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Complex Functions

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Complex Functions

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rambabuaageya
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Comptex Functions —$——__CompLex Functions In this chapter we shall use some terms in dealing with sets of complex numbers. It is therefore necessary to define such terms, 3.1. Some Basic Concepts Neighbourhood of a Point z, : _A neighbourhood of a point z, in the complex plane is the set of all points z for which |z~z|Q. the seta COMPLEX ANALYSIS ———————— eee S={2:ke~alsa or |z+a|0) there exists numbers 5, >0, 5, >0 such that [F@)-m]0, let us choose §=¢50 such that [F(2)-4i0, there exists a 8>0 such that |f(z)- |0 , these exists numbers 8, >0, 8, >0 such that |u(x. y)- wa] , chosen arbitrarily, we can find a positive number § such that |e(z)= F(z0)| 90) We choose ¢>0 arbitrarily. ‘Then we can find positive numbers 5, and 8 such that € 5 e Juz. y) - 4(05¥%)] 0, we can find a positive number 6, such that [e()~ a(wo)| 0 arbitrarily. Here, [: +i(2x+ y)-[ + i] =(a-1)+ i204 y=) OO=(o=)+i{2e- ++ 0 arbitrarily. . ; ‘We see that lz- al Sy = (a+ by) — (Xo + ivy) = (x= %) and so z— zg =>.x—> xy. Then the above limit a tim 42 9E) HUB #98) = ig Bo ee xX i X= ty= lim (x + xy) = 2x0, ry Next suppose that z = 4% +iy. Then 2~ 29 = (9 +4) —(X0 +90) = iy ~ Yo) - So, 2% = Y— Yo. So the limit (1) becomes fies (23 + y2)- (23 + y8) ae i(y yo) Sip = tim v=o) (y+ yo) ronily * yo) spas i(y- yo) = lim ~i(y + yo)=—i-2yo. . From (2) and (3) it follows that f(z) ) =e? is not differentiable at a point zp = Xp tivo when at least one of , and yy is different from zero. When both x)=0 and yo =O ie., zc) =O we get the limit in (1) -0 on ita (: y= 0) = lim = lim =0, 20 2-0 20 290 Hence the derivative of f(z) =|z” exists only at the origin. Theorem Differenttability of f ata point zy implies the continuity of the function at the same point. (2 ald Proof : ig For z#zy, we have Hal thee AS Ga), ean = Fc) L¢ Let f(z) be differentiable at zy, Then the limit tim = and equals to f’(Y. and uy =vy,uy =—v, at the point (xo, ya) Te a 6 a Rat ICOMPLEX ANALYSIS ee Proof : Let zq = xy + iY be any fixed point in D. Since £'(@) exists, the ratio a & ; . 4s LDF) rai wad ty elite an ztends to z, in any manner. w-% We first choose to approach % along the line parallel to the real axis Y= Yo. Then : Ae = 2-29 = 4 +i¥0 — (xo +99) =x— x = Ax, L(z)- fF) lim:: Thus we have fine — zi asa ax = jofstesteacnonn) Met cpr) Since the limit on the [-h.s. exists, the individual limits of the real part and the imaginary part exist. Then u,(x9,¥9) and v,(x9, yo) both exist and F'(%) = Heo» Yo) + i¥4(%05 Yo)» ~@) Now we choose to approach zp along the line x= x5 parallel to the imaginary axis, Then Az=z~z =(xo + iy) - (x0 + iy0) =i(y—y,)=idy. . Then we have . 7 f +by)=v(x0, £)= jn] Moon) uC Yo) , V(x00 Yo &: (x0 2a). both uy(%o, Yo) and v,(xp, Yo) exists and” Applying the same reasoning as in the path of .y = yy, we observe that F'(0) = —itty (x0, Yo) +¥y (X05 Yo) wu (4) Since the derivative of ‘f ‘at zp is unique it follows from (3) and (4) that us(40. Yo) = ¥y(X0. Yo): ty(t05.