
3.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. G.K. Chesterton – The Victorian Age in Literature.
2. O. Elton – The Survey of English Literature 1830-1880.
3. F.L. Lucas – Ten Victorian Poets.
4. C. Ricks – Tennyson.
5. W.C. Vane – A Browning Handbook.
6. C.B. Tinker – The Poetry of Matthew Arnold.
7. O. Doughty – A Victorian Romantic: Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
3.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Bring out the salient features of the dramatic monologue.
3.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Earnest glance – ardent (enthusiastic) look.
2. Bough – branch.
3. Orchard – fruit-garden.
4. Trifling – light hearted behaviour.
5. Avowed – Declared

64
LESSON – 3

3.3 ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE

STRUCTURE
3.3.1 Objectives
3.3.2 Introduction
3.3.3 Contents
3.3.4 Revision Point
3.3.5 In text Question
3.3.6 Summary
3.3.7 Terminal Exercises
3.3.8 Supplementary materials
3.3.9 Assignments
3.3.10 Suggested Readings
3.3.11 Learning Activities
3.3.12 Key Words
3.3.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to provide the necessary basic knowledge of English grammar
to students. By providing this basic knowledge, it also aims to enable them to use
grammatically correct English in their day-to-day endeavours.
3.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Passive voice refers to the construction in which the logical object of a verb
becomes its grammatical subject, while its logical subject is either reduced to a
prepositional phrase introduced by or removed from the sentence altogether. In
this lesson, let us learn passive voice in some detail. Active voice is used in a clause
whose subject expresses the main verb's agent. That is, the subject does the verb's
designated action. A clause whose agent is marked as grammatical subject is called
an active clause. In contrast, a clause in which the subject has the role of patient or
theme is named a passive clause, and its verb is expressed in passive voice. Many
languages have both an active and a passive voice and this allows for greater
flexibility in sentence construction, as either the semantic agent or patient may
take the subject syntactic role.
3.3.3 CONTENTS
Study the following sentences.
1. Mohan painted this picture.
2. This picture was painted by Mohan.
Both the sentences convey the same sense. But they are different in form. In
sentence 1, the subject of the sentence Mohan does the action ‘painted’. In sentence
2, the subject of the verb ‘this picture’ has the action done to it. It was painted.
When the subject of the verb is the doer of the action expressed by the verb (as in
65
sentence No. 1) that verb is in the Active Voice. When the subject of the verb suffers
the action (as in sentence No 2), the verb is in the Passive Voice.
DEFINITION
Active Voice – The subject acts.
Passive Voice – The subject is acted upon.
While changing from active to passive we do three things.
a) The object in sentence No. 1 becomes the subject in sentence No. 2.
b) The verb changes its form.
c) The subject in the active voice becomes a noun or pronoun in the
accusative case and is governed by a preposition.
Only transitive verbs (the verbs which take objects) can be changed from the
active to the passive voice.
We prefer passive voice when we want to lay stress on the result of the action.
E.g: 1. A bridge was built across the river. (who built the bridge is not our
concern)
2. It was announced over the radio.
Study the following sentences:
1. Mohan gave his son Ram a book.
In this sentence there are two objects a book, direct object, son Ram, indirect
object.
Passive voice
1. A book was given to Ram by Mohan.
2. Ram was given a book by Mohan
More examples change of voice
Active Voice: 1. He is writing a letter.
2. He was arranging the books.
The verb is present continuous,
Passive Voice: 1. A letter is being written by him,
2. The books were being arranged by him,
Study the following sentences
1. Release the prisoners. (There is no subject. It is in the imperative mood).
2. Let the prisoners be released. (Passive Voice)
3. Sound the trumpets.
4. Let the trumpets be sounded (Passive Voice)
5. Shut the door.
6. Let the door be shut. (Passive Voice)
66
More examples
1. The prisoner had carved the letters on the wall. (Active)
2. The letters had been carved on the wall by the prisoner. (Passive)
3. What did they buy in the shop?
4. What was bought by them in the shop?
5. Where will they send these prisoners?
6. Where will these prisoners be sent by them?
3.3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Active voice means the subject acts upon.
2. Passive voice means the subject is acted upon.
3. While changing from active to passive voice three things are done.
4. The object in sentence No.1 becomes the subject in sentence No.2.
5. The verb changes its form.
6. The subject in the active voice becomes a noun or pronoun in the accusative
case and is governed by a preposition.
7. Only transitive verbs can be changed from the active to the passive voice.
8. We prefer passive voice when we want to lay stress on the result of the action.
3.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Bring out the differences between the active and the passive voice.
2. How does the subject and object interchange positions when the conversion
from active to passive is done?
3. What happens to the verb when active voice is changed into passive voice?
4. What happens to the subject in the active voice when it is converted into passive
voice?
5. When do we prefer using the passive voice generally speaking?
3.3.6 SUMMARY
Active voice means the subject acts upon. Passive voice means the subject is
acted upon.
While changing from active to passive voice three things are done. The object
in sentence No.1 becomes the subject in sentence No.2. The verb changes its form.
The subject in the active voice becomes a noun or pronoun in the accusative case
and is governed by a preposition. Only transitive verbs can be changed from the
active to the passive voice. We prefer passive voice when we want to lay stress on
the result of the action.
3.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
EXERCISE
1. You must do this exercise.
2. Who killed Cock Robin?
3. They say he has escaped.
4. The government has decided to give dole to the unemployed.
5. Bring in the prisoner.
67
6. He was drawing a picture.
7. He has given me a suitable explanation.
3.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
More examples change of voice
Active Voice: 1. He is writing a letter.
2. He was arranging the books.
The verb is present continuous,
Passive Voice: 1. A letter is being written by him,
2. The books were being arranged by him,
3.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. Try forming passive sentences of your own applying the rules you have learnt
just now.
3.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Modern English Grammar – Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
2. Living English Structures – William Stanard Allen.
3.3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Refer the above-mentioned grammar books and work out the exercises
provided in them relating to passive sentences.
3.3.12 KEYWORDS
1. Prisoner – a person legally committed to prison.
2. Carved – cut into or shape in order to produce an object or design.
3. Trumpet –a brass musical instrument with a flared bell, and a sharp piercing
tone.

68
UNIT – IV
LESSON – 1

4.1 INSENSIBILITY – Wilfred Owen

STRUCTURE
4.1.1 Objectives
4.1.2 Introduction
4.1.3 Contents
4.1.4 Revision Point
4.1.5 In text Question
4.1.6 Summary
4.1.7 Terminal Exercises
4.1.8 Supplementary materials
4.1.9 Assignments
4.1.10 Suggested Readings
4.1.11 Learning Activities
4.1.12 Key Words
4.1.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to a powerful poem that highlights the heartless
cruelties of war and elaborates on how the war kills man’s sensibility.
4.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Wilfred Owen (1893 – 1918) is chiefly known as a war-poet. He always pleaded
for the cessation of all hostilities by emphasizing the pity of war. He was himself
killed in action only a week before the Armistice. The brutalities of war aroused
bitter anger, resentment and pity in him. His poetry expresses a typical soldier’s
indignation, private fear and agony in the war-front. Its authenticity is derived from
the poet’s personal experience of war.
With bitter irony, Wilfred Owen presents in “Insensibility” the dehumanizing
effect of war on man. Every line of this poem throbs with emotion. The poet’s
personal experience of war has given the poem a ring of authenticity it brings into
focus the brutality and inhumanity of war.
4.1.3 CONTENTS
4.1.3.1 The Text of the poem, “Insensibility” 1
Happy are men who yet before they are killed
Can let their veins run cold,
Whom no compassion fleers
Or makes their feet
Sore on the alleys cobbled with their brothers.
The front line withers,
But they are troops who fade, not flowers
For poet’s tearful fooling;
Men gaps for filling;
Losses who might have fought
Longer; but no one bothers,
69
2
And some cease feeling
Even themselves or for themselves.
Dullness best solves
The tease and doubt of shelling,
And chance‘s strange arithmetic
Comes simpler than the reckoning of their shilling,
They keep no check on armies’ decimation.
3
Happy are these who lose imagination:
They have enough to carry with ammunition.
Their spirit drags no pack,
There old wounds save with cold can not more ache.
Having seen all things red.
Their eyes are rid
Of the hurt of the colour of blood for ever,
And terror’s first constriction over,
Their hearts remain small-drawn
Their senses in some scorching cattery of battle
Now long since ironed.
Can laugh among the dying, unconcerned.
4
Happy the soldier home, with not a notion
How somewhere, every dawn, some men attack.
And many sighs are drained.
Happy the lad whose mind was never trained;
His days are worth forgetting more than not.
He sings along the march
Which we march taciturn, because of dusk.
The long, forlorn, relentless trend
From larger day to huger night.
5
We wise, who with a thought besmirch
Blood over all our soul,
How should we see our task
But through his blunt and lashless eyes?
Alive, he is not vital overmuch;
Dying, not mortal overmuch;
Nor Sad
Nor proud,
Nor curious at all.
He cannot tell
Old men’s placidity from his.
70
6
But cursed are dullards whom no cannon stuns,
That they should be as stones;
Wretched are they and mean
With paucity that never was simplicity.
By choice they made themselves immune
To pity and whatever mourns in man
Before the last sea and the hapless stars:
Whatever mourns when many leave these shores?
Whatever shares
The eternal reciprocity of tears.

4.1.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem.
Introduction
The poem “Insensibility” by Wilfred Owen is a powerful condemnation of man’s
failure to sympathise with his unfortunate fellow-men. The poem exposes the
horrors of war. War turns man into a savage, it stifles his sensibility and robs him
of all finer feelings. His blood runs cold in him; he knows no compassion; he feels
no pity; he sheds no tears.
No Sense of Pity for the Slain Soldiers
Owen writes about the callousness of soldiers and not about their heroism in
war. Soldiers are lacking in pity for their comrades. They march along, trampling on
the dead bodies of their fallen comrades. They have no sympathy for their comrades
mowed down by the enemy in the front line. Most of them are the youth of the
country, the finest flowers. But the unfeeling soldiers think that it is sentimental
nonsense to weep for them.
No Botheration for the Loss of Human Lives
No one is bothered about the loss of so much human material. The hardened
soldiers feel that there is no need to mourn the death of their comrades. The gaps
in the ranks caused by their death are soon filled by a fresh batch of soldiers. The
incalculable element in war is less puzzling to the soldiers than the figures in their
pay-bills.
No Demonstration of Finer Feelings
An average soldier is never known for the finer feelings which make a man’s
life rich. Neither the spilling of blood nor the booming of guns moves him to tears.
Soldiers do not shrink with disgust from the sight of blood as it is too common on
the battlefield. Their senses are burnt by the cautery (hot iron). Their sense of
feelings is so much scared that they can laugh at the sight of their comrade’s death.
He does not, cannot understand the value of a tranquil life and a peaceful end to it,
for he does not know the difference between the tranquil end of a well-lived life and
the hysterical end of his own contemptible life.
71
Irony in the Poem
The whole poem “Insensibility” except for the last section is couched in irony.
There is an ironic twist in the poet’s readiness to forgive the soldiers who lose the
sense of pity for their comrades. For they know fully well they themselves are to be
fodder to the cannon. There is a tinge of irony when the poet regards it a blessing to
be devoid of feeling, for they are unaware of the hazards of the battle. Happy are the
soldiers deprived of imagination for it would only add to the burden of ammunition
they have to carry. It is better not to know feelings at all. There is irony when the
poet preaches “Let us not be moved by the blood shed on the battle-field. We shall
learn to look at it through the eyes of the callous soldiers.” A soldier’s life is not of
much value when he is alive, for he does not lead a rich life (full of feeling). So when
he is dead, nothing much is lost. In all these the poet means the opposite.
Conclusion
In the final section of the poem, the poet abandons irony and openly condemns
the brutalized soldier who is not shocked by the booming of the cannon. The quality
of pity should always spring in the human bosom. It is regrettable that this spirit is
dried up in us. The concluding lines are a vehement protest against man’s
inhumanity to man.
4.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. The poem “Insensibility” is a condemnation of man’s failure to sympathise with
his unfortunate fellow men.
2. War turns man into a savage. Soldiers have no sympathy for their comrades
mowed down by the enemy. But the unfeeling soldier feels that it is sentimental
nonsense to weep for them.
3. Soldiers do not shrink with doubt from the sight of blood on the battle-field.
4. Soldiers do not, cannot understand the value of a tranquil life and a peaceful
end to it.
5. The whole poem, except for the last section, is couched in irony. Irony is there
in the poet’s readiness to forgive the soldiers who have no pity for the slain
soldiers and in the poet’s reference to the soldier’s lack of feeling which is a
blessing.
6. In the final section, the poet openly condemns the brutalized soldier who is not
shocked by the spilling of blood and the booming of guns.
4.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Who are the war poets?
2. In what way is this poem a severe condemnation of the unsympathetic
mankind?
3. What callous attitude of the soldiers is vehemently criticized by the poet?
4. What according to the poet is the difference between a soldier and a man?
5. Why does the poet say that soldiers live a contemptible life when compared to
an average man?
72
4.1.6 SUMMARY
“Insensibility” is an ironical poem bringing to light the dehumanizing effect of
war on humanity. It is a powerful condemnation of man’s failure to sympathize
with his unfortunate fellow-human being. The horrors of war are powerfully
presented by Owen. He first talked about the callousness of the soldiers who have
no sense of pity for the slain soldiers. The unfeeling soldiers feel that it is
sentimental nonsense to weep for the killed comrades. The loss of precious lives
bothers none and there is also no room for humane aspects and finer feelings.
Irony is used by Owen to bring out the horrors of war. However, in the last section
of the poem, he abandons irony and openly condemns the brutal attitude of the
soldiers. War is man’s inhumanity to man.
4.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Write an account of War poetry?
2. Consider Wilfred Owen as a war poet.
3. Bring out the irony in the poem “Insensibility.”
4. What is the message of the poem “Insensibility.”
5. Attempt a critical appreciation of the poem.
4.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Irony in the Poem
The whole poem “Insensibility” except for the last section is couched in irony.
There is an ironic twist in the poet’s readiness to forgive the soldiers who lose the
sense of pity for their comrades. For they know fully well they themselves are to be
fodder to the cannon. There is a tinge of irony when the poet regards it a blessing to
be devoid of feeling, for they are unaware of the hazards of the battle. Happy are the
soldiers deprived of imagination for it would only add to the burden of ammunition
they have to carry. It is better not to know feelings at all. There is irony when the
poet preaches “Let us not be moved by the blood shed on the battle-field. We shall
learn to look at it through the eyes of the callous soldiers.” A soldier’s life is not of
much value when he is alive, for he does not lead a rich life (full of feeling). So when
he is dead, nothing much is lost. In all these the poet means the opposite.
Conclusion
In the final section of the poem, the poet abandons irony and openly condemns
the brutalized soldier who is not shocked by the booming of the cannon. The quality
of pity should always spring in the human bosom. It is regrettable that this spirit is
dried up in us. The concluding lines are a vehement protest against man’s
inhumanity to man.
4.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Justify that this poem talks of man’s inhumanity to his fellow men.
2. War Poets
3. The theme of the prescribed poem.
73
4.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. A.C. Ward – Twentieth Century Literature.
2. H. Gardner – The Art of T.S. Eliot.
3. F.O. Matthiessen – The Achievement of T.S. Eliot.
4. A.N. Jeffares – W.B. Yeats: Man and Poet.
5. S. Spender – D.H. Lawrence: Novelist, Poet and Prophet.
4.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Analyze the images in the poem that talk of the soldiers as brutal and inhuman
forces.
4.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Alleys – narrow streets.
2. Scorching cautery – burning hot iron.
3. Taciturn – silently.
4. Curious – interested.
5. Reciprocity – mutuality.