¥0)= va (0, V0) This completes the proof. | Note. 1: : { The two relations u, =v, and w, =—v, are called the Cauchy- Riemann equations.COMPLEX FUNCTIONS Note. 2: If (zo) exis Sf (29) = x tive , then it can be written in any of the form : = uy — ity , at (xo. Yo) uy ivy Vy ty Theor A real vi function of a complex variable either has derivative zero or the derivative does not exist. Tusa. 20 tc] Proof : TMA: 290G] Suppose that f is a real function of a complex variable z whose derivative exists. Then 2 f(z +h)- f(x) z where fi = hy +ihy - F'(2o)= lim If we take the limit > 0 along the real axis, ic. k=, +10 0. then (zo) = tin Leah) Len) areal number. ~ [Since fis real valued] Next we assume fi -» 0 along the imaginary axis. Then fy =0, hy 90 and /’(zo)= im, 7 me 2 L = i real value = purely imaginary number. vw (2) From (1) and (2) we have f‘(zo)=0. Hence, either derivative is zero or does not exist Note: If an analytic function of a complex variable assumes only imag values in a region G, then the function is a constant function. Bx,9/ Let f(:)= Here u(xey)=a7 07 say. xy? sux y) + iv(x. y)=0Therefore, he 25,4 yy, By ax f The Canchy-Riemann equations are satisfied only at the point z=0. Hence f(z)=|z|" can not have derivative at any point 740. Ex. 10. Ler f(z) =Re(z)=x. Here ux, y)=xand v(x, y)=0. Hence, au | ax Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied for any value of z. Hence. f(z) = Re(z) is not differentiable at any point z. orem 9. (Sufficient Condition for differentiability) Let f(z)=u(x, y)+a(x,y) and z=xtiy. Let w and v be single valued real functions of x and y, which together with their partial derivatives of the first order be continuous at a point (x, y). If their partial derivatives satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations at (x, y), then derivative of f(z) exists at that point. Proof: Since u(x, y) and its partial derivatives of the first order are continuous at (x, y), these functions are defined throughout some neighbourhood of (x, y) Let (x+dx, y+@y) be any point in this neighbourhood. Then, u(x + 8x, y +6y) — a(x, y) can be written as u(x+dx, y +dy)—u(x, y) Big, «Mas a e,Bereniy i) ay ox where €),€; > Owith (8x, 5y)— (0,0). ») Similarly, (y+ Bx, y + 8y)— ¥ Aa bi cael et neemtomeeci atic lLCOMPLEX FUNCTIONS ov av. * = Fal + 5° +€,6x + &,5y where €,,€, tend to zero with (8x,8y) — (0,0). Let &z = 5x + iy. Then f(2+5z)— f(z) = [ule x, y +8y) +iv(xt Br, » +8y)]-[uls.y) + »)] = [u(r Bx, y+8y) —ul x, »)] +(e Be, y+ By) — ve 9] =((rhs of (5)) +i (nh..s of (6). Using Cauchy-Riemann equations au_ a 4 av __ du ss -S we get ay ee ae ay ox a : F(z482)- F()= Mert ay) +i ZGe+8s) ieee where 1,11; tend to zero with 8x, Sy. be by 8x4 i5y| + iby’ 8z = 8x + iSy and proceeding to the limit as 62 + 0 we get f(2+&)-F(2) av 8 tt dc Ox 2#0- Also, u(0,0) = (0,0) =0. =u(0,0 3/2 Now, u,(0,0)= Ti u(x,0)—u(0, 0) _ im = % ya x (0, , u,(0,0)= tim (0, »)- u(0.0) v4(0,0) = tim 22H) og 2H ay x ror 0,y)-r(0,0) _.y? and v (0,0) = lima =a tim . ‘Therefore, (0,0) = ry(0, 0)=1, u,(0,0)=—L=-v, (0,0). Hence the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin. We now show that f(z) does not exist at the origin. Let 2 vary along the line ¥ =. ThenIf we choose the path y =(), then f(z)=ativ=a{l+i) For 2 on the line y=x,wehave, z=x+i=a(1+i). 2)- £0) Hence the lim ="—=** of 200 0. = So f'(0) does not exist. Ex. 12. Show that the function f(z)= 2° is analytic in a domain D of the complex plane C. We have, f(z) =z? = (x? — 3xy?) + (3x? y — y?) > = u(x, y) +év(x, y) (say). y = — OXY, -3y?. Since “ys yr¥;s¥y are continuous in © and “=v, and for all z in C, it follows that f’(z) exists everywhere in C, ie., f is analytic in any domain D in the complex plane C. E Show that the function f(z)=u+iv where u=x? and v= y? is now analytic. Then u, =3x? -3y? v, = Ory, Vy Here w, = 2x, u, =0,¥, =0, vy, =2y, These partial derivatives are continuous in C. But w and v satisfy the CR equations only when y=, Thus fis differentiable at those points for which =, ie., fis differentiable at (1+i)s else, » +€R and nowhere Henee fis nowhere analytic ———COMPLEX FUNCTIONS . 