74
LESSON – 2

4.2 SNAKE – D.H. Lawrence

STRUCTURE
4.2.1 Objectives
4.2.2 Introduction
4.2.3 Contents
4.2.4 Revision Point
4.2.5 In text Question
4.2.6 Summary
4.2.7 Terminal Exercises
4.2.8 Supplementary materials
4.2.9 Assignments
4.2.10 Suggested Readings
4.2.11 Learning Activities
4.2.12 Key Words
4.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to an unconventional poem of the controversial
novelist D.H. Lawrence that expresses the poet’s antipathy towards the insensitive
attitude and feelings bred in man by “accursed” education and modern mechanical
civilization.
4.2.2 INTRODUCTION
Lawrence’s (1885-1930) stature and ability as a poet have long been the
subject of critical debate. He is better known for his controversial novels such as
Lady Chatterley’s Lover and Sons and Lovers than for his poetry. Lawrence’s poetry
is merely ‘prose chopped up into line formation.’ His poems—except for the select
few –read more like outline notes for poem. In his earlier career, he did not regard
poetry as of great importance. At that stage, he regarded the novels as of prime
importance. Later, he realized a new value in poetry. An outspoken moralist, he
repelled many of his readers by his interest in sex and psychology. Born amidst
poverty, brutality and drink, he rebelled against customs and conventions.
4.2.3 CONTENT
4.2.3 The Text of the poem, “Snake “
A snake came to my water - trough
On a hot, hot day and I in pyjamas for the heat,
To drink there.
In the deep, strange-scented shade of the great dark carob-tree
I came down the steps with my pitcher
And must wait, must stand and wait; for there he was at the trough before me.
75
He reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the gloom.
And trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied down, over the edge of the
stone trough.
And rested his throat upon the stone bottom,
And where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small clearness,
He sipped with his straight mouth,
Softly drank through his straight gums, into his long slack body,
Silently.

Someone was before me at my water-trough,

And I, like a second comer, waiting.

He lifted his head from his drinking, as cattle do,

And looked at me vaguely, as drinking cattle do,
And flickered his two-forked tongue from his lips, and mused a moment,
And stooped and drank a little more,
Being earth-brown, earth-golden from the burning bowels of the earth.
On the day of Sicilian July, with Etna smoking.
The voice of my education said to me
He must be killed,
For in Sicily the black, black snakes are innocent, the gold are venomous.
And voices in me said: If you were a man
You would take a stick and break him now, and finish him off.

But must I confess how l liked him,

How glad I was he had come like a guest in quiet, to drink at my water-trough
And depart peaceful, pacified, and thankless,
Into the burning bowels of the earth?
Was it cowardice, that I dared not kill him?
Was it perversity, that I longed to talk to him?
Was it humility, to feel so honoured?
I felt so honoured.

And yet those voices:

If you were not afraid, you would kill him!
And truly I was afraid, I was most afraid,
But even so, honoured still more
That he should seek my hospitality
From out the dark door of the secret earth.
76
He drank enough
And lifted his head, dreamily, as one who has drunken,
And flickered his tongue like a forked night on the air, so black;
Seeming to lick his lips,
And looked around like a god, unseeing, into the air,
And slowly turned his head,
And slowly, very slowly, as if thrice adream,
Proceeded to draw his slow length curving round
And climb again the broken bank of my wall-face.

And as he put his head into that dreadful hole,

And as he slowly drew up, snake-easing his shoulders, and entered farther,
A sort of horror, a sort of protest against his withdrawing into that horrid
black hole,
Deliberately going into the blackness, and slowly drawing himself after,
Overcame me now his back was turned.
I looked round, I put down my pitcher,
I picked up a clumsy log
And threw it at the water-trough with a clatter.

I think it did not hit him,

But suddenly that part of him that was left behind convulsed in undignified
haste,
Writhed like lightning and was gone
Into the black hole, the earth-lipped fissure in the wall front,
At which, in the intense still moon, l stared with fascination.
And immediately I regretted it.
I thought how paltry, how vulgar, what a mean act!
I despised myself and the voices of my accursed human education.

And I thought of the albatross,

And I wished he would come back, my snake.

For he seemed to me again like a king,

Like a king in exile, uncrowned in the underworld,
Now due to be crowned again.

And so, I missed my chance with one of the lords

Of life.
And I have something to expiate;
A pettiness.

77
4.2.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem
Introduction
“Snake” is a reptile poem by D.H. Lawrence. On a hot day, a snake came out of
a hole in the wall, drank water at the trough and returned into the hole in the wall.
As it was entering the hole, the poet threw a log at it but did not hit it. He
considered the snake not as a vile creature fit to be killed but a lord of life to be
honoured. After this act of pettiness, the poet is left blaming himself for breaking
the sacred laws of hospitality to the snake, his honoured guest. Through this poem,
we learn more about Lawrence himself than about the snake.
The Snake at the Water-trough and the Poet’s Wait
It was a hot day in Sicily. A snake emerged from a fissure in the earth-wall. It
slowly dragged its soft body to a stone trough under a tap in the shade of a carob
tree. It rested its throat upon the stone bottom and began to sip the water that had
gathered there. The snake was already there when the poet came down the steps
with his pitcher. The poet had to stand and wait like a second comer. The snake
lifted his head from drinking and looked at the poet vaguely as cattle do, mused for
a moment and drank a little more.
The Conflict in the Poet
There was a conflict in the mind of the poet. The snake was of golden colour
from the burning bowels of the earth. By its colour, he knew it was a venomous
one. Education told him to fear and destroy it. It was a challenge to his courage and
manliness. He would be branded a coward if he failed to kill it. But instinct told
him to love all things. He felt a liking for the snake. It had come like a guest in quiet
to drink at his water-trough. He thought it would depart peaceful and pacified. He
felt honoured by the snake’s visit trusting in his hospitality.
The Snake’s Withdrawal and the Poet’s Attempt to Kill It
The poet was being torn by conflicting feelings. The snake drank enough,
looked around like a god and slowly drew its body into the hole. He felt a sort of
horror. He put down the pitcher, picked a log and threw it at the snake but did not
hit it. The snake withdrew quickly.
The Poet’s Regret at his Mean Act
The poet regretted his attempt to kill it. He was ashamed of his pettiness and
meanness. He despised himself and the voice of his damned education. He behaved
like the sailor who had killed an innocent sea-bird. The snake impressed him like a
king in exile, an uncrowned monarch in the underworld. Out in the open, it would
be crowned again. He missed an opportunity to honour a majestic creature which
deserved to be treated with honour due to a king.
Conclusion
The poem tells us more about Lawrence himself than about the snake. The
incident has shown the poet that within him there is ‘something to expatiate:
A pettiness.’
78
4.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. On a hot day, a snake came out of a hole in the wall, rested the throat upon the
stone bottom of the trough and began to sip the water there.
2. There was a conflict in his mind. By its golden colour, he knew it was a
venomous one. Education told him to fear and destroy it. He would be a coward
if he failed to kill it.
3. Instinct told him to admire it. He felt honoured by the snake’s visit trusting his
hospitality.
4. Feeling a sense of horror, he threw a stick at the snake slowly drawing its body.
But it did not hit it. The snake withdrew quickly.
5. The poet was ashamed of his pettiness. He despised himself and the voice of his
damned education.
6. The poet regretted that he missed an opportunity to honour a majestic creature,
an honoured guest, who deserved to be treated with honour due to a king.
4.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What inspired the poet to write this poem?
2. How does the poet show that modern man is corrupted?
3. Bring out the conflict in the poet as is evident in this poem.
4. Why does the poet regret for his attempt to kill the snake?
4.2.6 SUMMARY
“Snake” is a well-known and much anthologized poem. It is taken from
Lawrence’s Birds, Beasts and Flowers. It is a reptile poem. The poem was written
when the poet was sojourning at Toarmina near Etna in Sicily in the summer of
1920. It recalls his encounter with a snake near a water-trough at his residence.
The poem sets forth vividly the conflict in his mind between an outburst of affection
for the snake as a lord of life and the fear of its fangs. It shows how man has been
corrupted by education, civilization, and sophistication. The desire to kill the snake
arises from the voice of accursed education but the desire to honour the snake
stems from man’s instinctive sense of admiration for a lord of life.
The poem is an example of Lawrence’s Whitman-like free-verse poems.
4.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Bring out the conflict in Lawrence’s mind.
2. Why does Lawrence consider his attempt to kill the snake a petty, mean, and
vulgar act?
3. What is the theme of the poem “Snake” by Lawrence?
4. Explain the use of personification in the poem, “Snake”.
5. Attempt a summary of the poem.
79
4.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Comment on the images used in the poem “Snake.”
The snake may be seen symbolically as the power of the underworld, the power
of life-energy totally opposed to reason. Lawrence represents the tentative voice of
education, civilization and sophistication. The burning bowels of the earth are
symbolic of the subconscious. The snake is in Freudian terms, a phallic symbol,
and a representative of the libido.
4.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Lawrence as a poet.
2. Reptile poems
3. Symbolism in the poem.
4. The poem is more about Lawrence than the snake.
4.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. A.C. Ward – Twentieth Century Literature.
2. H. Gardner – The Art of T.S. Eliot.
3. F.O. Matthiessen – The Achievement of T.S. Eliot.
4. A.N. Jeffares – W.B. Yeats: Man and Poet.
5. S. Spender – D.H. Lawrence: Novelist, Poet and Prophet.
4.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Read the other poems of Lawrence and attempt an essay on the poetic qualities
of Lawrence who is popularly known only as a novelist.
4.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Pitcher – large earthenware vessel.
2. Flickered – waved.
3. Venomous – poisonous.
4. Clatter – dull, confused noise.
5. Albatross – a large sea-bird.
6. Expiate – make amends for.

80
LESSON – 3

4.3 CONCORD
STRUCTURE
4.3.1 Objectives
4.3.2 Introduction
4.3.3 Contents
4.3.4 Revision Point
4.3.5 In text Question
4.3.6 Summary
4.3.7 Terminal Exercises
4.3.8 Supplementary materials
4.3.9 Assignments
4.3.10 Suggested Readings
4.3.11 Learning Activities
4.3.12 Key Words
4.3.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to provide the necessary basic knowledge of English grammar
to students. By providing this basic knowledge, it also aims to enable them to use
grammatically correct English in their day-to-day endeavours.
4.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Agreement, also known as concord, is the grammatical phenomenon in which
the form of a particular word or phrase is determined by the form of another word
or phrase which is grammatically liked with it. In this lesson, let us learn
Agreement in some detail..
4.3.3 CONTENTS
a) A verb must be of the same number as its subject. It must be singular if the
subject is singular and plural if the subject is plural.
E.g: 1. A child likes to play.
2. Children like to play.
b) A verb must be of the same person as its subject. It must be first person if the
subject is in the first person and it must be in the second person if the subject
is in the second person.
E.g: 1. I write a letter.
2. You write a letter.
3. He writes a letter.
So a verb agrees with its subject in number and person.
a) If the subject consists of two or more singular nouns, then the verb is in
plural.
E.g: 1. Smith and James live in the town.
2. The tiger and the lion fight.
81
b) But if the two singular nouns refer to the same person or express a single idea,
the verb is in the singular. When the nouns are preceded by ‘each’ or ‘every,’
the verb is in the singular.
E.g: 1. The Headmaster and Correspondent of our school is on leave today.
(Headmaster and Correspondent refer to one person)
2. Slow and steady wins the race.
3. Each man and woman wishes him well.
c) When two nouns that form the subject are separated by either… or, neither …
nor, the verb is in the singular.
E.g: 1. Either Govind or his father pays the taxes.
2. Neither David nor Wilson was on time.
3. Hari or Raman is the rank-holder.
But if one of the nouns joined by either....or neither... or nor, is singular and the
other immediately before the verb is in the plural.
E.g: 1. Either he or his friends are guilty of it.
2. Neither my brother nor my cousins are leaving from New Delhi.
d) When with, as well as, together will, follow a singular noun, the nouns
introduced by such words are considered parenthetical and the verb is in te
singular.
E.g: 1. Rama as well as Hari knows it.
2. The Queen together with her retinue goes to the opera duty.
e) When a singular subject is separated from its verb by a plural noun, the verb
is in the singular.
E.g: 1. The cost of all materials has gone up.
2. The writing on those pages is not clear.
f) A collective noun has a singular verb.
E.g: 1. The crowd is restless.
2. The jury has retired to consider the verdict.
If the collective noun is thought of as individuals comprising it, the verb is in the
plural.
E.g: 1. The jury are divided in their opinion.
2. The committee do not agree among themselves on this issue.
g) Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning have a singular verb. Nouns
singular in form but plural in meaning have verbs in the plural.
E.g: 1. Mathematics is a difficult subject.
2. A dozen are enough.
82
h) Some sentences have relative pronoun (antecedent). If the antecedent is plural,
the relative pronoun is plural and is followed by a verb in the plural. If the
antecedent is singular, the relative pronoun and the verb are singular.
E.g: 1. This is one of the most beautiful poems that have been written.
2. You, who are his father and I, who am his friend, must be the first
to help him.
4.3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. A verb must be of the same number as its subject.
2. A verb should be in the first person if the subject is in the first person, and the
verb should be in the second person if the subject is in the second person.
3. If the subject consists of two or more nouns, then the verb should be in plural.
4. If two singular nouns refer to the same person or express a single idea, the verb
is in the singular.
5. When two nouns that form the subject are separated by “either” or “neither”
“nor,” then the verb is in the singular.
6. If one of the nouns joined by “either” “or” or “neither” “nor” is singular and the
other immediately before the verb is in plural.
4.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What does subject verb agreement mean?
2. When should the verb be in the first person singular?
3. If two singular nouns refer to the same person what form should the verb be in?
4. When two nouns are separated by “either” and “or” what happens to the form of
the verb?
5. What happens to the verb if the subject comprises two or more nouns?
4.3.6 SUMMARY
A verb must be of the same number as its subject. A verb should be in the
first person if the subject is in the first person, and the verb should be in the
second person if the subject is in the second person. If the subject consists of two
or more nouns, then the verb should be in plural. If two singular nouns refer to the
same person or express a single idea, the verb is in the singular. When two nouns
that form the subject are separated by “either” or “neither” “nor,” then the verb is in
the singular. If one of the nouns joined by “either” “or” or “neither” “nor” is singular
and the other immediately before the verb is in plural.
4.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
Fill in the blanks with the verb that would agree with the subject:
1. The sight of these dwellings ————— pleasant to the eye.
2. His mother and his father————— dead.
3. The secretary and treasurer—————— in the office.
4. Bread and butter—————— good for you.
5. The second innings —————— begun.
6. The public —————— asked not to handle the exhibits.
83
7. Everyone of his followers —————— executed.
8. Either Hari or his brother—————— done this.
9. Each of these boys —————— a long way from school.
10. “The Canterbury tales” ——————— written by Chaucer.
4.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Refer to the prescribed grammar books.
4.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Try forming sentences of your own taking care of the subject – verb agreement.
4.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Modern English Grammar – Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
2. Living English Structures – William Stanard Allen.
4.3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Refer the above-mentioned grammar books and work out the exercises provided
in them relating to agreement of the subject and the verb.
4.3.12 KEYWORDS
1. Precede – come or go before in order, time, or position.
2. Parenthetical – relating to or inserted in parenthesis.
3. Jury – a body of people authorized to pronounce a judgment.
4. Verdict – an opinion or judgment.
5. Dwelling – house or other place of residence.
6. Execute – bring into effect, or perform.