65 ae ext Pra the points where the following function f is differentiable and behce deduce that it is nowhere analytic: f =utiv, where uls,y)= 277, vay) = 2x7 Tu. 206) | Flere ux = 2xy?,uy = 2x29, ve =4xy? and vy =4x7y. ‘These partial derivatives are continuous in C. However the C-R equations are satisfied only when \ day? =422y and 2x? - y= day? That is, when (y-2x)=0 and x(x +2y)=0. This shows that the C-R equations hold only along the lines x = 0, y= O and nowhere else. Thus f =ictiv is differentiable only at points om the real and imaginary axes and nowhere else. Note that every neighbourhood of every point on the line x=0 (and y=0 respectively) will contain points of the line at which the C-R equations does not hold. Hence it follows that f = «tiv is nowhere analytic, since analyticity at a point demands the existence of the derivative f’ throughout some neighbourhood of that point. 3.7. Polar Form of Cauchy-Riemann equations We have x=rcos®,y=rsin@, so that r>=x?+y? and @=tan-'2 | x Therefore, Also, 0. Fad |e a& y/o du _ Ou dr du 08 Now 3." Or ax a0 ax . 3H _ Ou dy ar ay ; av Similadly, 50 = C-5Substiutifig'n these equations from above, we have ae au sin _ av. 4, av cos0 e030 55 r= Grind + eS a (A) au au cos __av av sine and “sing + EOS = lahat h a a Se ee ~ ®) Multiplying (A) by sin@ and (B) by cos® and subtracting we have, Qu 8) a 8) Again multiplying (A) by cos® and (B) by sing & adding we obtain au _1av ar 00" a Lav ou ov rae 30 ar are Cauchy-Riemann equations in the Polar form. ithe vquations SE e equations 5 Ex.15. Ifn is real, show that r"(cosn® +isinn®) is analytic except possibly when r=0. Let f(z) =r"(cosn0 +i sinn®) = u + iv (say). So here, u=r"cosn®, v=r"sinn@. Then, ou ov ou wv egret ® _ aretsinn® of = =nersinnd, 2 = nr" St net teosn®, Scnrtsinn nrsinn®, So =nr* cosnd du _ 1 dv : au __av Thus we see that > ar 30 a oor ‘That is, Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied. Now, if n> 1 all the partial derivatives are continuous,7 s hence r"(cosn6+isinn9) is differentiable everywhere in the come plane C. If n$1, the partial derivatives are continuous except when » = 0, Thus, r(cosn0 +i sinn®) is differentiable everywhere in C 40}. Hence, if n is real, r"(cosn€+isinn®) is differentiable everywhere except possibly when r=0, Therefore, it is analytic everywhere except possibly at r =(.. jarmonic Functions fition: Tur. 2900S Any function u of x, y which" possesses continuous partial derivatives of the first and second orders and satisfies Laplace's equation thats eu du is, + —— =, is called a harmonic functions, ay? Theorem >) If f(z)=u+iv is an analytic function, then u and v are both harmonic functions. Proof: Let f(z)=u+iv be an analytic function, then we have, au _ av Be (By and Cauchy-Riemann equations. v» (10) au _ _ a yo Also, because u and v are the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function, therefore derivatives of « and v of all orders exist and are continuous functions of x and y. So, we have ayf hese we have 24 4 OU Adding these we have Bye yt 0: bY AD. Ov dv Similarly, 5,3 + a Hence both u and v satisfy Laplace's equation. Therefore both and v are harmonic functions. Remark : A function v is called a conjugate harmonic function of a function u whenever f = u-+ iy is analytic. Theorem JZ. . Jf wand v are harmonic function conjugate to each ot! domain then w and v must be constant there. Proof : By definition and the hypothesis, f = in D. But fig = and f +ig =2iv. We know that if fand g are differentiable at zo, then f+. f-8 ther in some utivand g=v-+iu are analytic and of are also differentiable at zo and (fey =f’ t8' (of) =f" where ¢ is any complex constant. Hence the real-valued functions of comples variable namely, u and v.are analytic in D and therefore by theorem 8, u and v must be constant functions. Note : If vis the conjugate harmonic function of 1, then w is the conjugate harmonic function of —v. For, v is the conjugate harmonic of u=> f=utiv is analytic =i f =-v+iu is analytic = w is the harmonic conjugate of —v. Theorem 1% Harmonie conjugates of a harmonic function u differ by a constant. Proof: Let », and 1, be two harmonic conjugate of wina region G.