84
UNIT – V
LESSON – 1

5.1 MENDING WALL – Robert Frost

STRUCTURE
5.1.1 Objectives
5.1.2 Introduction
5.1.3 Contents
5.1.4 Revision Point
5.1.5 In text Question
5.1.6 Summary
5.1.7 Terminal Exercises
5.1.8 Supplementary materials
5.1.9 Assignments
5.1.10 Suggested Readings
5.1.11 Learning Activities
5.1.12 Key Words
5.1.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to a dramatic monologue by Robert Frost and make
him understand Frost’s philosophy of profound contradiction that characterizes
modern age and his sympathy with the elemental spirit in nature that denies all
boundaries.
5.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Robert Lee Frost (1874-1963) is described as the purest classical poet of
America and the greatest farmer poet. He was for one year at Harvard but he never
got a regular degree, though he was later to have sixteen honorary degrees. He was
in turn a teacher, cobbler, editor and finally farmer for eleven years at Derry in New
Hampshire. He spent a stint in England and when he returned to the States in
1915, he was famous finally becoming Professor of Poetry at Harvard. He was a
recipient of many coveted prizes –the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry four times, the medal
of the American Academy of Art and Letters, and of the Poetry Society of America.
Though born in California, his voice was the voice of New England. He was a
consummate craftsman with a mastery of variety of forms from the sonnet to the
blank verse.
5.1.3 CONTENT
5.1.3.1 The Text of the poem, “Mending Wall.”
Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,
That sends the frozen ground swell under it,
And spills the upper boulders in the sun;
And makes gaps even two can pass abreast.
The work of hunters is another thing:
I have come after them and made repair
85
Where they have left not one stone on a stone,
But they would have the rabbit out of hiding,
To please the yelping dogs. The gaps I mean,
No one has seen them made or heard them made,
But at spring mending time we find them there,
I let my neighbour know beyond the hill;
And on a day we meet to walk the line
And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go.
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.
And some are loaves and some so nearly balls
We have to use a spell to make them balance:
“Stay where you are until our backs are turned!”
We wear our fingers rough with handling them,
Oh, just another kind of out-door game,
One on a side. It comes to little more:
There where it is we do not need the wall:
He is all pine and I am apple orchard.
My apple trees will never get across.
And eat the cones under his pines, I tell him.
He only says, “Good fences make good neighbours.”
Spring is the mischief in me, and I wonder
If I could put a notion in his head:
“Why do they make good neighbours? Isn’t it
Where there are cows? But here there are no cows.
Before I built a wall I’d ask to know
What I was walling in or walling out,
And to whom I was like to give offence,
Something there is that doesn’t love a wall,
That wants it down, “I could say “elves” to him,
But it’s not elves exactly, and I’d rather
He said it for himself. I see him there
Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top
In each hand, like an old-stone savaged armed,
He moves in darkness as it seems to me,
Not of woods only and the shade of trees,
He will not go behind his father’s saying,
And he likes having thought of it so well
He says again, “Good fences make good neighbors.”


86
5.1.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem:
Introduction
“Mending Wall” by Robert Frost describes a very common experience in the
farmer’s life. From this common experience, the poet expounds a philosophy of
social co-existence and love.
The Wall between the Farms
The poem begins with a conversation between Frost, the poet-farmer and his
neighbour. The two meet during spring every year. They work along the opposite
sides of the common fence. They engage themselves in mending the wall. They
replace stones that have fallen on either side.
Nature Against the Wall
Walls are made and mended but somehow the walls get broken. The ground
swells and breaks the wall. The hunter in pursuit of rabbit breaks the wall.
Somehow or other the gaps are made in the wall. It may be the mischief of Nature
herself or of some deceiving elf. It may be the frost that dislodges the stones. Here is
a pun on the poet’s own name. Frost himself does not really like walls between
farms. He is of the opinion ‘Something there is that does not love a wall.’
Reasons for and Against Walls
Frost thinks that the wall is unnecessary. Even without the fence, the two
farms can be easily distinguished. On one farm, apple is grown. On the other farm,
pine is grown. Again, the apple on one farm cannot eat the pines on the other farm.
But the neighbour thinks that it is always wise to erect a fence between neighbours.
He insists ‘Good fences make good neighbours.’ Frost wonders how they can be
good neighbours by erecting fences. He points out that there is no threat of cows in
the vicinity to stray into each other’s farm. The neighbour without giving an answer
brings a stone to mend the wall and repeats the statement ‘Good fences make good
neighbours’. To the poet, the man and his idea belong to the savagery of the Stone
Age. It is not a simple darkness that surrounds him. Rather, it is the darkness of
the mind.
Conclusion
The poem preaches against the erection of all barriers. The real subject
‘Something’ in the initial position in the first line of the poem shows that Frost is
against all divisions. Again, the pun on his name also shows that he is against all
walls. Nature is against walls. It is man who builds walls between one another.
Frost holds that tradition and customs still have sway over people and it is not easy
to convert such people to a liberal attitude.
5.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Frost, the poet-farmer, and his neighbour meet in spring every year to replace
stones that have fallen on either side of the common fence.
2. Frost thinks that the walls are made and mended but some how the walls are
broken.
87
3. Frost thinks that the wall is unnecessary. The apple trees in his farm will not
trespass into the pines in his neighbour’s farm. But his neighbour insists that
“Good fences make good neighbours.”
4. Frost points out that there is no threat of cows in the immediate vicinity to
stray into each others farm. But the neighbour repeats the statement that
“Good fences make good neighbours.”
5. To the poet, the neighbour and his ideas belong to the savagery of the Stone
Age. It is not a simple darkness that surround him. It is the darkness of the
mind.
6. The wall is a symbol of all kinds of man-made barriers. The poet stands for the
spirit of revolt that wants to pull down all walls. The neighbour stands for
tradition that wants to preserve age-old convention.
5.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. When do the poet and his neighbor meet annually?
2. What according to the poet is the thing that does not love walls?
3. Explain how the poet argues against building walls?
4. How does Frost uphold tradition and customary values in this poem?
5. Comment on the last line of the poem.
5.1.6 SUMMARY
“Mending Wall” describes one of the most common experiences in the farmer’s
life. Once a year Frost and his neighbour come from their apple-orchard and pine-
grove towards the dividing wall in order to repair it in collaboration. Frost thinks
that the wall is unnecessary, and that his apple-trees will never trespass into the
adjoining grove and eat the pine-cones but his friend insists ‘Good fences make
good neighbours.’ Frost has a knack of dealing with everyday experience and
expounding a philosophy out of it. The poem illustrates the difficulty of making a
definite state about any of Frost’s ideas. The speaker does not agree with the
neighbour’s theory and in the fact of his labour he is doing the very same thing his
neighbour is doing.
5.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. What are the poet’s arguments against building a wall?
2. Why does the poet say that “Something there is that does not love a wall”?
3. Explain the symbols used in the poem “Mending wall.”
4. What is Frost’s message in the poem “Mending wall”?
5. Compare the characters of the speaker and the neighbour in “Mending Wall”.
5.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
5.1.8.1 The Poet and His Life
Robert Frost (1874 - 1963) was born on 26th March, 1874 in San Francisco,
California and lived there until he was ten. When his father died, his mother moved
the family to his grandfather’s home in Lawrence, Massachusetts. He was sent to
88
Dartmouth College and his grandfather gave him financial support. Frost’s
independent spirit rebelled against both the regime of college discipline and the
feeling of dependence for support. He worked in mills, tramped around the country,
wrote poems and enrolled for two years in Harvard. Then in a long struggle with
poverty he took up school teaching, shoe-making, journalism and farming. In 1899
Frost married Elinor White, who worked with him at the Lawrence High School. He
sold his farm and took his wife and children to England. The cost of living was low
there and the ‘new poetry’ movement had already begun in the work of some of the
Georgian poets who became his friends. While in England he published his first
volume A Boy’s Will. The English readers applauded Frost’s work and the reviews
that appeared in literary journals encouraged him. In the next year he published his
best single volume, the magnificent North of Boston. In 1915 both the books were
republished in the United States and Frost felt that now that his books had “gone
home”, he should too. ‘When he got off the boat, he was astonished by the eagerness
with which the American critics and publishers scurried to acclaim his works.’
He was four- time winner of the Pulitzer prize for poetry and he also received
many honorary degrees. He held distinguished positions at Dartmouth, Michigan
and Harvard. He had an opportunity to read one of his poems at President John F.
Kennedy’s inauguration. He died on 20th January, 1963.
Frost was called a ‘country poet’ and not a ‘nature poet.’ He once said that he
had never written a nature poem. He used the natural scenes as the backdrop
against which the human drama is played out. His poems are concerned with
human nature. Commenting on the theme and imagery of Frost’s poems, James
T.Callow and Robert J. Ridley wrote, “ It is worth noting that in a country where the
majority of population is urban and involved in one way or another with technology,
the most popular poetry should be rural in imagery and deliberately rustic in tone.”
But the pastoral form conveys a variety of ideas and attitudes. Most of Frost’s
famous images are of natural objects or processes - woods, snow, ice, orchards,
birds, flowers, rivers and pools, farm houses, stars - and much of his work involves
man’s relationship to these things. But the relationship is not a constant one. ‘Man
by no means lives idyllically amid the beauties of New England countryside.’ Nature
is lovely at times; yet its very loveliness (according to R.K.Johnson) can prove fatally
alluring as the speaker in ‘Stopping By woods on a Snowy Evening’ testifies – ‘Man
is alienated from his natural surroundings sometimes, or doing battle with them,
even in some cases driven mad or killed by them.’ He finds in them (Nature)
parables of the human situation, but he does not mystically or romantically identify
man with nature.
5.1.8.2 MODEL PARAGRAPH ANSWER
‘A poem begins in delight and ends in wisdom.’ Explain this statement with
reference to the poem “Mending Wall”.
The poem “Mending Wall” begins in a casual, carefree way. It describes a
common experience in the farmer’s life. Somehow the walls get broken. This means
89
that Nature does not like walls. The neighbour believes that ‘good fences make good
neighbours.’ But Frost is of the opinion that ‘Something there is that does not love
a wall.’ From this simple notion the poet expounds a philosophy of co-existence in
the world. Nature does not want men to be divided. It is man who builds walls
between one another.
5.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Discuss how the poet proves that walls are symbols of man -made barriers?
2. Frost as a poet of paradoxes
3. The significance of the title of the poem.
5.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. A.C. Ward – Twentieth Century Literature.
2. H. Gardner – The Art of T.S. Eliot.
3. F.O. Matthiessen – The Achievement of T.S. Eliot.
4. A.N. Jeffares – W.B. Yeats: Man and Poet.
5. S. Spender – D.H. Lawrence: Novelist, Poet and Prophet.
5.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Attempt a critical appreciation of the poem “Mending Wall.”
5.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Boulders – large stones.
2. Loaves – shaped like loaves of bread.
3. Cones – the fruit of pine.

90
LESSON – 2

5.2 A CHALLENGE TO FATE – Sarojini Naidu

STRUCTURE
5.2.1 Objectives
5.2.2 Introduction
5.2.3 Contents
5.2.4 Revision Point
5.2.5 In text Question
5.2.6 Summary
5.2.7 Terminal Exercises
5.2.8 Supplementary materials
5.2.9 Assignments
5.2.10 Suggested Readings
5.2.11 Learning Activities
5.2.12 Key Words
5.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce the learner to the poetry of Sarojini Naidu, the Nightingale of
India, whose medium and metrical form are English but whose dreams and fancies
are Indian and of India.
5.2.2 INTRODUCTION
Sarojini Naidu (1879 – 1949) has been recognized as ‘one of Mother India’s
most gifted children.’ A patriot and freedom fighter, Sarojini first launched out as a
poet under the critical eyes of Arthur Symons and Edmund Gosse. Most of the
poems have Indian themes and Indian background, and through them she has
interpreted Indian life and culture to the world. In her poetry, one can recognize
genuine poetic quality. Her poems reveal a distinct melody and her manipulation of
words and sounds invests her poetry with a musical grace and flow. “Her words are
foreign, the metrical forms are English but the dreams and fancies are all from
India and of India.” Sarojini has earned by the freshness and beauty of her verse,
the title ‘the Nightingale of India.’
One of the major themes of Sarojini Naidu’s poetry is the challenge. There are
poems which reveal, in varying degrees, a spirit crushed and awed by Fate. But the
poet’s attitude is not quite consistent. In the poem entitled “A Challenge to Fate,”
the poet looks with fearless eyes at the malice of Fate. Her indomitable will enables
her to come out unscathed and unbruised through all the injuries inflicted on her
by Fate.
5.2.3 CONTENT
5.2.3.1 The Text of the poem, “A Challenge to Fate”
Why will you vex me with your futile conflict?
Why will you strive with me, O foolish Fate?
You cannot break me with your poignant envy,
91
You cannot slay me with your subtle hate:
For all the cruel folly you pursue
I will not cry with suppliant hands to you.

You may perchance wreck in your bitter malice

The radiant empire of mine eager eyes… …
Say, can you rob my memory’s dear dominion
O’er sunlit mountains and sidereal skies?
In my enduring treasuries I hold
Their ageless splendour of unravished gold.

You may usurp the kingdoms of my hearing

Say, shall my scatheless spirit cease to hear
The bridal rapture of the blowing valleys.
The lyric pageant of the passing year.
The sounding odes and surging harmonies
Of battling tempests and unconquered seas?

Yea, you may smite my mouth to throbbing silence,

Pluck from my lips power of articulate words…
Say, Shall my heart lack its familiar language
While earth has nests for her mellifluous birds?
Shall my impassioned heart forget to sing?
With the ten thousand voices of the spring?

Yea, you may quell my blood with sudden anguish,

Fetter my limbs with some compelling pain…
How will you daunt my free, far-journeying fancy?
That rides upon the pinions of the rain?
How will you tether my triumphant mind?
Rival and fearless comrade of the wind?

Tho’ you deny the hope of all my being,

Betray my love, my sweetest dream destroy,
Yet will I slake my individual sorrow
At the deep source of universal joy… …
O Fate, in vain you hanker to control
My frail, serene, indomitable soul.