=(u-bivy) [uv is analytic on G, sinoe w-tin, and tion takes only purely imaginary Then (v4 -v2 are analytic. Also the analytic funet he note of theorem 8 that ivy -i)) isa uriv, Values. The it follows by « constant which implies v~v2 differ by a constant Remark : 1 ‘The function u(x.y)=log(x? + y?)? is harmonic on G=C\ {0}. put has no harmonic conjugate. However, there are some regions for which every harmonic function has a conjugate. jugate function 3.9. Determination of conj then both (x,y) and v(,7) If f(z)=utivis an analytic function, (x,y) is given, then we are conjugate functions. If one of these, say have to determine the other v(x.) « Since v is a function of x, ¥ therefore avo aes ay ae oy ou Ou ar ay +35, 0 by Cauchy-Riemann equations. Ee (2) Ou Thus dv=—>-dx+ ‘ pang aet a, ‘The r.h.s of equation (12) is of the form Max+ Ndy, a 2t le 4g NO eu Oy? MO Be Axx) ax?” So ay“ ayl” dy Since wis a harmonic function, therefore it satisfies Laplace’s equation, am 2 (8). an a(®) au Bu , PW _ 9 gp, 2H = 2M swhich make a i an an whicl ss « Go ee Hence equation (12) satisfies the condition of exact differential equation. So, equation (12) can be integrated and thus v ts determined——_—— ae 16. ) Show tha , the function w=cosx cosh y { itsleasrhonic conjugate forme, “= S884 Cosh y i harmonic and find We have 1 =cosx cosh ». Therefore, me Qu Villy = Ugly = a = cos. sinh y ya pa ie ay? =-cosx cosh y + cosx cosh y =0. Hence wis a harmonic function, Now if v be its conjugate harmoni function f = u+iv must be an: satisfied by f. a ‘ic’ function, then the alytic and hence C-R equations must be ov av a a1 Therefore we have dv =) Since x=4(e+2) and y =3(e~2), we have nv | 0 as 2-30 along any radius vector but not as 20 inany manner Let 2-70 along y=. Then =. 3y(y-é tin $= LO) = tim y(y-i) 290 z 290 (x* +y*\(x+iy) xP nix( mx — in) =lim ——> >. lim ————— = 9 ' 20 ( mbsf ime) 8 (ne + \(t+im) ~ | Now, let ¢—0 along y= x?) then sld- £10) a(e-4) fim 2 = lim yay lim m0 ¥290(6 + let e) = alleis (2) From (1) and (2) the statement of the problem followsow that the ic i ¢ function f(z) = ul 2y|) és nor differentiable ai the } although Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at that point Let the function be S(2)=a(x,y)+i0(x,y), Cort 07 J Here u (x.y) = Vibes) and v(x,»)=0. At the origin, origi ou u(x,0)— 0, 0) = 3 li POG py DEOL 5 ax eo lim-=0, x(0, y) — es 24 im M9) 0.9) jg 9-99, yy ys y x40 y OY img YOO) = (0,0) _ tim =2 Ox xsd x m0 x fig MOM) peg 18 yore oy a0 Hence Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied at the origin. £@)-FO_,,, Vdd Again f/(0) = as lim SE z 20 x+iy V(r") = lim ——, letting z0 along y=mr mx 390 xt tim” This depends on m, that is, f“(0) is not unique. Hence /(z) is not analytic at the origin although Cauchy-Riemann equatigns are satisfied there. E If w= .x° -3xy?, show that there exists a function v(x,y) such that fkel¥utiv is analytic in a finite region. L Or 29 oy - 6K.COMPLEX FUNCTIONS ae ——————— i 2 So, oe ee =6r-6r=0 a ay Henée the given function u satisfies Laplace's equation and is therefore a harmonic function. Since v is a function of x and y , therefore ay= a+ May ax ay = 2 a + OM ay , using Cauchy-Riemann‘equations, ay Ox = xy dr + (3x7 ~3y" dy = (6x ae+ 3x"dy)~3y"dy, Integrating this equation we get v=3x7y-y? +c, where c is a real constant. Hence the function f(z)=u tiv ss 3 2 2 a * =(2-3n/ )+iaxy-y +c) =(x+iy) tice 2’ tie, ie, f(z)=z' tic. So that "(z)=3z? which exists for all finite value of z Therefore f(z) is analytic in any finite region. Prove that the function ee ree eee usr dry 43x" -3y +1 satisfies Laplace's equation and determine the corresponding analytic function u+iv- Tea 2 OOF) ‘Here w= 2? 