5.2.3.2 An Appreciation of the poem:
Introduction
Sarojini Naidu, a poet of invincible spirit, affirms her ability to cope with any
injury which malicious Fate chooses to inflict upon her. She looks with fearless
eyes at the malice of Fate. Her undaunted soul attaches no importance to Fate’s
cruelties and there is no question of her stooping to cry for help.
92
A Note of Defiance
In a defiant note the poet challenges Fate. With her unconquerable will and
unyielding courage, the poet is unafraid before the onslaught of the cruel Fate.
Never can Fate break her will and crush her spirit. Never can Fate fool the poet.
Rather the poet will fool Fate. With folded hands and on bent knees, the poet will
never cry for help.
A Note of Optimism
Fate may deprive the poet of her power of feasting her eyes with the sights of
nature. Her eyes may be darkened. But the poet is optimistic. Never can Fate rob
her of the memories of ‘sunlit mountains and sidereal skies.’ Indeed, her mind is a
treasure-house of the ageless splendour of sun-bathed mountains and star-lit
skies.
Fate may deprive the poet of her power of delighting her ears with the sounds
of nature. Her ears may be deafened. But the poet is not disheartened. Her soul will
never fail to respond to the music of the blowing breeze, the howling storm and the
roaring sea.
Fate may deprive the poet of her power of articulating her yearnings and
longings by sealing her lips and silencing her. But the poet is not disillusioned. Her
heart will not lack its tongue. Her heart is a nest of ten thousand voices of the
spring.
Fate may congeal her blood, fetter her feet and make her immobile. Never can
Fate daunt or deter the flights of fancy on the wings of poesy suggested by the
fertility symbol of rain. The poet strikes a Shelleyan note when she calls the mind
the fearless comrade.
Indomitable Will
Fate can never curb her indomitable will. For Fate, it is going to be a losing
battle. At the fountain-head of universal joy, the poet will slake the thirst caused by
sorrow. It is a fruitless effort for Fate to control the poet’s “frail, serene, indomitable
soul.”
Conclusion
The poem deserves to be appreciated for its felicitous phrases, picturesque
images, chiselled expressions, and rhetorical questions. The poet has no soft word
for Fate. This is clear from the pejorative adjectives added to Fate’s unpleasant
characteristics: poignant envy, subtle hate, bitter malice, sudden anguish, and
compelling pain. The use of rhetorical questions affirms her capacity to cope with
the injury inflicted on her by Fate. There are two powerful images: (1) Ten thousand
voices of the spring. It symbolizes the warbling birds in the spring season.
(2) Pinions of rain: It symbolizes the wings of poesy. The spontaneous outpouring of
poetry is referred to by the symbol of rain because it rains unasked.
The concluding couplet brings out the powerlessness of Fate to control her
indomitable will. Her soul can never be cabined, confined, and crippled:
O Fate, in vain you hanker to control
My frail, serene, indomitable soul.
93
5.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Fate can’t break her will and spirit rather she will fool Fate.
2. Fate can make her blind but it cannot rob her of memories of the sights of
Nature.
3. Fate can make her deaf but it cannot deprive her of her response to the sounds
of Nature.
4. Fate can make her mute but it cannot prevent her heart rejoicing the warbling
of the birds in the spring season.
5. Fate can immobilize her but it cannot deter her flights of fancy on the wings of
poesy.
6. It is going to be a losing battle for Fate for she is a woman of unconquerable
will and unyielding courage.
5.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. How does the poetess strike a note of defiance against “Fate”?
2. Discuss the poem as showing the indomitable will of the poetess.
3. What optimistic views do you find in this poem?
4. What picturesque images are used in this poem?
5. Comment on the concluding couplet of the poem.
5.2.6 SUMMARY
The poem “A Challenge to Fate” brings out the fearlessness of Sarojini Naidu,
the Nightingale of India. In this poem, she affirms her ability to cope with any
injury which malicious Fate chooses to inflict upon her. She says that she is not
afraid of the onslaught of cruel fate. She may be deprived of the powers of her eyes
and ears but Fate can never deprive her of the sights and sounds of Nature. Fate
can make her mute but it can never prevent her from rejoicing the warbling of the
birds in spring. She declares that Fate, however powerful and strong, cannot
confine and cripple her indomitable soul.
5.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Write a note of appreciation on “A Challenge to Fate.”
2. Bring out Sarojini Naidu’s optimism in the poem “A Challenge to Fate.”
3. Comment on the title of the poem.
4. Attempt an analysis of the language employed by the poet.
5. Give an appreciation of the poem.
5.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The poem deserves to be appreciated for its felicitous phrases, picturesque
images, chiselled expressions and rhetorical questions. The poet has no soft word
for Fate. This is clear from the pejorative adjectives added to Fate’s unpleasant
characteristics: poignant envy, subtle hate, bitter malice, sudden anguish and
compelling pain. The use of rhetorical questions affirms her capacity to cope with
the injury inflicted on her by Fate. There are two powerful images: 1) Ten thousand
voices of the spring. It symbolizes the warbling birds in the spring season.
2) Pinions of rain: It symbolizes the wings of poesy. The spontaneous outpouring of
poetry is referred to by the symbol of rain because it rains unasked.
94
The concluding couplet brings out the powerlessness of Fate to control her
indomitable will. Her soul can never be cabined, confined and crippled:
O Fate, in vain you hanker to control
My frail, serene, indomitable soul.
5.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Sarojini Naidu, the Nightingale of India.
2. The theme of the prescribed poem.
3. The images employed by Sarojini Naidu in this poem.
5.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES
1. A.C. Ward – Twentieth Century Literature.
2. H. Gardner – The Art of T.S. Eliot.
3. F.O. Matthiessen – The Achievement of T.S. Eliot.
4. A.N. Jeffares – W.B. Yeats: Man and Poet.
5. S. Spender – D.H. Lawrence: Novelist, Poet and Prophet.
5.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Analyze the imagery used in this poem.
5.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Vex – trouble.
2. Poignant – sharp.
3. Slay – kill.
4. Folly – foolishness.
5. Perchance – perhaps.
6. Malice – ill-will, hatred.
7. Usurp – take wrongfully.
8. Smite – hit hard.
9. Quell – suppress.

95
LESSON – 3

5.3 THE TENSE AND THEIR FORMS

STRUCTURE
5.3.1 Objectives
5.3.2 Introduction
5.3.3 Contents
5.3.4 Revision Point
5.3.5 In text Question
5.3.6 Summary
5.3.7 Terminal Exercises
5.3.8 Supplementary materials
5.3.9 Assignments
5.3.10 Suggested Readings
5.3.11 Learning Activities
5.3.12 Key Words
5.3.1 OBJECTIVES
This unit aims to provide the necessary basic knowledge of English grammar
to students. By providing this basic knowledge, it also aims to enable them to use
grammatically correct English in their day-to-day endeavours.
5.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Tense is a grammatical category which correlates most closely with location in
time. Like many other languages, English marks tense in verbs. In this lesson, let
us learn Tense and its forms and uses.
5.3.3 CONTENTS
Tense is a word derived from Latin ‘tempus’ which means time. Time is of three
kinds — now, past, and the time yet to come.
The Simple Present
E.g: You write fast.
He runs five miles a day.
They keep a vigil during night.
The Simple Past
E.g: He ran a mile under four minutes.
They kept a vigil during night.
He ruled the vast empire for fifty years.
The Simple Future
E.g: He shall start practising from tomorrow.
We shall give him another chance next year.
The Continuous Tense
The simple tenses merely mention the action. When the action is incomplete or
continuous, we make use of the Continuous tenses.
96
The Present Continuous
E.g: He is painting a picture.
She is singing.
They are playing football.
The Past Continuous
E.g: He was typing a letter when I called on him.
She was dancing when her brother came to see her.
I was arranging the books when I heard the door bell ring.
The Perfect Tenses
When we refer to an action that has been completed, we use the perfect tense.
E.g: I have posted the letter. (the present perfect)
He had finished the exercise. (the past perfect)
He will have finished the work by next week. (the future perfect)
The Perfect Continuous Tenses
The perfect tenses have continuous forms to indicate incompleteness or
continuity of action.
E.g: I have been reading. (The present perfect continuous)
He has been reading.
I had been reading. (The past perfect continuous)
He had been reading.
I shall have been reading. (The future perfect continuous)
She will have been reading.
The Simple Tense—Use
a) To express an action that is habitual.
E.g: 1. He plays tennis regularly.
2. He prefers tea to coffee.
3. He goes to college by bus.
b) To express permanent or variable truths or facts.
E.g: 1. The earth goes round the sun.
0
2. Water freezes at 0 c.
3. If you heat water, it turns to steam.
c) To express a fact that is true at the time of speaking.
E.g: 1. The days are long now.
2. A cup of coffee costs 50 paise.
d) To express an action going on now.
E.g: 1. The sun shines bright.
2. He hits powerfully the over pitched ball.
e) To express a future action. (Generally with verbs of motion)
E.g: 1. He goes to England next year.
2. She leaves for U S A tomorrow.
3. The results are out next week.
4. The Tamilnadu Express leaves Chennai Central station at 10.00 pm.
97
f) To express a past action vividly.
E.g: 1. He gives the order and we all run out.
(This is known as the historic present)
The Present Continuous Tense—Use
a) To express an action that is going on while it is spoken of.
E.g: 1. The children are running on the beach.
2. The bells are ringing
3. He is writing a letter.
b) To describe an action in progress, which will be continued, for some time in
future but not necessarily going on while it is spoken of.
E.g: 1. They are building a new house.
2. He is collecting data relevant to his research work.
3. He is writing a novel.
c) To express an action that has been arranged to take place in the near future.
E,g: 1. We are meeting the president tomorrow.
2. They are going to the hills during summer.
d) To suggest disapproval of action when used with always, constantly, regularly
and repeatedly.
E.g: 1. The students are always complaining about the haphazard valuation.
2. He is always meddling with the transistor.
The Simple Past Tense—Use
a) To describe an action that took place in the past time.
E.g: 1. He went to school yesterday and returned home very late.
b) To express an action that was habitual.
E.g: 1. The trains went very slowly in the early days.
2. She walked in the park every day until she was eighty.
c) To express an action that took place in the past over a definite period of time.
E.g: 1. He served in the army for ten years.
2. He worked with Mr. Smith for five years.
d) To express an action that took place at certain point in the past.
E.g: 1. He left for Bombay yesterday.
2. She brought the sewing machine two days ago.
The Present Perfect Tense—Use
The present perfect tense is used
a) To express an action just completed.
E.g: 1. I have finished the fourth chapter.
2. She has just returned from her holiday.
b) To describe an action that began in the past time and has gone on into the
present time.
E.g: 1. He has been at the university for five years.
(He is still at the university)
98
2. We have lived in this house for twenty years.
(We still live in this house)
3. I have been waiting for my friend since 9 a.m.
(I am still waiting for my friend)
c) To express an action completed in the past, which is relevant at the time of
speaking.
E.g: 1. The train has already left.
2. They have just arrived from New York.
The Past Continuous Tense-use
a) To express an action that was in progress at a point of time in the past. The
action should have begun earlier.
E.g: 1. I was reading a novel at 10 a.m.
2. At 9 a. m. I was doing my grammar exercise.
b) To express an action which was in progress over a duration of time in the past.
E.g: 1. I was trying to contact him over the phone yesterday.
2. She was busy arranging things all last week.
c) To express a continuing action in the past when another incident took place.
E.g: 1. The bus hit the tree while the driver was looking the other way.
2. As he was boarding the bus it started with a jerk.
d) To express two or more actions going on at the same time.
E.g: 1. When the teacher was explaining the lesson, the boys were looking
elsewhere.
2. Some boys were working hard and others were whiling away the time idly.
The Past Perfect Tense — Use
a) To express an action in the past which was completed before another action in
the past.
E.g: 1. He had just gone out when his friend came.
2. The train had already left when I reached the station.
b) To express a point of time when the action in the past has been over.
E.g: 1. At 10 O’ clock the train had left.
2. Most boys had left when the news came at 4 p.m.
c) To express actions or events in the past which Indicate cause for later actions.
E.g: 1. The doctor found the patient in poor shape because he had
neglected his advice.
2. He failed in the examination because he had been highly irregular
in attending classes.
d) To express an unfulfilled wish in the past.
E.g: 1. I wish I had gone for a medical check up last year.
(I did not, so my health is bad)
2. I wish I had not spoken to him harshly.
(He and I were close friends)
99
e) To express an un fulfilled condition in the past.
E.g: 1. Had he met earlier, things would be very different now.
2. Had he been a little more careful, he would not have incurred
such a heavy loss.
The Present Perfect Continuous—Use
a) To express an action or event that began in the past and has continued till spoken of
and is still going on.
E.g: 1. She has been learning French for three years now.
2. They have been running the school since 1950.
3. We have been waiting for the bus since 3 ‘O’clock.
b) To express an action that was going on till a very recent point of time and whose
result is still tangible.
E.g: 1. He is tired because he has been walking since this morning.
2. He has been playing cricket all day and needs rest.
The Past Perfect Continuous—Form and Use
Form:-had been + verb + ing.
a) To describe an action or event that had begun and was going on upto a given point
of time in the past.
E.g: 1. India had been winning gold medals in hockey till 1960.
2. The man in the story killed the goose that had been laying golden
eggs everyday.
The Future—Form and Use
a) The simple present is used to express a series of action planed for the future.
E.g: 1. We leave for Madras tomorrow and return the day after.
b) The present continuous tense is used to express a Future event.
E.g: 1. I am going to buy a new bicycle.
2. It is going to rain.
c) Shall’ or ‘will’ is used to express an action that will take place in the time yet to come.
E.g: 1. I shall call on you next week.
2. The results will be announced in a couple of days.
d) be + about + to infinitive: to describe an event that will take place any moment now.
E.g: 1. The president is about to speak.
2. The plane is about to take off.
The Future Continuous—Form and Use
Form: Shall / will + have + past participle of a verb.
a) To express an event that is expected to take place in the normal course. But it is not
as definite as the Present continuous.
E.g: 1. We will be meeting the principal tomorrow.
2. We will be requesting Dr. Richards to give a lecture.
b) To express an action that will be in progress at a point of time in the future.
E.g: 1. At this time tomorrow you will be attending classes.
2. When we reach Calicut, it will be raining there.
100
The Future Perfect—Form and Use
Form: shall / will + have + past participle of a verb.
a) To express an action that will be over by a certain time in the future.
E.g: 1. He will have finished the course by this time next year.
2. The bus will have left by the time you reach the bus stand.
b) To express not exactly the justice but the speaker’s belief that something has taken place.
E.g: 1. The fire will have destroyed all the huts by then.
5.3.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Tense is a word derived from Latin, “Tempus” which means “time.”
2. Tense is classified as Simple Present, Simple Past, Simple Future, The Present
Continuous, the Past Continuous, the Present Continuous, and the Perfect
Tenses.
5.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is tense?
2. What are the various ways in which tense is classified?
3. What is the role of the simple present tense?
4. For what is the future continuous tense used?
5. Bring out the uses of the past perfect tense.
5.3.6 SUMMARY
Tense is a word derived from Latin, “Tempus” which means “time.” Tense is
classified as Simple Present, Simple Past, Simple Future, The Present Continuous,
the Past Continuous, the Future Continuous, and the Perfect Tenses.
5.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
Fill in the blanks with suitable verbs (The simple present or past)
1. Water always —————— at 0 degree centigrade. (Freeze)
2. He ————— a mile after supper everyday. (Walk)
3. She always ————— at the rear. (Sit)
4. He —————— the hospital several times a month. (Visit)
5. He —————— to the club regularly. (Go)
6. He —————— to me whenever he needed money. (Come)
7. His mother —————— last Tuesday. (Die)
8. She —————— school last year. (Leave)
9. My father —————— me an allowance as long as I was in school. (Give)
10. He —————— to the concerts regularly before war. (Go)
Fill in the blanks with the present perfect or past perfect tense or past tense of verb given
in bracket:
1. The play —————before we entered. (start)
2. They ————— just—————— from New York. (Arrive)
3. He —————— to write the letter. (not start)
4. He —————— me up just new (ring)
5. Come and see me when you ————— your dinner. (have)
101
6. He —————— (loss) his new knife shortly after he——————it. (buy)
7. When we ————— (get) home, night already —————— . (fall)
8. The patient————— (die) already by the time the doctor —————— (arrive)
9. She broke down when she —————— the news. (hear)
10. He hit a tree when he —————— the other way. (look)
5.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Refer to the prescribed grammar books.
5.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Try forming sentences of your own using the various tenses you have learnt just
now.
5.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Modern English Grammar – Randolph Quirk and Sydney Greenbaum
2. Living English Structures – William Stanard Allen.
3. T.R. Narasimhan: Springs of Helicon, Macmillan
4. David Green: Contemporary English Grammar: Structures and Composition,
Macmillan.
5.3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Refer the above-mentioned grammar books and work out the exercises provided
in them relating to tenses, their forms, and uses.
5.3.12 KEYWORDS
1. Empire – an extensive group of states ruled over by a single monarch.
2. Haphazard – lacking order or organization.
3. Meddling – interfere in something that is not one’s concern.
4. Jerk - a quick, sharp and sudden movement.
5. Whiling – a period of time.
6. Incur – become subject to, as a result of one’s action.

102

B.A. / B.Sc. / B.B.A. PROGRAMMES

Second Semester

PART – II
ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE – II : POETRY

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Time: 3 Hours Marks: 75

SECTION A
Answer ALL Questions (5 × 3 – 15)

1. How does Gray champion the cause of the poor people in this poem?
2. What is the valuable lesson that Wordsworth learnt from the life of the
Leech-gatherer?
3. What are non-finites?
4. What are the objects to which does Shelley compare the bird?
5. How does Keats portray the autumn season in this poem?

SECTION B
Answer any FIVE Questions (5 × 6 – 30)

1. Write a short note on Phrasal verbs.

2. What do you learn from Ulysses?
3. How does Browning portray Duke Ferrara?
4. Write on Browning’s contribution to English poetry.
5. Write a note on the war poets.
6. What is the theme of the poem “Snake” by Lawrence?
7. Comment on the last line of the poem, “Mending Wall.”
8. What optimistic views do you find in this poem, “A Challenge to Fate”?

SECTION C
Answer any THREE questions (3 × 10 – 30)
1. Write a critical appreciation of Gray’s Elegy.
2. Comment on the significance of the title of the poem, “Mending Wall.”
3. Consider Wilfred Owen as a war poet.
4. Bring out the differences between the active voice and the passive voice.
5. Consider “My Last Duchess” as a dramatic monologue.
L1220 : ENGLISH THROUGH LITERATURE – II :: POETRY
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY PRESS : 2021 – 2022