3x7 +3x"-3y"* 1 Therefore #. 3x? -3y' +6x=04(4,9), sayy 2H Gy —6y = O24.) SAY: dy . 2 746, ee Gy 8,cominteh COMPLEX ANALYSIS ae eee ‘That is, u satisfies Laplace's equation. Hence w is a harmonic function. By Milne's method we have £'(2) = 01(2,0)~i o2(z,0) =(32 +62), Integrating we get, f(z) = J(3? + 6z)dc+e : or, f(z)=2" +32? +c, where c is a constant. | Ss My u-v=(x—y)(x? +4xy4y") and f(z)=utiv: is an anlytic fil m of z= x+y, find f(z) in terms of2 TL uA. ZOU We have, u+iv= f(z). So, iu-v=if(z). Adding these, (u-v)+i(u+v)=(I+#) f(2)= F(z), say where F(z) is analytic, because f(z) is analytic. eo Let U=u-v and V=u+v, then F(2)=U +iV is an analytic function. We have, U=u-v=(x-y)(x? +4154). ‘Therefore, Base +6xy-3y" = O(t.9), ' aw _42 2 20 3x? —6xy-39? = O2(x.9) Bt ma sme) By Milne’s method, we have F(2)= f[ou(z.0)-102(z,0)}ee+e = J(32?- 137 )de+e=(I-i)2 +e ie, (141) f(2)=(I-ipe' +e, ie, f(2)= ‘ 1 Ii iz Thus, (2)LEX FUNCTIONS Let u(x, y) =e cosy. To determine a function v(x, y) such iv is analytic. (US. 2eet] Here tty =e COSY, Myr = €* COS}, ty = -e*siny. Uyy =e COSY, thy =He* SIN. Hence ts +Hyy =O Morever, tes Uses ty» yy ate all continuous. Hence wis a harmonic function. If y is a conjugate harmonic function of u, we have ore, ¥y = 2 eet cos Therefore, ¥» = 3 y. Integrating w.rt. y, we get ¥= Je cos ydy +(x) Therefore v= e* siny +9(x) a) Differentiating w.rt.x gamer ating) Now, u, «gives ef siny +(x) =e* siny which implies = constant. Hi v= e* sin y + constant. ee Ex. (ff. Show that an analytic function with constant modulus is constant Let f(z)=«-+ivbe an analytic function. TL UA. 2010] Now, |f(2)? =u? +¥?. Given | F(2|= constant =e say, (¢#0), ie, +?COMP; SOMPLEX ANALYSi5 «and vy ay, ° Squaring and adding (dl) and (2), we have 2442) 9) fay? wey?) 9 ( “H) (3-0 ie. (Bey . (av? ie., (#1) +(#) 0, since u? +y? Show that the function w= 5 log(x? + y?) is harmonic and find its harmonic conjugate. eon u=x3—3xy?, show that there exists a function v (x, y) such that w=u+iv is analytic in a finite region. CL tH. 2 00§ ‘7 3) If w= (x-1)' - xy? +3y2, determine v so that u+iv is an analytic function. iF egy? wee satis . @)Prove that if very 7 both w and v satisfy Laplace's equation, but u+iv is not an analytic function of z. @u See re find the corresponding analytic function f(z)=u+iv by Milne’s method. (4. /Prove that the function = x3 — xy? 433? — 3y2 +1 satisfies Laplace’s equation and determine the corresponding analytic function «+iv by Milne’s method. 15, If f(z)=w+iv is an analytic function of c= x+iy and u-v=er(cosx—siny), find f(z) in terms of z by Milne’s method how that the function P(e) =S(x+iy) =i satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations at the origin, but the function is not differentiable at the origin, 17. Find all harmonic functions of the type «= ale Fe) that are not constants. ANswers 4.7=0 10. v=tan- 2 *¢, where c is a constant, WL, vsaxy- - +c, where c is a constant. \ 14, f(2)=tanz-+c, where c is a constant. US. f(z)=23 +32? +c, where c is a constant. 16. f(z)=e2 +e, where c is a constant. 1% us alog(y Bae yao where a and b are constants. See \nusi Sone © Larner om « THekarnint ‘\ \yorenwnd L Rensogaae WI Ce) ful (xy) La: Levy” Spor Anh ree Caswerton dS Tomnob abfeoen = Seay = a” (ae) pth AA 4* ° | ie Growanar W(% ») 2P_QO | . y =o : (amt 200 ha Aa. ue DUCANINE IN Lepsoeers nestgnentC, pom on of =

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